1.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
2.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
3.
Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
4.
Eudicots
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The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
5.
Rosids
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The rosids are members of a large clade of flowering plants, containing about 70,000 species, more than a quarter of all angiosperms. The clade is divided into 16 to 20 orders, depending upon circumscription and classification and these orders, in turn, together comprise about 140 families. Fossil rosids are known from the Cretaceous period, molecular clock estimates indicate that the rosids originated in the Aptian or Albian stages of the Cretaceous, between 125 and 99.6 million years ago. The name is based upon the name Rosidae, which had usually been understood to be a subclass, in 1967, Armen Takhtajan showed that the correct basis for the name Rosidae is a description of a group of plants published in 1830 by Friedrich Gottlieb Bartling. The clade was later renamed Rosidae and has been variously delimited by different authors, the name rosids is informal and not assumed to have any particular taxonomic rank like the names authorized by the ICBN. The rosids are monophyletic based upon evidence found by molecular phylogenetic analysis, three different definitions of the rosids were used. Some authors included the orders Saxifragales and Vitales in the rosids, others excluded both of these orders. The circumscription used in this article is that of the APG IV classification, which includes Vitales, the rosids and Saxifragales form the superrosids clade. This is one of three groups compose the Pentapetalae, the others being Dilleniales and the superasterids. The rosids consist of two groups, the order Vitales and the eurosids, the eurosids, in turn, are divided into two groups, fabids and malvids. The rosids consist of 17 orders, in addition to Vitales, there are 8 orders in fabids and 8 orders in malvids. Some of the orders have only recently been recognized and these are Vitales, Zygophyllales, Crossosomatales, Picramniales, and Huerteales. The phylogeny of Rosids shown below is adapted from the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group website, the nitrogen-fixing clade contains a high number of actinorhizal plants. Not all plants in this clade are actinorhizal, however, media related to Rosids at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Rosales
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Rosales is an order of flowering plants. It is sister to a clade consisting of Fagales and Cucurbitales and it contains about 7700 species, distributed into about 260 genera. Rosales comprise nine families, the family being the rose family. The largest of these families are Rosaceae and Urticaceae, the order Rosales is divided into three clades that have never been assigned a taxonomic rank. The basal clade consists of the family Rosaceae, another clade consists of four families, including Rhamnaceae, the order Rosales is strongly supported as monophyletic in phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences, such as those carried out by members of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. In their APG III system of plant classification, they defined Rosales as consisting of the nine families listed in the box on the right. The relationships of these families were uncertain until 2011, when they were resolved in a phylogenetic study based on two nuclear genes and ten chloroplast genes. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Rosales were in the superorder Rosiflorae, in the obsolete Cronquist system, the order Rosales was many times polyphyletic. It consisted of the family Rosaceae and 23 other families that are now placed in other orders
7.
Rosaceae
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Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa, among the most species-rich genera are Alchemilla, Sorbus, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Rubus, and Prunus with about 200 species. However, all of these numbers should be seen as estimates – much taxonomic work remains, the Rosaceae family includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. Most species are deciduous, but some are evergreen and they have a worldwide range, but are most diverse in the Northern Hemisphere. Several economically important products come from the Rosaceae, including many edible fruits, almonds, the Rosaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution, but are primarily concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere in regions that are not desert or tropical rainforest. More recently, Chrysobalanoideae has also treated as a family, but also in Rosales. Neuradoideae has been assigned to Malvales, schulze-Menz, in Englers Syllabus edited by Melchior recognized Rosoideae, Dryadoideae, Lyonothamnoideae, Spireoideae, Amygdaloideae, and Maloideae. They were primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits, more recent work has identified that not all of these groups were monophyletic. Hutchinson and Kalkmann recognized only tribes, takhtajan delimited 10 subfamilies, Filipenduloideae, Rosoideae, Ruboideae, Potentilloideae, Coleogynoideae, Kerroideae, Amygdaloideae, Spireoideae, Maloideae, Dichotomanthoideae, and 21 tribes. A more modern model comprises three subfamilies, one of which has remained the same. A cladogram of the family is, Three cladistic analyses were done in 1999 by Rodger Evans, one based on the phenotype, one on molecules, and the third combined. The only major difference in the results with the above cladogram is the position of Kerria, while the boundaries of the Rosaceae are not disputed, there is not general agreement as to how many genera it contains. Areas of divergent opinion include the treatment of Potentilla s. l. compounding the problem is that apomixis is common in several genera. This results in an uncertainty in the number of species contained in each of these genera, Rosaceae can be trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. The herbs are mostly perennials, but some also exist. The leaves are arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound, compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate, paired stipules are generally present, and are a primitive feature within the family, independently lost in many groups of Amygdaloideae
8.
Mespilus
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Mespilus, commonly called medlar, is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the family Rosaceae containing the single species Mespilus germanica of southwest Asia. Mespilus are deciduous large shrubs to trees growing up to 8 metres tall. The fruit is a matte brown pome, the medlar is referenced in William Shakespeares comedy, As You Like It, Act III, scene ii, lines 117-120 in an engaging repartee between Rosalind and Touchstone, the Fool. Within subfamily Amygdaloideae, Mespilus is most closely related to Crataegus, Amelanchier, Peraphyllum, the genus Eriobotrya was once considered to be closely related to Mespilus. Many authors group Mespilus together with Crataegus in a single genus, when thus combined the correct species name is Crataegus germanica Kuntze. Mespilus germanica features an unusual apple-like fruit, in southern Europe the medlar fruits ripen fully and can be eaten off the tree, but in northern climates they require bletting to eat
9.
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
10.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
11.
Shrub
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A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized woody plant. It is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, plants of many species may grow either into shrubs or trees, depending on their growing conditions. Small, low shrubs, generally less than 2 m tall, such as lavender, periwinkle, an area of cultivated shrubs in a park or a garden is known as a shrubbery. When clipped as topiary, suitable species or varieties of shrubs develop dense foliage, many shrubs respond well to renewal pruning, in which hard cutting back to a stool results in long new stems known as canes. Other shrubs respond better to selective pruning to reveal their structure, shrubs in common garden practice are generally considered broad-leaved plants, though some smaller conifers such as mountain pine and common juniper are also shrubby in structure. Species that grow into a shrubby habit may be deciduous or evergreen
12.
Bletting
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Bletting is a process of softening that certain fleshy fruits undergo, beyond ripening. The rowan or mountain ash fruit must be bletted and cooked to be edible, chemically speaking, bletting brings about an increase in sugars and a decrease in the acids and tannins that cause the unripe fruit to be astringent. Ripe medlars, for example, are taken from the tree, placed somewhere cool, more often the fruit is used for making jelly. Ideally, the fruit should be harvested from the immediately following a hard frost. Once the process is complete, the flesh will have broken down enough that it can be spooned out of the skin. The taste of the sticky, mushy substance has been compared to dates and dry applesauce. In Notes on a Cellar-Book, the great English oenophile George Saintsbury called bletted medlars the ideal fruit to accompany wine, the English verb to blet was coined by John Lindley, in his Introduction to Botany. He derived it from the French poire blette meaning overripe pear, after the period of ripeness, he wrote, most fleshy fruits undergo a new kind of alteration, their flesh either rots or blets. In Shakespeares Measure for Measure, he alluded to bletting when he wrote They would have married me to the rotten Medler, elsewhere in literature, D. H. Lawrence dubbed medlars wineskins of brown morbidity. There is also an old saying, used in Don Quixote, climacteric, the final stage of fruit ripening in many, but not all fruits Date Palm, whose tamr stage is similar to bletting Fermentation Fermentation Industrial fermentation Icewine
13.
Crataegus
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The name hawthorn was originally applied to the species native to northern Europe, especially the common hawthorn C. monogyna, and the unmodified name is often so used in Britain and Ireland. The name is now applied to the entire genus and to the related Asian genus Rhaphiolepis. The name haw, originally an Old English term for hedge, Crataegus species are shrubs or small trees, mostly growing to 5–15 metres tall, with small pome fruit and thorny branches. The most common type of bark is grey in young individuals. The thorns are small sharp-tipped branches that arise either from other branches or from the trunk, the leaves grow spirally arranged on long shoots, and in clusters on spur shoots on the branches or twigs. The leaves of most species have lobed or serrate margins and are variable in shape. Hawthorns provide food and shelter for many species of birds and mammals, hawthorns are also used as food plants by the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera species, see List of Lepidoptera that feed on hawthorns. Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings, the haws or fruits of the common hawthorn, C. monogyna, are edible but the flavour has been compared to over-ripe apples. In the United Kingdom, they are used to make a jelly or homemade wine. The leaves are edible and, if picked in spring when still young, are enough to be used in salads. The young leaves and flower buds, which are edible, are known as bread. The fruits of the species Crataegus pinnatifida are tart, bright red and they are used to make many kinds of Chinese snacks, including haw flakes and tanghulu. The fruits, which are called shānzhā in Chinese, are used to produce jams, jellies, juices, alcoholic beverages. In South Korea, a liquor called sansachun is made from the fruits, the fruits of Crataegus mexicana are known in Mexico as tejocotes and are eaten raw, cooked, or in jam during the winter months. They are stuffed in the piñatas broken during the traditional celebration known as Las Posadas. They are also cooked with other fruits to prepare a Christmas punch, the mixture of tejocote paste, sugar, and chili powder produces a popular Mexican candy called rielitos, which is manufactured by several brands. In the southern United States, fruits of three species are collectively known as mayhaws and are made into jellies which are considered a great delicacy. The Kutenai people of northwestern North America used red and black hawthorn fruit for food, on Manitoulin Island in Canada, some red-fruited species are called hawberries
14.
Correct name
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Determining whether a name is correct is a complex procedure. The name must be published, a process which is defined in no less than 16 Articles of the ICN. It must also be legitimate, which some further requirements. Validly published names other than the name are called synonyms. Since taxonomists may disagree as to the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon and these may also be called synonyms. The correct name has one correct spelling, which will generally be the original spelling. Other spellings are called orthographical variants, the zoological equivalent of correct name is valid name. Different taxonomic placements may well lead to different correct names, for example, the earliest name for the fastest growing tree in the world is Adenanthera falcataria L. The L. stands for Linnaeus who first validly published the name, Adenanthera falcataria is thus one of the correct names for this plant. There are other names, based on different taxonomic treatments. It can be placed in the genus Albizia, as Fosberg first did, when placed in this genus, the first choice of correct name is the new genus name followed by the earlier species epithet, giving Albizia falcataria. This name cannot be used if there is already a species in the genus with this epithet, as this is not the case, the correct name for the plant in this genus is Albizia falcataria Fosberg. Fosberg is the authority for the transfer to the new genus and it can also be placed in the genus Paraserianthes. Its correct name in that position is Paraserianthes falcataria I. C. Nielsen, within the genus Paraserianthes, it is placed in section Falcataria. An alternative basionym must be sought or a new name created, the correct name is Falcataria moluccana Barneby and J. W. Grimes. The four names Adenanthera falcataria, Albizia falcataria, Paraserianthes falcataria and Falcataria moluccana are each correct, which is the right genus is a problem for taxonomy, not nomenclature. Thus this tree species will have a different correct botanical name for different people. Botanical Nomenclature, University of Utah, archived from the original on 2011-02-20, retrieved 2011-02-20 McNeill, J. Barrie, F. R. Buck, W. R. Demoulin, V. Greuter, W. Hawksworth, D. L
15.
Otto Kuntze
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Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze was a German botanist. Otto Kuntze was born in Leipzig, an apothecary in his early career, he published an essay entitled Pocket Fauna of Leipzig. Between 1863 and 1866 he worked as tradesman in Berlin and traveled through central Europe, from 1868 to 1873 he had his own factory for essential oils and attained a comfortable standard of living. Between 1874 and 1876, he traveled around the world, the Caribbean, United States, Japan, China, South East Asia, Arabian peninsula, the journal of these travels was published as Around the World. From 1876 to 1878 he studied Natural Science in Berlin and Leipzig and he edited the botanical collection from his world voyage encompassing 7,700 specimens in Berlin and Kew Gardens. The publication came as a shock to botany, since Kuntze had entirely revised taxonomy and his three-volume treatise, Revisio Generum Plantarum was widely rejected or deliberately ignored. In 1886, Kuntze visited the Russian Near East and spent the 1887–88 period on the Canary Islands, the results of both journeys became part of his main work, the Revisio. At the beginning of the 1890s he left for South America, in 1894, he visited the Southern African countries as well as the German colonies. In the last years of his life, Kuntze moved permanently to Sanremo, the conflict came to a head at the 2nd International Botanical Congress in 1905, two years before Kuntzes death. His uncompromising responses to differing views meant that the doors of much of the academic world, Kuntzes work cast a strong light on the inadequacy of previous approaches to botanical nomenclature. A group of American botanists developed a set of rules, the Rochester Code. This schism was not resolved until 1930, stafleu, Frans A. Kuntze, Carl Ernst Otto. Biography, Bibliography and Travels, Brittonia,32, 551–571, doi,10. 2307/2806169, JSTOR2806169
16.
Strabo
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Strabo was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus, Strabos life was characterized by extensive travels. He journeyed to Egypt and Kush, as far west as coastal Tuscany and as far south as Ethiopia in addition to his travels in Asia Minor and the time he spent in Rome. Travel throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, especially for scholarly purposes, was popular during this era and was facilitated by the relative peace enjoyed throughout the reign of Augustus. He moved to Rome in 44 BC, and stayed there, studying and writing, in 29 BC, on his way to Corinth, he visited the island of Gyaros in the Aegean Sea. Around 25 BC, he sailed up the Nile until reaching Philae and it is not known precisely when Strabos Geography was written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place its first drafts around 7 BC, others around 17 or 18 AD, the latest passage to which a date can be assigned is his reference to the death in AD23 of Juba II, king of Maurousia, who is said to have died just recently. He probably worked on the Geography for many years and revised it steadily, on the presumption that recently means within a year, Strabo stopped writing that year or the next, when he died. The first of Strabos major works, Historical Sketches, written while he was in Rome, is completely lost. Strabo studied under several prominent teachers of various specialties throughout his life at different stops along his Mediterranean travels. His first chapter of education took place in Nysa under the master of rhetoric Aristodemus, Strabo was an admirer of Homers poetry, perhaps a consequence of his time spent in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around the age of 21, Strabo moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the Peripatetic Xenarchus, despite Xenarchuss Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations. In Rome, he learned grammar under the rich and famous scholar Tyrannion of Amisus. Although Tyrannion was also a Peripatetic, he was more relevantly a respected authority on geography, the final noteworthy mentor to Strabo was Athenodorus Cananites, a philosopher who had spent his life since 44 BC in Rome forging relationships with the Roman elite. Athenodorus endowed to Strabo three important items, his philosophy, his knowledge, and his contacts, moreover, from his own first-hand experience, Athenodorus provided Strabo with information about regions of the empire which he would not otherwise have known. Strabo is most notable for his work Geographica, which presented a history of people. Although the Geographica was rarely utilized in its antiquity, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine Empire. It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469, the first Greek edition was published in 1516 in Venice
17.
Geographica
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The Geographica, or Geography, is an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge, consisting of 17 books, written in Greek by Strabo, an educated citizen of the Roman Empire of Greek descent. Work can have begun on it no earlier than 20 BC, a first edition was published in 7 BC followed by a gap, resumption of work and a final edition no later than 23 AD in the last year of Strabos life. Strabo probably worked on his Geography and now missing History concurrently, except for parts of Book 7, the complete work is known. From this description it is clear that by geography Strabo means ancient physical geography and by chorography, the two are combined in this work, which makes a circuit of the earth detailing the physical and political features. Strabo often uses the adjective geōgraphika with reference to the works of others and to geography in general, in the Middle Ages it became the standard name used of his work. The date of Geographica is a topic, perhaps because Strabo worked on it along with his History for most of his adult life. He traveled extensively, undoubtedly gathering notes, and made extended visits to Rome and Alexandria, Strabo visited Rome in 44 BC at age 19 or 20 apparently for purposes of education. He studied under various persons, including Tyrannion, a captive educated Greek and private tutor, cicero says, The geographical work I had planned is a big undertaking. if I take Tyrannions views too. If one presumes that Strabo acquired the motivation for writing geography during his education and he may have been gathering notes but the earliest indication that he must have been preparing them is his extended visit to Alexandria 25–20 BC. In 20 he was 44 years old and his numerous excerpts from the works of his predecessors are most likely to have been noted at the library there. Whether these hypothetical notes first found their way into his history, most of the events of the life of Augustus mentioned by Strabo occurred 31–7 BC with a gap 6 BC –14 AD, which can be interpreted as an interval after first publication in 7 BC. Then in 19 AD a specific reference dates a passage, he said that the Carni, by Drusus 33 years ago, which was 15 BC, dating the passage 19 AD. The latest event mentioned is the death of Juba at no later than 23 AD and these events can be interpreted as a second edition unless he saved all his notes and wrote the book entirely after the age of 80. Strabo is his own best expounder of his principles of composition, In short, useful alike to the statesman and to the public at large – as was my work on History. And so, after I had written my Historical Sketches, I determined to write the present treatise also, for this work is based on the same plan, and is addressed to the same class of readers, and particularly to men of exalted stations in life. For it, too, is a work, in that it deals with the facts about large things only. An outline of the encyclopedia follows, with links to the appropriate Wikipedia article, pages C1 through C67, Loeb Volume I pages 3–249. Some thirty manuscripts of Geographica or parts of it have survived, almost all of medieval copies of copies
18.
Loquat
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The loquat is a species of flowering plant in the family Rosaceae, a native to the cooler hill regions of China to south-central China. Eriobotrya japonica was formerly thought to be related to the genus Mespilus. It is also known as Japanese plum and Chinese plum, also known as pipa in China, Eriobotrya japonica is a large evergreen shrub or small tree, with a rounded crown, short trunk and woolly new twigs. The tree can grow to 5–10 metres tall, but is often smaller, loquats are unusual among fruit trees in that the flowers appear in the autumn or early winter, and the fruits are ripe at any time from early spring to early summer. The flowers are 2 cm in diameter, white, with five petals, the flowers have a sweet, heady aroma that can be smelled from a distance. Loquat fruits, growing in clusters, are oval, rounded or pear-shaped, 3–5 centimetres long, with a smooth or downy, yellow or orange, the succulent, tangy flesh is white, yellow or orange and sweet to subacid or acid, depending on the cultivar. Each fruit contains one to ten ovules, with three to five being most common. A variable number of the ovules mature into large brown seeds, the skin, though thin, can be peeled off manually if the fruit is ripe. In Egypt, varieties with sweeter fruits and fewer seeds are often grafted on inferior quality specimens, the fruits are the sweetest when soft and orange. The flavour is a mixture of peach, citrus and mild mango, the loquat is originally from China where related species can be found growing in the wild. It was introduced into Japan and became naturalised there in early times. Chinese immigrants are presumed to have carried the loquat to Hawaii, the loquat was often mentioned in ancient Chinese literature, such as the poems of Li Bai. In Portuguese literature, it is mentioned since before the Age of Discovery, over 800 loquat cultivars exist in Asia. Self-fertile variants include the Gold Nugget and Mogi cultivars, the boldly textured foliage adds a tropical look to gardens, contrasting well with many other plants. It is popular in the American South, there are many named cultivars, with orange or white flesh. Japan is the producer of loquats followed by Israel and then Brazil. In Europe, Spain is the producer of loquat. In temperate climates it is grown as an ornamental with winter protection, in the United Kingdom, it has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit
19.
Amelanchier
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Amelanchier is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, growing primarily in early successional habitats. Two species also occur in Asia, and one in Europe, a major source of complexity comes from the occurrence of hybridization, polyploidy, and apomixis, making species difficult to characterize and identify. The various species of Amelanchier grow to 0. 2–20 m tall, some are trees, some are multistemmed, clump-forming shrubs. The bark is gray or less brown, and in tree species smooth or fissuring when older. The inflorescences are terminal, with 1–20 flowers, erect or drooping, either in clusters of one to four flowers, the flowers have five white, linear to orbiculate petals,2. 6–25 mm long, with the petals in one species often andropetalous. The flowers appear in spring, when the shad run according to tradition. The fruit is a pome, red to purple to nearly black at maturity, 5–15 mm diameter, insipid to delectably sweet. Amelanchier plants are valued horticulturally, and their fruits are important to wildlife, for North American species, the taxonomy follows the Flora of North America, for Asian species the Flora of China, and for European species the Flora Europaea. Several natural or horticultural hybrids also exist, and many A. arborea and A. canadensis plants that are offered for sale are actually hybrids, a taxon called Amelanchier lamarckii is very widely cultivated and naturalized in Europe, where it was introduced in the 17th century. It is apomictic, breeding true from seed, and probably of hybrid origin, while A. lamarckii is known to be of North American origin, probably from eastern Canada, it is not known to occur naturally in the wild in North America. The origin of the generic name Amelanchier is probably derived from amalenquièr, amelanchièr, the name serviceberry comes from the similarity of the fruit to the related European Sorbus. Juneberry refers to the fruits of species becoming ripe in June. The name saskatoon originated from a Cree noun misâskwatômina for Amelanchier alnifolia, the city of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan is named after this plant. Shadberry refers to the runs in certain New England streams. Amelanchier plants are preferred browse for deer and rabbits, and heavy browsing pressure can suppress natural regeneration, many insects and diseases that attack orchard trees also affect this genus, in particular trunk borers and Gymnosporangium rust. In years when late flowers of Amelanchier overlap those of wild roses and brambles, bees may spread bacterial fireblight, the fruit of several species are excellent to eat raw, tasting somewhat like a blueberry, strongly accented by the almond-like flavour of the seeds. Selections from Amelanchier alnifolia have been chosen for production, with several named cultivars. Other cultivars appear to be derived from hybridization between A. alnifolia and A. stolonifera, propagation is by seed, divisions, and grafting
20.
Peraphyllum
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Peraphyllum is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the rose family, containing the single species Peraphyllum ramosissimum, commonly known as the squaw apple or wild crab apple. Translated from the Greek, the genus Peraphyllum means very leafy, Peraphyllum is most closely related to Amelanchier, Malacomeles, Crataegus, and Mespilus. Peraphyllum ramosissimum grows in California, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, in California it can be found in the High Cascades, High Sierra Nevada, Great Basin, and Mojave Desert sky islands. Peraphyllum ramosissimum is a shrub which may reach 3 metres in height, the leaves are simple, they can grow very close together on short shoots but are well separated on longer shoots. Like most other flowering plants of the Rosaceae, Peraphyllum ramosissimum has 5 petals and 5 sepals with radial symmetry, the flowers have about 15-20 free stamens, the petals are white to rose in color. Jepson Manual Treatment, Peraphyllum ramosissimum USDA PLANTS entry for Peraphyllum ramosissimum Peraphyllum ramosissimum — U. C
21.
Anatolia
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Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
22.
Caucasus
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The Caucasus /ˈkɔːkəsəs/ or Caucasia /kɔːˈkeɪʒə/ is a region at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between the Black and the Caspian seas. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europes highest mountain, politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts. The southern parts consist of independent sovereign states, and the parts are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation. The region is known for its diversity, aside from Indo-European and Turkic languages, the Kartvelian, Northwest Caucasian. Pliny the Elders Natural History derives the name of the Caucasus from Scythian kroy-khasis, German linguist Paul Kretschmer notes that the Latvian word Kruvesis also means ice. According to German philologists Otto Schrader and Alfons A. Nehring, the South Caucasus region and southern Dagestan were the furthest points of Persian expansions, with areas to the north of Caucasus Mountains practically impregnable. The mythological mountain of Qaf, the worlds highest mountain that ancient lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region, therefore, the Caucasus might be associated with the legendary mountain. The Ciscaucasus contains the majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan, the Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands, all of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are in South Caucasus. The main Greater Caucasus range is generally perceived to be the line between Asia and Europe. The highest peak in the Caucasus is Mount Elbrus in the western Ciscaucasus in Russia, the Caucasus is one of the most linguistically and culturally diverse regions on Earth. The nation states that comprise the Caucasus today are the post-Soviet states Georgia, Armenia, three territories in the region claim independence but are recognized as such by only a handful or by no independent states, Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia and South Ossetia are recognised by the majority of independent states as part of Georgia, the Russian divisions include Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai, and the autonomous republics of Adygea, Karachay–Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan. The region has many different languages and language families, there are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region. Russian is used as a common language, today the peoples of the Northern and Southern Caucasus tend to be either Eastern Orthodox Christians, Oriental Orthodox Christians, or Sunni Muslims. Shia Islam has had many adherents historically in Azerbaijan, located in the part of the region. Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran, and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the Iranian world
23.
Crimea
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The peninsula is located south of the Ukrainian region of Kherson and west of the Russian region of Kuban. It is connected to Kherson Oblast by the Isthmus of Perekop and is separated from Kuban by the Strait of Kerch, the Arabat Spit is located to the northeast, a narrow strip of land that separates a system of lagoons named Sivash from the Sea of Azov. Crimea has historically been at the boundary between the world and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Crimea and adjacent territories were united in the Crimean Khanate during the 15th to 18th century, in 1783, Crimea was annexed by the Russian Empire. It became the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within newly independent Ukraine in 1991, with Sevastopol having its own administration, within Ukraine, the ex-Soviet Black Sea Fleet and its facilities were divided between Russias Black Sea Fleet and the Ukrainian Naval Forces. The two navies shared some of the harbours and piers, while others were demilitarised or used by either country. Sevastopol remained the location of the Russian Black Sea Fleet headquarters with the Ukrainian Naval Forces Headquarters also based in the city, most of the international community does not recognize the annexation and considers Crimea to be Ukrainian territory. Russia currently administers the peninsula as two federal subjects, the Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol. Ukraine continues to assert its right over the peninsula, the classical name Tauris or Taurica is from the Greek Ταυρική, after the peninsulas Scytho-Cimmerian inhabitants, the Tauri. In English usage since the modern period the Crimean Khanate is referred to as Crim Tartary. The Italian form Crimea also becomes current during the 18th century, the omission of the definite article in English became common during the later 20th century. The name Crimea follows the Italian form from the Crimean Tatar name for the city Qırım which served as a capital of the Crimean province of the Golden Horde, the name of the capital was extended to the entire peninsula at some point during Ottoman suzerainty. The origin of the word Qırım is uncertain, suggestions argued in various sources include, a corruption of Cimmerium. A derivation from the Turkic term qirum, from qori-, other suggestions that have not been supported by sources but are apparently based on similarity in sound include, a derivation from the Greek Cremnoi. However, he identifies the port, not in Crimea, no evidence has been identified that this name was ever in use for the peninsula. The classical name was revived in 1802 in the name of the Russian Taurida Governorate, in the 8th century BCE the Cimmerians migrated to the region and subsequently the Scythians as well it being the site of Greek colonies. The most important city was Chersonesos at the edge of todays Sevastopol, the Persian Achaemenid Empire expanded to Crimea. Later occupiers included the Romans, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, the Byzantine Empire, Khazars, the Kipchaks, the Golden Horde, consideration of the succeeding residents of the peninsula by their linguistic grouping is also of relevance
24.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
25.
Turkmenistan
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Turkmenistan has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. In medieval times, Merv was one of the cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the movement in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, Turkmenistan possesses the worlds fourth largest reserves of natural gas resources. Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert, since 1993, citizens have received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge. Turkmenistan was ruled by President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov until his death in 2006, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected president in 2007. According to Human Rights Watch, Turkmenistan remains one of the world’s most repressive countries, after suspending the death penalty, the use of capital punishment was formally abolished in the 2008 constitution. Historically inhabited by the Indo-Iranians, the history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran. In the 8th century AD, Turkic-speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present-day Central Asia, part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population. In the 10th century, the name Turkmen was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam, There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan. Turkmen soldiers in the service of the played a important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day Azerbaijan. In the 12th century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire, in the next century, the Mongols took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups. The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, by the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates, Khiva and Bukhoro. Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period, in the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that groups dispersal by the Uzbek rulers. According to Paul R. Spickard, Prior to the Russian conquest, Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century. From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk, the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates, in 1916 the Russian Empires participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia. In 1924 the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from the tsarist province of Transcaspia, by the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life. The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110,000 people, during the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events
26.
Pome
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In botany, a pome is a type of fruit produced by flowering plants in the subtribe Malinae of the family Rosaceae. The word pome entered English in the late 14th century, and it derived from the Old French word pome apple, which in turn derived from the Late Latin or Vulgar Latin word poma apple, originally the plural of Latin pomus fruit, later apple. A pome is a fruit composed of one or more carpels surrounded by accessory tissue. The accessory tissue is interpreted by some specialists as an extension of the receptacle and is referred to as fruit cortex. It is the most edible part of this fruit, the carpels of a pome are fused within the core. Although the epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp of some other fruit types look very much like the skin, flesh, the epicarp and mesocarp of a pome may be fleshy and difficult to distinguish from one another and from the hypanthial tissue. The endocarp forms a leathery or stony case around the seed, pome-type fruit with stony rather than leathery endocarp may be called a polypyrenous drupe. The shriveled remains of the sepals, style and stamens can sometimes be seen at the end of a pome opposite the stem, the best-known example of a pome is the apple. Other examples of plants produce fruit classified as a pome are Cotoneaster, Crataegus, loquat, medlar, pear, Pyracantha, toyon, quince, rowan. Some pomes may have a texture, others are berry-like with juicy flesh
27.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
28.
Gardener
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A gardener is someone who practices gardening, either professionally or as a hobby. The garden designer is someone who will design the garden, the term gardener is also used to describe garden designers and landscape gardeners, who are involved chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of horticulture. Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, vita Sackville-West, Gertrude Jekyll and William Robinson were garden designers as well as gardeners. Garden design is the creation of a plan for the construction of a garden, the design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife, Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens. In 18th-century japan, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, Professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers. The designer also provides directions and supervision during construction, and the management of establishment, the gardener is the person who has the skill to maintain the gardens design. Weeds tend to thrive at the expense of the more refined edible or ornamental plants, gardeners need to control weeds using physical or chemical methods to stop weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants. Early activities, such as starting young plants from seeds for later transplantation, are performed in early spring
29.
Grafting
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Grafting or graftage is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their growth together. The upper part of the plant is called the scion while the lower part is called the rootstock. The success of this requires that the vascular tissue grow together. The technique is most commonly used in propagation of commercially grown plants for the horticultural and agricultural trades. In most cases, one plant is selected for its roots, the other plant is selected for its stems, leaves, flowers, or fruits and is called the scion or cion. The scion contains the genes to be duplicated in future production by the stock/scion plant. In stem grafting, a common grafting method, a shoot of a selected, desired plant cultivar is grafted onto the stock of another type. For successful grafting to take place, the vascular tissues of the stock. Both tissues must be alive until the graft has taken. Successful grafting only requires that a vascular connection take place between the grafted tissues, joints formed by grafting are not as strong as naturally formed joints, so a physical weak point often still occurs at the graft because only the newly formed tissues inosculate with each other. The existing structural tissue of the plant does not fuse. Precocity, The ability to induce fruitfulness without the need for completing the juvenile phase, juvenility is the natural state through which a seedling plant must pass before it can become reproductive. In most fruiting trees, juvenility may last between 5 and 9 years, but in tropical fruits e. g. Mangosteen. Grafting of mature scions onto rootstocks can result in fruiting in as little as two years, dwarfing, To induce dwarfing or cold tolerance or other characteristics to the scion. Most apple trees in modern orchards are grafted on to dwarf or semi-dwarf trees planted at high density and they provide more fruit per unit of land, higher quality fruit, and reduce the danger of accidents by harvest crews working on ladders. Care must be taken when planting dwarf or semi-dwarf trees, if such a tree is planted with the graft below the soil, then the scion portion can also grow roots and the tree will still grow to its standard size. Ease of propagation, Because the scion is difficult to propagate vegetatively by other means, in this case, cuttings of an easily rooted plant are used to provide a rootstock. In some cases, the scion may be easily propagated, hybrid breeding, To speed maturity of hybrids in fruit tree breeding programs
30.
Pyrus communis
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Pyrus communis, known as the European pear or common pear, is a species of pear native to central and eastern Europe and southwest Asia. It is one of the most important fruits of temperate regions, being the species from which most orchard pear cultivars grown in Europe, North America, and Australia have been developed. Two other species of pears, the Nashi pear and the hybrid Chinese white or ya pear are more grown in East Asia. The cultivated European pear is thought to be descended from two subspecies of wild pears, categorized as P. communis subsp, caucasica, which are interfertile with domesticated pears. Archeological evidence shows these pears were collected from the wild long before their introduction into cultivation, according to Zohary and Hopf. Although they point to finds of pears in sites in Neolithic and Bronze Age European sites, reliable information on pear cultivation first appears in the works of the Greek, theophrastus, Cato the Elder, and Pliny the Elder all present information about the cultivation and grafting of pears. European pear trees are not quite as hardy as apples, however, they do require some winter chilling to produce fruit. A number of Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on tree leaves. For best and most consistent quality, European pears are picked when the fruit matures, fruit allowed to ripen on the tree often drops before it can be picked, and in any event will be hard to pick without bruising. Pears store well in their mature but unripe state if kept cold, and can be ripened later, some varieties, such as Beurre dAnjou, ripen only with exposure to cold. Fermented pear juice is called perry, in Britain, the place name Perry can indicate the historical presence of pear trees. Relatively few cultivars of European or Asian pears are grown worldwide. Only about 20-25 European and 10-20 Asian cultivars represent virtually all the pears of commerce, almost all European cultivars were chance seedlings or selections originating in western Europe, mostly France. The Asian cultivars all originated in Japan and China, bartlett is the most common pear cultivar in the world, representing about 75% of US pear production. Its thick, smooth skin is a uniform, bright and intense red, summer Beauty Sudduth Taylors Gold Triomphe de Vienne Williams Bonne Chrétienne agm Pyrus communis images at bioimages. vanderbilt. edu
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Quince
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The quince is the sole member of the genus Cydonia in the family Rosaceae. It is a deciduous tree that bears a pome fruit, similar in appearance to a pear. Throughout history the cooked fruit has been used as food, but the tree is grown for its attractive pale pink blossoms. The tree grows 5 to 8 metres high and 4 to 6 metres wide, the fruit is 7 to 12 centimetres long and 6 to 9 centimetres across. The immature fruit is green with dense pubescence, most of which rubs off before maturity in late autumn when the fruit changes color to yellow with hard. The leaves are arranged, simple, 6–11 cm long, with an entire margin. The flowers, produced in spring after the leaves, are white or pink,5 cm across, the seeds contain nitriles, which are common in seeds of the rose family. In the stomach, enzymes or stomach acid or both cause some of the nitriles to be hydrolyzed and produce hydrogen cyanide, which is a volatile gas, the seeds are only likely to be toxic if a large quantity is eaten. Four other species included in the genus Cydonia are now treated in separate genera. These are Pseudocydonia sinensis and the three flowering quinces of eastern Asia in the genus Chaenomeles, another unrelated fruit, the bael, is sometimes called the Bengal quince. It should not be confused with its relatives, the Chinese quince, Pseudocydonia sinensis, or the flowering quinces of genus Chaenomeles, the fruit was known to the Akkadians, who called it supurgillu, Arabic سفرجل al safarjal quinces. While quince is a shrub, it may develop fungal diseases in hot weather. Quince leaf blight, caused by fungus Diplocarpon mespili, presents a threat in wet summers, causing severe leaf spotting and early defoliation and it may also affect other Rosaceae plants such as hawthorn and medlar, but is typically less damaging than on quince. Cedar-quince rust, caused by Gymnosporangium clavipes, requires two hosts to complete the lifecycle, one being a cedar and the other a rosacea. Appearing as red excrescence on various parts of the plant, it may affect quinces grown in vicinity of junipers, Quince is a hardy, drought-tolerant shrub which adapts to many soils of low to medium pH. It tolerates both shade and sun, but sunlight is required in order to produce flowers and ensure fruit ripening. It is a tough plant that does not require much maintenance. Quince is cultivated on all continents in warm-temperate and temperate climates and it requires a cooler period of the year, with temperatures under 7 °C, to flower properly
32.
Crataegus monogyna
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Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of hawthorn native to Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia. It has been introduced in other parts of the world. It can be an invasive weed, other common names include may, mayblossom, maythorn, quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw. This species is one of several that have been referred to as Crataegus oxyacantha, the common hawthorn is a shrub or small tree 5–14 metres tall, with a dense crown. The bark is brown with vertical orange cracks. The younger stems bear sharp thorns, approximately 12. 5mm long, the leaves are 20 to 40mm long, obovate and deeply lobed, sometimes almost to the midrib, with the lobes spreading at a wide angle. The upper surface is green above and paler underneath. The flowers are pollinated by midges, bees and other insects, the haw is a small, oval dark red fruit about 10mm long, berry-like, but structurally a pome containing a single seed. Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings, however they are inter-fertile and hybrids occur frequently, they are only entirely distinct in their more typical forms. Crataegus monogyna is one of the most common species used as the hawthorn of traditional herbalism, the plant parts used are usually sprigs with both leaves and flowers, or alternatively the fruit. Hawthorne has been investigated by evidence-based medicine for treating cardiac insufficiency, Crataegus monogyna is a source of antioxidant phytochemicals, especially extracts of hawthorn leaves with flowers. Common hawthorn is extensively planted as a plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit render it effectively stock- and human-proof, the traditional practice of hedge laying is most commonly practised with this species. It is a good fire wood which burns with a good heat, numerous hybrids exist, some of which are used as garden shrubs. The most widely used hybrid is C. × media, of several cultivars are known. The fruit of hawthorn, called haws, are edible raw but are made into jellies, jams. Botanically they are pomes, but they look similar to berries, a haw is small and oblong, similar in size and shape to a small olive or grape, and red when ripe. Haws develop in groups of 2-3 along smaller branches and they are pulpy and delicate in taste
33.
Apple sauce
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Apple sauce or applesauce is a sauce made of apples. It can be made with peeled or unpeeled apples and a variety of spices, flavorings or sweeteners such as sugar or honey are also commonly added. Apple sauce is inexpensive and is used in the United Kingdom, North America. It can be substituted for fat in baking, commercial versions of apple sauce are readily available in supermarkets. It may be packaged in several ways, including, glass jars, tins and it is also sold in serving-size small plastic cups. Apple sauce is made by cooking down apples with water or apple cider to the required level, more acidic apples will render a finer purée, the highly acidic Bramley apple is popular for creating a very fine purée. Apples may or may not be peeled, sugar, spices, apple butter is similar to apple sauce, but has a high cider to apple ratio, of 8 liters to 100 kilograms. Apple sauce was once a food prepared for winter, since it keeps well and it is often an accompaniment to a main course. In Sweden and Britain, for instance, apple sauce is usually eaten as a condiment for roast pork, in Germany it accompanies potato pancakes. In France where it is referred to as compote, it is viewed as a dessert and served at room temperature. In Portugal as well, maçã cozida is solely viewed as a dessert and it has been suggested that it can substitute for fat in baking. Since it is high in pectin, apple sauce is a remedy to combat diarrhea. Apple sauce is thus a component of the regimen devised to help children with diarrhea and stomach problems, also known as the BRAT diet, bananas, rice, apple sauce, and toast
34.
Dessert
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Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
35.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth
36.
Fruit curd
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Fruit curd is a dessert spread and topping usually made with citrus fruit, such as lemon, lime, orange or tangerine. Other flavor variations include passion fruit, mango, and berries such as raspberries, cranberries or blackberries. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth. Some recipes also include egg whites and/or butter, homemade lemon curd was usually made in relatively small amounts as it did not keep as well as jam. In more modern times, larger quantities became possible because of the use of refrigeration, commercially manufactured curds often contain additional preservatives and thickening agents. Contemporary commercially made curds remain a popular spread for bread, scones, toast, waffles, crumpets, pancakes and they can also be used as a flavoring for desserts or yoghurt. Lemon curd can also have whipped cream folded into it for uses as filling cream puffs. Curds differ from pie fillings or custards in that they contain a proportion of juice and zest. Also, curds containing butter have a smoother and creamier texture than both pie fillings and custards, which little or no butter and use cornstarch or flour for thickening. Additionally, unlike custards, curds are not usually eaten on their own, List of dessert sauces List of lemon dishes and beverages
37.
Wolfberry
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Goji, goji berry, or wolfberry is the fruit of either the Lycium barbarum or Lycium chinense, two closely related species of boxthorn in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The family also includes the potato, tomato, eggplant, belladonna, chili pepper, the two species are native to Asia. Wolfberry species are deciduous woody plants, growing 1–3 m high. L. chinense is grown in the south of China and tends to be shorter, while L. barbarum is grown in the north, primarily in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Wolfberry leaves form on the shoot either in an arrangement or in bundles of up to three, each having either a lanceolate or ovate shape. Leaf dimensions are 7.0 cm long by 3.5 cm broad with blunted or rounded tips, the flowers grow in groups of one to three in the leaf axils. The calyx consists of bell-shaped or tubular sepals forming short, triangular lobes, the corollae are lavender or light purple, 9–14 mm wide with five or six lobes shorter than the tube. The stamens are structured with filaments longer than the anthers, in the Northern Hemisphere, flowering occurs from June through September and berry maturation from August to October, depending on the latitude, altitude, and climate. These species produce a bright orange-red, ellipsoid berry 1–2 cm in diameter, the number of seeds in each berry varies widely based on cultivar and fruit size, containing 10–60 tiny yellow seeds that are compressed with a curved embryo. The berries ripen from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere, Lycium, the genus name, is derived from the ancient southern Anatolian region of Lycia. The fruit is known in pharmacological references as Lycii fructus, which is Latin for Lycium fruit, wolfberry, a commonly used English name, has unknown origin, perhaps confusion over the genus name, Lycium, which resembles lycos, the Greek word for wolf. In the English-speaking world, the name goji berry has been used starting around 2000, the word goji is an approximation of the pronunciation of gǒuqǐ, the name for L. chinense in several Chinese dialects, including Hokkien and Shanghainese. In the official classification, L. barbarum is known as matrimony vine, since the early 21st century, interest has increased in wolfberries for their novelty and supposed nutrient value. They have been termed a superfruit, which has led to a profusion of consumer products, in traditional medicine, the whole fruit or its extracts are said to have numerous implied health effects, which remain scientifically unconfirmed as of 2014. In Zhongning County, Ningxia, wolfberry plantations typically range between 40 and 400 hectares in area, as of 2005, over 10 million mu have been planted with wolfberries in Ningxia. Commercial volumes of wolfberries grow in the Chinese regions of Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi. When ripe, the oblong, red berries are tender and must be picked carefully or shaken from the vine into trays to avoid spoiling. The fruits are preserved by drying them in full sun on open trays or by mechanical dehydration employing a progressively increasing series of heat exposure over 48 hours, wolfberries are celebrated each August in Ningxia with an annual festival coinciding with the berry harvest
38.
Cultivar
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The term cultivar most commonly refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characteristics that are maintained during propagation. More generally, cultivar refers to the most basic classification category of cultivated plants governed by the ICNCP, most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild. Popular ornamental garden plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber. Cultivars form a part of Liberty Hyde Baileys broader grouping. Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is regarded as a portmanteau of cultivated and variety. A cultivar is not the same as a variety, a taxonomic rank below subspecies. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents, the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct, uniform and stable, to be distinct, it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be uniform and stable, the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation, a cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language, for example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum King Edward. The King Edward part of the name is the cultivar epithet, the origin of the term cultivar arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation. This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Father of Botany, botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced changes and of the importance of genetic constitution. In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the known to him. Most of the listed by Linnaeus were of garden origin rather than being wild plants. Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild, and those with variations that had produced in cultivation. In the nineteenth century many garden-derived plants were given names, sometimes in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and it is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin. However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word, and it has suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety
39.
Royal Horticultural Society
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The Royal Horticultural Society was founded in 1804 in London, England, as the Horticultural Society of London, and gained its present name in a Royal Charter granted in 1861. The Royal Horticultural Society is the UKs leading gardening charity and claims to be the world’s largest gardening charity, the RHS quotes its charitable purpose as The encouragement and improvement of the science, art and practice of horticulture in all its branches. The current Director General is Sue Biggs, the charity promotes horticulture through flower shows such as the RHS Chelsea Flower Show, Hampton Court Palace Flower Show, RHS Tatton Park Flower Show and RHS Cardiff Flower Show. It also supports training for professional and amateur gardeners, the creation of a British horticultural society was suggested by John Wedgwood in 1800. The society would also award prizes for gardening achievements, Wedgwood discussed the idea with his friends, but it was four years before the first meeting, of seven men, took place, on 7 March 1804 at Hatchards bookshop in Piccadilly, London. Banks proposed his friend Thomas Andrew Knight for membership, the proposal was accepted, despite Knights ongoing feud with Forsyth over a plaster for healing tree wounds which Forsyth was developing. Knight was President of the society from 1811–1838, and developed the societys aims, in 2009, more than 363,000 people were members of the society, and the number increased to more than 414,000 in 2013. Membership and fellowship of the society were previously decided by election, Fellowship may be secured through a suggested £5,000 donation each year. Members and Fellows of the Royal Horticultural Society are entitled to use the post-nominal letters MRHS and FRHS, respectively. The Royal Horticultural Societys four major gardens in England are, Wisley Garden, near Wisley in Surrey, Rosemoor Garden in Devon, Hyde Hall in Essex and Harlow Carr in Harrogate, the Societys first garden was in Kensington, from 1818–1822. In 1821 the society leased part of the Duke of Devonshires estate at Chiswick to set up an experimental garden, from 1827 the society held fêtes at the Chiswick garden, and from 1833, shows with competitive classes for flowers and vegetables. In 1861 the RHS developed a new garden at South Kensington on land leased from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, the Chiswick garden was maintained until 1903–1904, by which time Sir Thomas Hanbury had bought the garden at Wisley and presented it to the RHS. RHS Garden Wisley is thus the societys oldest garden, Rosemoor came next, presented by Lady Anne Berry in 1988. Hyde Hall was given to the RHS in 1993 by its owners Dick, Dick Robinson was also the owner of the Harry Smith Collection which was based at Hyde Hall. The most recent addition is Harlow Carr, acquired by the merger of the Northern Horticultural Society with the RHS in 2001 and it had been the Northern Horticultural Societys trial ground and display garden since they bought it in 1949. In 2013, more than 1.63 million people visited the four gardens, in 2015, the RHS announced plans for a fifth garden at Worsley New Hall, Greater Manchester, under the name RHS Garden Bridgewater. The RHS is well known for its flower shows which take place across the UK. The most famous of these shows being the RHS Chelsea Flower Show and this is followed by the Hampton Court Palace Flower Show and RHS Tatton Park Flower Show in Cheshire
40.
Award of Garden Merit
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The Award of Garden Merit is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society. It is based on assessment of the performance under UK growing conditions. The Award of Garden Merit is a mark of quality awarded, since 1922, awards are made annually after plant trials intended to judge the plants performance under UK growing conditions. Trial reports are available as booklets and on the RHS website. Awards are reviewed annually in case plants have become unavailable horticulturally, the AGM should not be confused with the RHS Award of Merit, given to plants deemed of great merit for exhibition i. e. for show, not garden, plants. The AGM was reviewed in 1992, to increase its usefulness, field trial results gained weight in the assessments and existing AGM plants were reviewed in the light of more recent experience. The AGMs were to be reviewed at 10 year intervals from 1992, the 2012/13 review, with advice from experts such as RHS plant committees, specialist societies, Plant Heritage National Collection holders and others, resulted in many changes. Nearly 1,900 plants lost their AGMs and more than 1,400 plants gained awards, the AGM symbol represents a cup-shaped trophy with handles
41.
Geoffrey Chaucer
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Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first poet to be buried in Poets Corner of Westminster Abbey, among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales, Chaucers work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and his father and grandfather were both London vintners, several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffreys father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure. In the City Hustings Roll 110,5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the Kings Works. In 1359, in the stages of the Hundred Years War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeths husband. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released. After this, Chaucers life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward IIIs queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford and it is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had a career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France. Thomass daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk, thomass great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffreys other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IVs coronation, Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple at this time and he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment and he travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, two other literary stars of the era were in attendance, Jean Froissart and Petrarch
42.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
43.
Timon of Athens
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Timon of Athens is a play by William Shakespeare, published in the First Folio and probably written in collaboration with another author, most likely Thomas Middleton, in about 1605–1606. It is about the fortunes of an Athenian named Timon, the central character is a well beloved citizen of Athens who through tremendous generosity spends his entire fortunes on corrupt hangers-on only interested in getting the next payout. The earliest known production of the play was in 1674, when Thomas Shadwell wrote an adaptation under the title The History of Timon of Athens, multiple other adaptations followed over the next century, by writers such as Thomas Hull, James Love and Richard Cumberland. The straight Shakespearean text was at Smock Alley in Dublin in 1761, Timon of Athens was originally grouped with the tragedies, but some scholars name it one of the problem plays. In the beginning, Timon is a wealthy and generous Athenian gentleman and he hosts a large banquet, attended by nearly all the main characters. Timon gives away money wastefully, and everyone wants to him to get more, except for Apemantus. He accepts art from Poet and Painter, and a jewel from the Jeweller, Timons servant, Lucilius, has been wooing the daughter of an old Athenian. The man is angry, but Timon pays him three talents in exchange for the couple being allowed to marry, because the happiness of his servant is worth the price, Timon is told that his friend, Ventidius, is in debtors prison. He sends money to pay Ventidiuss debt, and Ventidius is released, Timon gives a speech on the value of friendship. The guests are entertained by a masque, followed by dancing, as the party winds down, Timon continues to give things away to his friends, his horses, and other possessions. The act is divided arbitrarily into two scenes but the experimental and/or unfinished nature of the play is reflected in that it does not naturally break into a five-act structure. Now Timon has given all his wealth. Shadowing Timon is another guest at the banquet, the cynical philosopher Apemantus and he was the only guest not angling for money or possessions from Timon. Along with a Fool, he attacks Timons creditors when they show up to make their demands for immediate payment, Timon cannot pay, and sends out his servants to make requests for help from those friends he considers closest. Timons servants are turned down, one by one, by Timons false friends, elsewhere, one of Alcibiadess junior officers has reached an even further point of rage, killing a man in hot blood. Alcibiades pleads with the Senate for mercy, arguing that a crime of passion should not carry as severe a sentence as premeditated murder, the senators disagree, and, when Alcibiades persists, banish him forever. He vows revenge, with the support of his troops, the act finishes with Timon discussing with his servants the revenge he will carry out at his next banquet. Timon hosts a party, intended only for those he feels have betrayed him
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