1.
Korean language
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It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of the Peoples Republic of China. Approximately 80 million people worldwide speak Korean and this implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a small family. There is still debate on whether Korean and Japanese are related with each other, the Korean language is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. A relation of Korean with Japonic languages has been proposed by linguists like William George Aston, Chinese characters arrived in Korea together with Buddhism during the pre-Three Kingdoms period. Mainly privileged elites were educated to read and write in hanja, however, today, the hanja are largely unused in everyday life, but in South Korea they experience revivals on artistic works and are important in historic and/or linguistic studies of Korean. Since the Korean War, through 70 years of separation, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation, verb inflection, the Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in North Korea and South Korea. In South Korea, the Korean language is referred to by names including hanguk-eo Korean language, hanguk-mal, Korean speech and uri-mal. In hanguk-eo and hanguk-mal, the first part of the word, hanguk, refers to the Korean nation while -eo and -mal mean language and speech, Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo, literally national language. This name is based on the same Chinese characters meaning nation + language that are used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China, the language is most often called Chosŏn-mal, or more formally, the English word Korean is derived from Goryeo, which is thought to be the first dynasty known to Western countries. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram and Goryeo In, the majority of historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate. Such factors of typological divergence as Middle Mongolians exhibition of gender agreement can be used to argue that a relationship with Altaic is unlikely. Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list, a good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asa, meaning hemp. Also, the doublet wo meaning hemp is attested in Western Old Japanese and it is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. Among ancient languages, various relatives of Korean have been proposed. Some classify the language of Jeju Island as a distinct modern Koreanic language, Other famous theories are the Dravido-Korean languages theory and the mostly unknown southern-theory which suggest an Austronesian relation. Korean is spoken by the Korean people in North Korea and South Korea and by the Korean diaspora in countries including the Peoples Republic of China, the United States, Japan. Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of cultural assimilation into host countries, Korean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea
2.
Hangul
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The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul in South Korea and as Chosŏngŭl/Chosŏn Muntcha in North Korea is the alphabet that has been used to write the Korean language since the 15th century. It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443 by King Sejong the Great, in South Korea, Hangul is used primarily to write the Korean language as using Hanja in typical Korean writing had fallen out of common usage during the late 1990s. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 19 consonant and 21 vowel letters, however, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as 한 han, each of which transcribes a syllable. That is, although the syllable 한 han may look like a single character, each syllabic block consists of two to six letters, including at least one consonant and one vowel. These blocks are arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. Each Korean word consists of one or more syllables, hence one or more blocks, of the 11,172 possible Hangul syllables, the most frequent 256 have a cumulative frequency of 88. 2%, with the top 512, it reaches 99. 9%. The modern name Hangul was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912, han meant great in archaic Korean, and geul is the native Korean word for script. Taken together, then, the meaning is great script, as the word han had also become one way of indicating Korea as a whole the name could also potentially be interpreted as Korean script. Korean 한글 is pronounced, and in English as /ˈhɑːn. ɡʊl/ or /ˈhɑːŋɡʊl/, when used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics, hangul, and it is often capitalized as Hangul, as it appears in many English dictionaries. Hankul in the Yale romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies, North Koreans call it Chosŏngŭl, after Chosŏn, the North Korean name for Korea. Because of objections to the names Hangeul, Chosŏngŭl, and urigeul by Koreans in China, until the early 20th century, Hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite, who preferred the traditional hanja writing system. They gave it such names as these, Achimgeul, in the original Hanja, it is rendered as 故智者不終朝而會，愚者可浹旬而學。 Gugmun Eonmun Amgeul. Am is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine Ahaetgeul or Ahaegeul Hangul was promulgated by Sejong the Great, the Hall of Worthies, a group of scholars who worked with Sejong to develop and refine the new alphabet, is often credited for the work. The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, the publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosongul Day, is on January 15, various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics, to assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women, the late 16th century, however, saw a revival of Hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, Hangul novels became a major genre, by this point spelling had become quite irregular
3.
Hanja
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Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. Borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation, hanja-mal or hanja-eo refers to words that can be written with hanja, and hanmun refers to Classical Chinese writing, although hanja is sometimes used loosely to encompass these other concepts. Because hanja never underwent major reform, they are almost entirely identical to traditional Chinese, only a small number of hanja characters are modified or unique to Korean. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in Japan and Mainland China have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding hanja characters. Today, a working knowledge of Chinese characters is still important for anyone who wishes to study older texts. Learning a certain number of hanja is very helpful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words, hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in hangul, and even words of Chinese origin—hanja-eo —are written with the hangul alphabet most of the time. A major motivation for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism, the major Chinese text that introduced hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text, Cheonjamun. One way of adapting hanja to write Korean in such systems was to represent native Korean grammatical particles, for example, Gugyeol uses the characters 爲尼 to transcribe the Korean word hăni, in modern Korean, that means does, and so. However, in Chinese, the characters are read as the expression wéi ní. This is an example of Gugyeol words where the radical is read in Korean for its meaning. Hanja was the means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of hangul in the 15th century. However, even after the invention of hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in hanmun and it was not until the 20th century that hangul truly replaced hanja. Officially, hanja has not been used in North Korea since June 1949, additionally, many words borrowed from Chinese have been replaced in the North with native Korean words. However, there are a number of Chinese-borrowed words in widespread usage in the North. The replacement has been less total in South Korea where, although usage has declined over time, some remains in common usage in some contexts. Each hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements, the vast majority of hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called eumhun, the word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used. South Korean primary schools abandoned the teaching of hanja in 1971 and it is taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, separately from the normal Korean-language curriculum
4.
Hyangchal
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Hyangchal is an archaic writing system of Korea and was used to transcribe the Korean language in hanja. Under the hyangchal system, Chinese characters were given a Korean reading based on the associated with the character. The hyangchal writing system is classified as a subgroup of Idu. The first mention of hyangchal is the monk Kyun Yes biography during the Goryeo period, Hyangchal is best known as the method Koreans used to write Hyangga, vernacular poetry. Today, twenty-five such poems still exist and shows that vernacular poetry used native Korean words, Korean word order, the writing system covered nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, particles, suffixes, and auxiliary verbs. The practice of hyangchal continued during the Goryeo Dynasty where it was used to record native poetry as well, a Silla era Korean poem in Hyangchal with Hangul transliteration 处容歌 東京明期月良夜入伊遊行如可 入良沙寢矣見昆脚烏伊四是良羅 二兮隱吾下於叱古二兮隱誰支下焉古 本矣吾下是如馬於隱奪叱良乙何如爲理古 처용가 셔블 발기다래 밤드리 노니다가 드러사 자리보곤 가라리 네히여라 둘은 내해 엇고 둘은 뉘해난고. 본디 다 내해다마라난 아사놀 엇디하릿고 A poem in Hyangchal 薯童谣 서동요 善化公主主隱 他密只嫁良置古 薯童房乙 夜矣卯乙抱遣去如 Idu
5.
Gugyeol
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Gugyeol is a system for rendering texts written in Classical Chinese into understandable Korean. It was chiefly used during the Joseon Dynasty, when readings of the Chinese classics were of paramount social importance, thus, in gugyeol, the original text in classical Chinese was not modified, and the additional markers were simply inserted between phrases. The Korean reader would read the parts of the Chinese sentence out of sequence to approximate Korean rather than Chinese word order. A similar system for reading classical Chinese is used to day in Japan and is known as Kanbun. The name gugyeol can be rendered as phrase parting, and may refer to the separation of one Chinese phrase from another and this name is itself believed to originate from the use of hanja characters to represent the Middle Korean phrase ipgyeot, with a similar meaning. Gugyeol first came into use in the early Goryeo dynasty, in this period, certain hanja characters were used to represent Korean sounds through their meaning. For example, the syllable 잇 was represented with the hanja character 有 and this technique came to be replaced in the late Goryeo period with using hanja characters according to their sound. This later version of the system was formalized by Jeong Mong-ju and Gwon Geun around 1400 in the early Joseon Dynasty. At this time a number of Confucian classics, including the Classic of Poetry, were rendered into gugyeol, the term gugyeol is often extended beyond this early system to similar uses of hangul following the introduction of the Hunminjeongeum in the 15th century. In this respect, gugyeol remains in use in contemporary South Korea. Gugyeol should be distinguished from the idu and hyangchal systems which preceded it, gugyeol used specialized markings, together with a subset of hanja, to represent Korean morphological markers as an aid for Korean readers to understand the grammar of Chinese texts. Hanja Idu Hyangchal Hangul Katakana Kanbun Doosan Encyclopedia entry
6.
Idu script
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Idu is an archaic writing system that represents the Korean language using hanja. The term idu is used in two senses and it may refer to various systems of representing Korean phonology through Chinese characters called hanja, which were used from the early Three Kingdoms to Joseon periods. In this sense, it includes hyangchal and gugyeol writing, as well as the sense of idu. The narrower sense refers solely to the system developed in the Goryeo period, the idu script used hanja, along with special symbols to indicate Korean verb endings and other grammatical markers that were different in Korean from Chinese. This made both the meaning and pronunciation difficult to parse, and was one reason the system was abandoned, to be replaced with hangul. In this respect, it faced problems analogous to those that confronted early efforts to represent the Japanese language with kanji, in Japan the early use of Chinese characters for Japanese grammar was in manyōgana, which was replaced by kana, the Japanese syllabic script. Characters were selected for idu based on their Korean sound, their adapted Korean sound, or their meaning, at the same time,150 new Korean characters were invented, mainly for names of people and places. Idu system was used mainly by members of the Jungin class, Korean language Hunmin Jeongeum Kanbun Manyōgana Peter H. Lee, A History of Korean Literature, Cambridge University Press Nam Pung-hyeon, Idu Study, Taehak Publishing, Seoul, Korea
7.
Korean mixed script
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Korean mixed script is a form of writing that uses both Hangul and hanja. The script has never used for languages other than Korean. In North Korea, writing in mixed script was replaced by writing only in Hangul in the middle of the 20th century and has not been used since, in South Korea, the use of mixed script has slowly declined. The script uses hanja to write Sino-Korean vocabulary, but never to write native Korean vocabulary, from the 15th to the 20th century, the Korean mixed script usually used hanja whenever possible, and Hangul to write only grammatical suffixes and native Korean words. Using Hangul to write Sino-Korean words became common in the 20th century, up to the 1970s, many books and newspapers were written in mixed Hangul and hanja characters. Since then, the majority of print publications are written in Hangul only. Modern texts – whether or not they contain a significant amount of native Korean vocabulary – rarely use hanja for all, or even most, of the Sino-Korean words in the text. Hanja still appear in many headlines, where they serve to both disambiguate and abbreviate, and to a lesser degree in some newspapers texts, but not in magazines. They can also sometimes be found in academic literature, Mixed script making use of hanja wherever possible is still used for judicial texts such as the constitution. When writing in Korean mixed script, semantic or content words were written in hanja. It also enables pure Chinese readers to get some faint gist of the meaning in a given Korean mixed script text from reading the Hanja alone, the text below is the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Korea. The first text is written in Hangul, the second is its mixed script version, examples Hanja and Sino-Korean vocabulary Kanji and Sino-Japanese vocabulary New Korean Orthography Lukoff, Fred. A First Reader in Korean Writing in Mixed Script
8.
Korean Braille
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Korean Braille is the braille alphabet of the Korean language. It is not graphically-related to other braille scripts found around the world, instead, it reflects the patterns found in hangul, and differentiates initial consonants, vowels, and final consonants. It features characters for grammatical devices and punctuation, numerals are similar to those of other braille systems. Consonants have different syllable-initial and -final variants, capturing some of the feel of hangul, the initial and final variants have the same shapes, but are shifted across the braille block. There are two patterns, The consonants that span the width of the block are shifted one space downward when final and those that dont span the width of the block are on the right side of the block when initial, but on the left side when final. No consonant occupies more than two rows, *There is no initial version of ng. Initial ieung in hangul is not written in Korean Braille, however, the expected form is reserved and may not serve other uses, such as punctuation. The heavy consonants are written by prefixing an s, an old hangul convention, in initial position, they are, ⠠⠠ ㅆ ss ⠠⠈ ㄲ kk ⠠⠊ ㄸ tt ⠠⠘ ㅃ pp ⠠⠨ ㅉ jj All vowels span the width and height of the block. Because the consonants are specifically syllable-initial or syllable-final, a syllable that begins with a vowel causes no confusion when written without ieung. The simpler vowels reflect the symmetries of hangul, the yin–yang pairs a, eo and o, u are related through inversion and this creates a different pattern of symmetry than in hangul. The graphically-similar hangul letters i and eu are also related by reflection, the w in wa, wo is indicated by making the left side of the block solid, while the i in ui, oe is shown by making the right side solid. However, the e, ae and their yotized variants show no such patterns. Four diphthongs are represented with two blocks, by adding ⠗ to the appropriate vowel for the final element -i. Korean Braille contains several single cell syllable defined, many are the braille cell for an initial consonant, with an assumed vowel a added. Some make use of unused cell definitions, while others utilize multi-cell abbreviations, as in most braille scripts, ⠼ is prefixed to digits, which are the same as in English Braille. ⠴ is prefixed to the 26 basic roman letters in the same way. The first tactile encoding of hangul was developed by Rosetta Sherwood Hall in 1894 and it used a cell 4 dots wide by 2 dots high, like New York Point. 6-dot braille was adapted to Korean by Park Du-seong in 1926, there have since been a number of revisions. The current form was announced in 1994, Korean Braille library, chart is here
9.
Romanization of Korean
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The romanization of Korean is a system for representing the Korean language using the Latin script. Koreas alphabetic script is called Hangul, and is written using the combination of. Romaja literally means Roman letters in Korean, and refers to the Latin script, romaja is not to be confused with romanization. Many romanization schemes are in use, Revised Romanization of Korean, This is the most commonly used. It includes rules both for transcription and for transliteration, South Korea now officially uses this system which was approved in 2000. Road signs and textbooks were required to follow these rules as soon as possible, almost all road signs, names of railway and subway stations on line maps and signs etc. have been changed. Romanization of surnames and existing companies names has been left untouched, RR is similar to MR, but uses neither diacritics nor apostrophes, which has helped it to gain widespread acceptance on the Internet. In cases of ambiguity, orthographic syllable boundaries may be indicated with a hyphen, hyphenation on street and address signs is used to separate proper names and numbers from their assigned function. McCune–Reischauer, the first transcription to gain some acceptance, a slightly modified version of MR was the official system for Korean in South Korea from 1984 to 2000, and yet a different modification is still the official system in North Korea. MR uses breves, apostrophes and diereses, the latter two indicating orthographic syllable boundaries in cases that would otherwise be ambiguous, mR-based romanizations have been common in popular literature until 2000. Library of Congress system is based on but deviates from MR, unlike in MR, it addresses word division in seven pages of detail. Syllables of given names are separated with a hyphen, which is expressly never done by MR. Sound changes are ignored more often than in MR, aLA-LC also distinguishes between ‘ and ’. Yale, This system has become the standard romanization for Korean among linguists. Vowel length in old or dialectal pronunciation is indicated by a macron, in cases that would otherwise be ambiguous, orthographic syllable boundaries are indicated with a period. ISO/TR11941, This actually is two different standards under one name, one for North Korea and the other for South Korea. The initial submission to the ISO was based heavily on Yale and was a joint effort between both states, but they could not agree on the final draft, hence, the same hangul letter may be represented by different Roman letters, depending on its pronunciation in context. The Yale system, on the hand, represents each Korean letter by always the same Roman letter context-independently
10.
Cyrillization of Korean
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The Kontsevich system for the Cyrillization of the Korean language was created by the Russian scholar Lev Kontsevich on the basis of the earlier system designed by Aleksandr Kholodovich. It is currently the system of transcribing Korean words into the Russian language. Cyrillization systems for Korean were developed domestically in both North Korea and South Korea, Kontsevich carried out work on the systemisation of these rules. In contrast with systems of romanization of Korean, the transcription is based primarily on the pronunciation of a word. Some letters are transcribed differently in the middle of a word when following certain other letters, personal names are written by family name first, followed by a space and then the given name. As a rule, syllables in given names are not separated, romaja New Korean Orthography Hangul List of Korea-related topics Degrees of Courtesy and Communication Styles in the Korean Language, by K. B. Entry for Lev Kontsevich on the Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian and Latin Transcription of Korean Words, by Lev Kontsevich
11.
Yale romanization of Korean
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The Yale romanization of Korean was developed by Samuel Elmo Martin and his colleagues at Yale University about half a decade after McCune–Reischauer. It is the romanization of the Korean language in linguistics. The Yale system places primary emphasis on showing a words morphophonemic structure and this distinguishes it from the other two widely used systems for romanizing Korean, the Revised Romanization of Korean and McCune–Reischauer. In terms of content, the Yale systems approach can be compared to North Koreas former New Korean Orthography. The Yale system tries to use a consistent spelling for each morphophonemic element irrespective of its context. But Yale and Hangul differ in how back vowels are handled, Yale may be used for both modern Korean and Middle Korean. There are separate rules for Middle Korean, martins 1992 Reference Grammar of Korean uses italics for Middle Korean as well as other texts predating the 1933 abandonment of arae a, whereas it shows current language in boldface. Palatalization is shown by a medial -y-, although Hangul treats the rounded back vowels of Middle Korean as simple vowels, Yale writes them as a basic vowel, combined with a medial -w-. *Since Modern Standard Korean has lost the vowel ㆍ, medial w, thus, it is important to consider the time period in question when the romanization is interpreted. **As this w is not phonemically distinctive after labial consonants in Modern Korean, Yale then omits it, thus, there is no one-to-one correspondence in the spelling of back vowels. Yale uses unvoiced consonant letters to write Modern Korean consonants, Middle Korean ㅿ is written as z. Tense consonants and consonant clusters are transcribed according to the Hangul spelling, aspirated consonants are written as if they were clusters ending in h. It is also used for purposes such as to indicate sound change, 늙은 nulk. un “old” 같이 kath. i /kachi/ “together”, “like”. Note, Vowel length as a distinctive feature seems to have disappeared at least among younger speakers of the Seoul dialect sometime in the late 20th century, a superscript letter indicates consonants that have disappeared from a words South Korean orthography and standard pronunciation. For example, the South Korean orthographic syllable 영 is romanized as follows, example, 영어 yenge ˡyeng where an initial l has been dropped or changed to n in the South Korean standard language. Examples, 영도 ˡyengto, 노무현 ˡNo Muhyen ⁿyeng where a n has been dropped in the South Korean standard language. At higher levels of abstraction, superscript and subscript vowel symbols joined by a slash may be used to indicate alternations due to vowel harmony. If used for modern day language, this just means the symbol e⁄a, an apostrophe may be used for vowel elision or crasis
12.
ISO/TR 11941
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ISO/TR11941,1996 is a Korean romanization system used in ISO. One example of its use is in Unicode character names and it is very similar to Yale Romanization. This system is used in Unicode character names, for example, the character ᄎ is named HANGUL CHOSEONG CHIEUCH, ㅊ is romanized as ch. However, the character 차 is named HANGUL SYLLABLE CA, ㅊ is romanized as c
13.
SKATS
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SKATS stands for Standard Korean Alphabet Transliteration System. It is also known as Korean Morse equivalents, despite the name, SKATS is not a true transliteration system. SKATS maps the Hangul characters through Korean Morse code to the codes in Morse code. Any phonetic correspondence between the Korean and Roman letters would be purely coincidental, if a Korean Morse code operator were to transmit a Korean message in Morse, and an English speaking Morse code operator heard the message, what he would write down is SKATS. The advantage of SKATS is the accuracy in conveying the Korean message. The primary users of SKATS are government departments who are interested in letter-to-letter accuracy, when using SKATS it is important to remember not to read the letters as they sound in English, but to read them as they sound in SKATS. The letters are written left to right as in standard written English, the correct form is to put one space between syllables and two spaces between words, but this often varies from one user to another. Without the double spaces between words, word breaks are ambiguous, if the rules are strictly observed, a Korean text written in SKATS could be perfectly recovered. Double consonants and double or triple vowels are written the same way – each letter in the order as if it were written in Hangul. SKATS, LUM CU LE MEG KUGG BE
14.
Romanization
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Romanization, in linguistics, is the conversion of writing from a different writing system to the Roman script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics, source, or donor language – A system may be tailored to romanize text from a particular language, or a series of languages, or for any language in a particular writing system. A language-specific system typically preserves language features like pronunciation, while the one may be better for cataloguing international texts. Target, or receiver language – Most systems are intended for an audience that speaks or reads a particular language and this affects the ease of creation, digital storage and transmission, reproduction, and reading of the romanized text. Reversibility – Whether or not the original can be restored from the converted text, some reversible systems allow for an irreversible simplified version. Most romanizations are intended to enable the reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language, the popular Hepburn romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription, for most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves tradeoffs between the two extremes. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written language, written native language. Reducing the number of processes, i. e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription, Romanization standards include the following, Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Adopted by the International Convention of Orientalist Scholars in Rome. It is the basis for the very influential Hans Wehr dictionary, qalam, A system that focuses upon preserving the spelling, rather than the pronunciation, and uses mixed case ISO 233-2, Simplified transliteration. Buckwalter transliteration, Developed at Xerox by Tim Buckwalter, doesnt require unusual diacritics ALA-LC Arabic chat alphabet There are romanization systems for both Modern and Ancient Greek. ALA-LC Beta Code Greeklish ISO843 The Hebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards, ANSI Z39.25 UNGEGN ISO259, ALA-LC The Brahmic family of abugidas is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a tradition in the west to study Sanskrit. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones, ISO15919, A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO15919 standard. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic consonants, see also Transliteration of Indic scripts, how to use ISO15919
15.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
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North Korea
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North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Pyongyang is both the capital as well as its largest city. To the north and northwest the country is bordered by China and by Russia along the Amnok, the country is bordered to the south by South Korea, with the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone separating the two. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed, the communist Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, an invasion initiated by North Korea led to the Korean War. The Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire, and no peace treaty was ever signed. North Korea officially describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state and formally holds elections, critics regard it as a totalitarian dictatorship. Various outlets have called it Stalinist, particularly noting the elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung, International organizations have assessed human rights violations in North Korea as belonging to a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. Over time, North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world communist movement, Juche, an ideology of national self-reliance, was introduced into the constitution as a creative application of Marxism–Leninism in 1972. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises, most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are subsidized or state-funded. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered from a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 0.24 and 3.5 million people, and the continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or military-first policy and it is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, North Korea is an atheist state with no official religion and where public religion is discouraged. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo, the name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea, Chosun or Joseon in North Korea, in 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea as its new legal name. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan, Japan tried to suppress Korean traditions and culture and ran the economy primarily for its own benefit. Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun operated along the Sino-Korean border, some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the leaders was the communist Kim Il-sung, who later became the leader of North Korea
17.
Edwin O. Reischauer
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Edwin Oldfather Reischauer was an American educator and professor at Harvard University. He was a scholar of the history and culture of Japan. Reischauer was born in Tokyo, Japan, the son of Presbyterian educational missionaries Helen Sidwell Oldfather and he attended the American School in Japan and graduated with a B. A. from Oberlin in 1931. On his 75th birthday, he recalled publicly that his aim in 1931 was to draw attention to Asia. He earned his Ph. D. from Harvard University in 1939 and he was a student of the Russian-French Japanologist Serge Elisséeff, who had been the first Western graduate of the University of Tokyo. His forty-year teaching career was spent at Harvard, where he and John King Fairbank developed a popular survey of East Asian history. This course, which was known as Rice Paddies, was the basis for their widely influential two volume textbook, East Asia, The Great Tradition and East Asia, The Modern Transformation. Reischauer wrote both for scholars and for the general public, including Japan, Story of a Nation. He served as director of the Harvard–Yenching Institute and chairman of the Department of Far Eastern Languages, in a farewell lecture at the Yenching Institute in 1981, students had to compete for seats with faculty colleagues, university officials and a television crew from Japan. In this crowded scene he said, As I remember, there were only two students interested in East Asian studies when I first came here, myself and my brother. In 1956, Professor Reischauer was a widower with three children when author James A. Michener introduced him to Haru Matsukata, who would become his second wife. As teenagers, it turned out, they had gone to the same Tokyo high school and she and her husband became a formidable team. The Belmont, Massachusetts, house they designed together is maintained and used today as the Edwin O. Reischauer Memorial House. In 1973, he was the founding Director of the Japan Institute, speaking at the dedication ceremonies in Baltimore, Sen. Jay Rockefeller, one of Reischauers former students, described Reischauer as being what a teacher is meant to be, one who can change the life of his students. At the same event, Japans Ambassador Nabuo Matsunaga read a message from Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone. With George M. McCune, Reischauer in 1939 published the McCune–Reischauer system for romanization of the Korean language which became the most widely used system for many years, Reischauer called the Korean alphabet perhaps the most scientific system of writing in general use in any language. Reischauer advocated both in public and in government policy documents on the framework and attitude of U. S. policy on Japan post-World War II and during the Vietnam War and Americas role in Asia
18.
Phonology
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Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages, the word phonology can also refer to the phonological system of a given language. This is one of the systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax. Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics, note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. The word phonology comes from Ancient Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, voice, sound, according to Clark et al. it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, Baudouin de Courtenays work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of alternations, and may have had an influence on the work of Saussure according to E. F. K. Koerner. An influential school of phonology in the period was the Prague school. One of its members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century, in 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English, the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features and these features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a fixed set. There are at least two levels of representation, underlying representation and surface phonetic representation, ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation. An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable, furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. Natural phonology is a based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969. In this view, phonology is based on a set of phonological processes that interact with one another, which ones are active. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups, prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance
19.
Voice (phonetics)
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Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterise speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless or voiced. It can also refer to a classification of sounds that tend to be associated with vocal cord vibration. That is the primary use in phonology to describe phonemes or in phonetics to describe phones. At the articulatory level, a sound is one in which the vocal cords vibrate. For example, voicing accounts for the difference between the pair of sounds associated with the English letters s and z, the two sounds are transcribed as and to distinguish them from the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations, depending on the context. If one places the fingers on the box, one can feel a vibration while zzzz is pronounced. In most European languages, with an exception being Icelandic, vowels. When used to classify speech sounds, voiced and unvoiced are merely used to group phones and phonemes together for the purposes of classification. The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and voiced pairs of consonants, in addition, there is a diacritic for voicedness, ⟨◌̬⟩. Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiceless sounds, in Unicode, the symbols are encoded U+032C ◌̬ COMBINING CARON BELOW and U+0325 ◌̥ COMBINING RING BELOW. For the example, ₍s̬₎ could be an with voicing in the middle, partial voicing can also be indicated in the normal IPA with transcriptions like and. The distinction between the use of voice and the phonological use rests on the distinction between phone and phoneme. The difference is best illustrated by a rough example, the English word nods is made up of a sequence of phonemes, represented symbolically as /nɒdz/, or the sequence of /n/, /ɒ/, /d/, and /z/. Each symbol is a representation of a phoneme. That awareness is an inherent part of speakers mental grammar that allows them to recognise words, however, phonemes are not sounds in themselves. Rather, phonemes are, in a sense, converted to phones before being spoken. The /z/ phoneme, for instance, can actually be pronounced as either the phone or the phone since /z/ is frequently devoiced, even in fluent speech, the sequence of phones for nods might be transcribed as or, depending on the presence or strength of this devoicing. While the phone has articulatory voicing, the phone does not have it, what complicates the matter is that for English, consonant phonemes are classified as either voiced or voiceless even though it is not the primary distinctive feature between them
20.
Apostrophe
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The apostrophe character is a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritical mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet and some other alphabets. In English it is used for several purposes, The marking of the omission of one or more letters, the marking of plurals of individual characters. Apostrophe comes ultimately from Greek ἡ ἀπόστροφος, through Latin and French, the apostrophe looks the same as a closing single quotation mark, although they have different meanings. Such incorrect substitutes as ´ and are common in unprofessional texts, the apostrophe was first used by Pietro Bembo in his edition of De Aetna. It was introduced into English in the 16th century in imitation of French practice, introduced by Geoffroy Tory, the apostrophe was used in place of a vowel letter to indicate elision. It was also used in place of a final e when it was elided before a vowel. Modern French orthography has restored the spelling une heure, from the 16th century, following French practice, the apostrophe was used when a vowel letter was omitted either because of incidental elision or because the letter no longer represented a sound. English spelling retained many inflections that were not pronounced as syllables, notably verb endings and the noun ending -es, so apostrophe followed by s was often used to mark a plural, especially when the noun was a loan word. The use of elision has continued to the present day, but significant changes have made to the possessive. By the 18th century, apostrophe + s was used for all possessive singular forms. This was regarded as representing the Old English genitive singular inflection -es, the plural use was greatly reduced, but a need was felt to mark possessive plural. The solution was to use an apostrophe after the plural s, however, this was not universally accepted until the mid-19th century. The apostrophe is used to indicate possession and this convention distinguishes possessive singular forms from simple plural forms, and both of those from possessive plural forms. For singulars, the possessive or genitive inflection is a survival from certain genitive inflections in Old English. Summary of rules for most situations Possessive personal pronouns, serving as either noun-equivalents or adjective-equivalents, do not use an apostrophe, even when they end in s. The complete list of those ending in the s or the corresponding sound /s/ or /z/ but not taking an apostrophe is ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs. Other pronouns, singular nouns not ending in s, and plural nouns not ending in s all take ’s in the possessive, e. g. someone’s, a cat’s toys, women’s. Plural nouns already ending in s take only an apostrophe after the s when the possessive is formed
21.
Lee (Korean surname)
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Lee is the typical romanization of the common South Korean surname I, North Korean surname Ri. The name is written identically to the Chinese name Li 李 in Hanja characters and it is the second-most-common surname in Korea, behind only Kim. However, the NIKL still hoped to promote systemic transcriptions for use in passports, the overwhelming majority of South Koreans with this surname ignored this recommendation and continue to spell it as Lee. A few people with this surname historically spelled it Ye, as in Ye Wanyong of the Korean Empire, most such clans trace their lineage back to a specific founder, and are generally not related to one another. This system was at its height under the yangban aristocracy of the Joseon Dynasty, there are approximately 241 such clans claimed by South Koreans. Most people with surname Yi in Korea belong to either the Jeonju or Gyeongju clans, also surname Yi and Yi each have a different clans. This clan has direct imperial roots to the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, the founder of this clan was Yi Han, a native of Baekje who later married a Silla princess and became a high official of Silla. His 22nd-generation descendant, Taejo of Joseon, went on to found the Joseon Dynasty, the House of Yi ruled Joseon for 518 years between 1392 and 1910, and established many of the cultural, artistic and linguistic foundations for modern-day Korea. As of 2014, the pretender to the Korean throne was Haewon, members of the different branches of Jeonju Yi family dominated Korean history until the formation of the current Republic of Korea. Many families claim membership in the House of Yi, but few actually descend from the royal lineage, the House of Yi, in conjunction to its royal status, has produced innumerable figures of extraordinary influences in politics, the sciences, the arts, finance and academia. Many of these descendants play key roles in politics, the sciences, the arts, finances. The founder of this clan was Alpyeong, one of the village headmen of Silla. According to the Samguk Sagi, the Yi name was bestowed on the family by King Yuri around 9 CE. Notable present-day members of this include, Lee Byung-chull, the founder of Samsung Group, Lee Kun-hee, the former Samsung CEO. The Gyeongju Yi clan, according to the 2000 South Korean census, numbered over 1.4 million individuals, the founder of this clan was Yi Gwang, an official of the Goryeo period. Yi Seung-Hun, who was the first person that brought Catholicism to Korea, was in Pyeongchang clan, Yi Seung- Hun descendant Namgang Lee Seung- Hun was one of the most important figures in helping Korea gain its independence from Japan. Namgang Lee Seung- Hun was also one of the most financially successful people during his time, in his forties, Seunghun Lee devoted himself to social work and tried to support talented young people by founding the Kangmyung uisook and the Osan School. He participated in the New People’s Association, and became a Christian in 1910. Seunghun Lee was sentenced to 10 years in 1911 due to ‘105 Persons Incident’
22.
Yi Sun-sin
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His title of Samdo Sugun Tongjesa, literally meaning Naval Commander of the Three Provinces, was the title for the commander of the Korean navy until 1896. Perhaps his most remarkable military achievement occurred at the Battle of Myeongnyang, Yi died at the Battle of Noryang on December 16,1598. With the Japanese army on the verge of being expelled from the Korean Peninsula. His famous dying words were, The battle is at its height. beat my war drums. do not announce my death, Yi remains a venerated hero among Koreans today. His family was part of the Korean Deoksu Yi clan and his grandfather Yi Baeg-nok retired from politics when neo-Confucian reformer Jo Gwang-jo was executed in the Third Literati Purge of 1519 and moved to a village near where Jo was buried. Yi Sun-sins father Yi Jeong was likewise disillusioned with politics and did not enter government service as expected of a yangban family, however, popular belief that Yi Sun-sin had difficult childhood because of his familys connection with Jo Gwang-jo is not true. During the war, Yus support of Admiral Yi was critical to Yis achievements, as a young boy, Yi played war games with other local boys, showing excellent leadership talent at an early age and constructed his own bow and fletched his own arrows as a teenager. Yi also became proficient in reading and writing Hanmun, in 1576, Yi passed the military examination. Yi is said to have impressed the judges with his archery, after he re-entered and passed the examination, Yi was posted to the Bukbyeong military district in Hamgyeong province. However, he was the oldest junior officer at the age of thirty-two, there, Yi experienced battles defending the border settlements against the Jurchen marauders and quickly became known for his strategic skills and leadership. In 1583, he lured the Jurchen into battle, defeated the marauders, according to a contemporary tradition, Yi then spent three years out of the army upon hearing of his fathers death. After his return to the front line, Yi led a string of successful campaigns against the Jurchen, however, his brilliance and accomplishments so soon in his career made his superiors jealous, and they falsely accused him of desertion during battle. The conspiracy was led by General Yi Il, who would fail to repel the Japanese invasion at the Battle of Sangju. This tendency to sabotage and frame professional adversaries was very common in the years of the Joseon military. Yi was stripped of his rank, imprisoned, and tortured, after his release, Yi was allowed to fight as an enlisted soldier. After a short period of time, however, he was appointed as the commander of the Seoul Hunryeonwon and was transferred to a small county. Yis efforts in northern Korea was rewarded when Yi was assigned as Commander of the Left Jeolla Province Naval District, nurhacis descendants would become masters of China as founders of the Qing Dynasty in a few decades time, after invading Korea in 1627 and 1637. Yi assumed his new post at Yeosu on the 13th day of the 2nd lunar month of 1591, from there, he was able to undertake a buildup of the regional navy, which was later used to confront the Japanese invasion force
23.
Balhae
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Balhae, called Bóhǎi in Chinese, was a kingdom in present-day northern Korea, areas of Chinas Northeast, and Russias Maritime Province. Balhae was established under the name Jin by former Goguryeo general Dae Jo-yeong in 698 after his defeat of the Tang China at Tianmenling, Balhaes original capital was at Dongmo Mountain in modern Dunhua, Jilin Province. In 742 it was moved to the Central Capital in Helong and it was moved to the Northern Capital in Ningan, Heilongjiang in 755, to the Eastern Capital in Hunchun, Jilin in 785, and back to the Northern Capital in 794. According to a Chinese source, the kingdom had 100,000 households, archaeological evidence suggests that the Balhae culture was an amalgamation of Chinese, Korean, and indigenous cultures. Korean scholars consider Balhae as the part of the North–South States Period of Korean history, Balhae was founded in 698 under the name Jin or Zhen. Jin is the modern Revised Romanization of Korean 진, the same as the earlier Jin state, the former states character referred to the 5th earthly branch of the Chinese and Korean zodiacs, a division of the orbit of Jupiter identified with the dragon. This was associated with a bearing of 120° but also with the period between 7 and 9 am, leading it to be associated with dawn and the direction east. The latter states name may have simply been a variant transcription of this or may have intended the characters meaning of thunderclap, shock, tremor. In 713, the Tang dynasty bestowed the title Head of Bohai Commandery to the ruler of Jin, in 762 the Tang dynasty of China recognized it a kingdom and renamed it Bohai. The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae comes from the Old Book of Tang, southern Manchuria and northern Korea were previously the territory of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the forces of Silla and the Tang dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, after Dae Jungsang’s death, his son, Dae Jo-yeong, a former Goguryeo general succeeded his father. Geolsa Biu died in battle against the Tang army led by the general Li Kaigu, Dae jo Yeong managed to escape outside of the Tang controlled territory with the remaining Goguryeo and Mohe soldiers. He successfully defeated an army sent by Wu Zetian at the Battle of Tianmenling. Which enabled him to establish the state of Balhae in the region of Yilou as King Go. The second King Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang with his navy in 732 and killed a Tang prefect based on the Shandong Peninsula. In the same time, the king led troops taking land routes to Madushan in the vincity of the Shanhai Pass and he also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom, Balhae dispatched envoys to Japan 34 times, while Japan sent envoys to Balhae 13 times
24.
Kim Il-sung
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Kim Il-sung was the supreme leader of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, commonly referred to as North Korea, for 46 years, from its establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He held the posts of Prime Minister from 1948 to 1972 and he was also the leader of the Workers Party of Korea from 1949 to 1994. Coming to power after the overthrow of Japanese rule in 1945, he authorized the invasion of South Korea in 1950, a cease-fire in the Korean War was signed on 27 July 1953. Under his leadership, North Korea became a workers state with a publicly owned planned economy. It had close political and economic relations with the Soviet Union, by the 1960s and 1970s, North Korea enjoyed a relatively high standard of living, outperforming the South, which was riddled with political instability and economic crises. Despite this, the country still received massive funds, subsidies, during this period, the DPRK also remained critical of capitalism and the United States, seizing the American ship USS Pueblo in 1968. A cult of personality around Kim Il-sung came to domestic politics. His birthday is a holiday in North Korea and is called the Day of the Sun. Controversy surrounds Kims life before the founding of North Korea, with some sources labeling him an impostor, several sources indicate that the name Kim Il-sung had previously been used by a prominent early leader of the Korean resistance, Kim Kyung-cheon. The Soviet officer Grigory Mekler, who worked with Kim during the Soviet occupation, however, historian Andrei Lankov has argued that this is unlikely to be true. Several witnesses knew Kim before and after his time in the Soviet Union, including his superior, Zhou Baozhong, historian Bruce Cumings pointed out that Japanese officers from the Kwantung Army have attested to his fame as a resistance figure. Historians generally accept that, while Kims exploits were exaggerated by the personality cult that was built around him, Kims family is said to have originated from Jeonju, North Jeolla Province. His great-grandfather, Kim Ung-u, settled in Mangyong-dae in 1860, Kim is reported to have been born in the small village of Mangyungbong near Pyongyang on 15 April 1912. Born to Kim Hyŏng-jik and Kang Pan-sŏk, who gave him the name Kim Sŏng-ju, according to Kim, his family was not very poor, but was always a step away from poverty. According to the version, Kim’s family participated in anti-Japanese activities. Like most Korean families, they resented the Japanese occupation of the Korean peninsula, another view seems to be that his family settled in Manchuria, as many Koreans had at the time to escape famine. Nonetheless, Kims parents, especially Kims mother Kang Ban Suk and their exact involvement — whether their cause was missionary, nationalist, or both — is unclear nevertheless. Still, Japanese repression of opposition was brutal, resulting in the arrest and this repression forced many Korean families to flee Korea and settle in Manchuria
25.
Kontsevich system
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The Kontsevich system for the Cyrillization of the Korean language was created by the Russian scholar Lev Kontsevich on the basis of the earlier system designed by Aleksandr Kholodovich. It is currently the system of transcribing Korean words into the Russian language. Cyrillization systems for Korean were developed domestically in both North Korea and South Korea, Kontsevich carried out work on the systemisation of these rules. In contrast with systems of romanization of Korean, the transcription is based primarily on the pronunciation of a word. Some letters are transcribed differently in the middle of a word when following certain other letters, personal names are written by family name first, followed by a space and then the given name. As a rule, syllables in given names are not separated, romaja New Korean Orthography Hangul List of Korea-related topics Degrees of Courtesy and Communication Styles in the Korean Language, by K. B. Entry for Lev Kontsevich on the Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian and Latin Transcription of Korean Words, by Lev Kontsevich
26.
Cyrillic script
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The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
27.
New Korean Orthography
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The New Korean Orthography was a spelling reform used in North Korea from 1948–1954. It added five consonants and one letter to the hangul alphabet. After the establishment of the North Korean government in 1945, the North Korean Provisional Peoples Committee began a language planning campaign on the Soviet model, originally, both North Korean and South Korean Hangul script was based on the Unified Plan promulgated in 1933 under the Japanese. In 1948, the New Korean Orthography was promulgated, along with the Standard Language Orthography Dictionary, the Communist Party of Korea claimed that this New Orthography was the first in Korean history to represent the language of the proletariat. The only publications to use the New Korean Orthography were the linguistics journal Korean Language Research, the language standardization efforts were interrupted by the Korean War and hampered by Kim Il Sungs disapproval of the new orthography. In March 1958, the new orthographys creator, Kim Tu Bong, was purged from the Party, from then on, proposals for script reform were restricted to the idea of writing Hangul horizontally, rather than in syllable blocks. Linguistic journals also continued to attack foreignisms from Chinese and English, need for a nationalistic, pure standard. Thus, Pyongan dialect was chosen as the dialect for North Korean, purely for the reason that it was considered less contaminated by foreign cultures. The legacy of the New Korean Orthography lies in North Koreas modern use of Hangul, the reason for the reform is that some Korean roots change form and therefore cannot be written with a consistent spelling using standard hangul. The additional letters introduced in the New Orthography do not represent new sounds, three were created de novo by modifying existing letters, two were obsolete letters, and one is a numeral. For example, the root of the verb to walk has the form 걷 kŏt- before a consonant, as in the inflection 걷다 kŏtta, but the form 걸 kŏl- before a vowel, as in 걸어 kŏrŏ and 걸으니 kŏrŭni. In New Orthography, the root is an invariable, spelled with the new letter ㅿ in place of both the ㄷ in 걷 and the ㄹ in 걸, 다 kŏtta, 어 kŏrŏ. Another example is the root of the verb to heal, which has the form 낫 nas- before a consonant, as in 낫다 natta, in some cases, there is an epenthetic ŭ vowel before a consonant suffix, as in 나을 naŭl. In New Orthography, this root is written as an invariable. For convenience they are also called 여린리을, 된리을, 반시읏, 여린히읗, 위읍, the New Orthography also added two new digraphs to the lexicon, ㅭ lʔ and ᇬ ŋk. There were other changes made the orthography more morphemic, without requiring the addition of new letters. For example, in the word normally spelled 놉니다, the politeness morpheme ㅂ is separated out in its own block, such spellings can be found in medieval documents, but were not normally seen in the 20th century. The attributive ㄴ n morpheme at the ends of adjectives is also placed in a block
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
Administrative divisions of South Korea
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South Korea is made up of 17 first-tier administrative divisions,6 metropolitan cities,1 special city,1 special self-governing city, and 9 provinces, including one special self-governing province. These are further subdivided into a variety of entities, including cities, counties, districts, towns, townships, neighborhoods and villages. The governors of the divisions are elected every four years. A si is one of the divisions of a province, along with gun, cities have a population of at least 150,000, once a county attains that population, it becomes a city. Cities with a population of over 500,000 are divided into districts, Gimhae, Hwaseong, gus are then further divided into neighborhoods, cities with a population of less than 500,000 do not have wards – these cities are directly divided into neighborhoods. A gun is one of the divisions of a province, and of the cities of Busan, Daegu, Incheon. A gun has a population of less than 150,000, is densely populated than a gu. Gun are comparable to British non-metropolitan districts, counties are divided into towns and districts. Specially, the size of a gun is less than a US county, a gu is equivalent to district in the West. Most cities are divided into gu, though the cities of Busan, Daegu, Incheon. Gu are similar to boroughs in some Western countries, and a gu office handles many of the functions that would be handled by the city in other jurisdictions, an eup is similar to the unit of town. Along with myeon, an eup is one of the divisions of a county, the main town or towns in a county—or the secondary town or towns within a citys territory—are designated as eup. In order to form an eup, the population required is 20,000. A myeon is one of the divisions – along with eup – of a county, myeons have smaller populations than eup and represent the rural areas of a county or city. The minimum population limit is 6,000, a dong is the primary division of districts, and of those cities which are not divided into districts. The dong is the smallest level of government to have its own office. In some cases, a legal dong is divided into several administrative dong. Administrative dong are usually distinguished from one another by number, in such cases, each administrative dong has its own office and staff
30.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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