1.
The Mildenhall Treasure
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The Mildenhall Treasure is a non-fiction work written by British author Roald Dahl. Unlike his later work, the story is not childrens fiction and it tells the story of the discovery in 1946 near Mildenhall in Suffolk of the Mildenhall Treasure, now held in the British Museum. It was first published in the Saturday Evening Post magazine in the U. S. in 1946. and was first published in form in the story collection The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar. It was published as a single edition in 1999 by Jonathan Cape. The British author, shortly before he became a pilot in the RAF. In a note before the story, Dahl explains how he read in the newspaper about a remarkable find of Roman silver. Very interested, a few later he drove to Mildenhall to interview the ploughman involved. Later he decided to re-publish the story, with a few tweaks, due to Dahls friendship with a busy and hard working married man, the first version shows too much of Dahls indignation against Sidney Ford. He simply entitled the new version ‘The Mildenhall Treasure’, because this was not the first time the story had an airing. In fact it was one of the first pieces of journalism he ever sold as a writer in the immediate post-war years to an American magazine called ‘The Saturday Evening Post’. After it was published in America, Dahl sent half the money to Butchers family, the Roman Silver pieces with pagan themes from East Anglia were discovered by Gordon Butcher while ploughing with motor changing agricultural practices during the Second World War, in January 1942. The ploughman had been the one hired to do the job and he was working for Sydney Ford at the time, although the landowner was another. Butcher supposedly did not recognise the objects for what they were, Butcher was deprived of the pieces by Ford. The story is non fiction, and in Dahls version of events, Ford was fully aware of the significance of the find and he kept it and restored it in secret, but two of the spoons left out were seen by an unexpected visitor, Dr. Hugh Fawcett. The treasure was turned over to the police, who started an investigation, an inquest was held in the summer of 1946. As a result, Butcher was deprived of the ex gratia reward made to finders of buried gold or silver. The find was declared treasure trove and acquired by the British Museum in London, eventually the finders were declared to be Ford and Butcher, who each received a thousand pounds compensation. Richard Hobbs, curator of the British Museum, drew the attention of the world to the importance of the fictionalised account by Roald Dahl
2.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
3.
Silver
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Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
4.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
5.
Mildenhall, Suffolk
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Mildenhall is a small market town and civil parish in Suffolk, England. It is part of the district of Forest Heath and has a population of 9,906 people. The town is near the A11 and is located 60 km north-west of county town, the large Royal Air Force base, RAF Mildenhall as well as RAF Lakenheath, are located north of the town. The former is used by the United States Air Force, as the headquarters of its 100th Air Refueling Wing, Mildenhall centres on a market place with a 16th-century hexagonal market cross and town pump. The towns market is here on every Friday and originated as a weekly chartered market in, it is believed. In 1934, Mildenhall was the point of the MacRobertson Air Race to Melbourne. Due to the airbase, Mildenhall currently has the highest concentration of American residents in the country, the town has a bus station which was completed in 2005. Regular bus services run to the towns of Brandon, Bury St. Edmunds, Newmarket. National Express operate daily services to Norwich, London, Heathrow, Gatwick. Mildenhall railway station was the terminus of the Cambridge to Mildenhall railway until its closure in 1962, Mildenhall has three schools, two primary schools, St. Marys and Great Heath and one secondary school, Mildenhall College Academy. The secondary school also contains a sixth form, Mildenhall has a Non-League football club who play at Recreation Way. It also has one of the leading cricket clubs, Mildenhall Cricket Club. In 2016 the 1XI won the Two Counties Championship and was promoted to the East Anglian Premier Cricket League, notable players have included England international Tymal Mills, England Lions Tom Westley and Essex Womens Lilly Reynolds. There is a centre on Bury Road which is about 5–10 minutes away from the town square. Mildenhall is perhaps most famous for the discovery in 1942 of the Mildenhall Treasure, now at the British Museum, the treasure is a hoard of Roman silver objects buried in the 4th century. The Mildenhall Museum in the centre of the town contains displays of history and wildlife, the history of the RAF base. Entrance is free, opening times vary throughout the year, the region between Devils Dyke and the line between Littleport and Shippea Hill shows a remarkable amount of archaeological findings of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Mildenhall parish council website Mildenhall and area community and information website Poor parishioners in 16th century Mildenhall
6.
Treasure trove
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Osmosis is a solitaire game played with a deck of 52 playing cards where the object, like many solitaire games, is to put the cards into foundations, although not in numerical order. Game play consists of four, vertically arranged reserve piles of four cards each, a seventeenth card is put in the first of four foundations, which are also arranged vertically to the right of the reserve piles. Cards with the suit as this card must be moved to this foundation. The other three foundations are built by suit, but must begin with cards of the same rank as the first card of the top foundation. Foundation piles are fanned from left to right, all undealt cards make up the stock. To begin, the top cards in each pile are the only cards in play. A card can be moved to a if a card of the same value has already been placed in the foundation above it. Once all possible cards have been placed in the foundations, the next face-down cards remaining in the piles are turned face-up. When placing cards from the piles is no longer possible, one can use the stock. One can redeal the stock as long as there are possible moves from the stock or from the piles to the foundations. Heres an example, Suppose that from the example above, any card can be moved to the top foundation. One can also place 10♠ into its foundation, but one cannot put 2♦ yet into its foundation because 2♠ hasnt turned up yet in its foundation, no club can be placed at this time as the 7♣ hasnt appeared. The game is won when all cards have been moved to the foundations, but winning any game relies on where cards are positioned in the reserve piles and in the stock pile. Because of this, finishing a game of Osmosis can be difficult, Peek is another solitaire card game using a deck of 52 playing cards. It is played exactly as Osmosis except all the cards in this games reserve piles are face-up, goodsol Development Inc. released a computer version called Pretty Good Solitaire. This computer version includes Osmosis and Peek, plus over 800 other games as well, network created a computer version called Osmosis Peek SoliTaire. NorthernBytes Software released a version of this solitaire game called Card Shark Collection™. This version includes Osmosis and a few other solitaire games, tesseract Mobile created a mobile version called Solitaire Free Pack
7.
Hoxne Hoard
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The objects are now in the British Museum in London, where the most important pieces and a selection of the rest are on permanent display. In 1993, the Treasure Valuation Committee valued the hoard at £1.75 million. The hoard was buried as an oak box or small chest filled with items in metal, sorted mostly by type with some in smaller wooden boxes. Remnants of the chest, and of such as hinges. The coins of the date it after AD407, which coincides with the end of Britain as a Roman province. The owners and reasons for burial of the hoard are unknown, but it was carefully packed and the contents appear consistent with what a single very wealthy family might have owned. Given the lack of large silver serving vessels and of some of the most common types of jewellery, the Hoxne Hoard contains several rare and important objects, including a gold body-chain and silver-gilt pepper-pots, including the Empress pepper pot. The Hoxne Hoard is also of archaeological significance because it was excavated by professional archaeologists with the items largely undisturbed. The find helped to improve the relationship between metal detectorists and archaeologists, and influenced a change in English law regarding finds of treasure. The hoard was discovered in a field of a farm, about 2.4 kilometres southwest of the village of Hoxne in Suffolk, on 16 November 1992. Peter Whatling, the tenant farmer, had lost a hammer and asked his friend Eric Lawes, while searching the field with his metal detector, Lawes discovered silver spoons, gold jewellery and numerous gold and silver coins. After retrieving a few items, he and Whatling notified the landowners, the following day, a team of archaeologists from the Suffolk Archaeological Unit carried out an emergency excavation of the site. The entire hoard was excavated in a day, with the removal of several large blocks of unbroken material for laboratory excavation. The area within a radius of 30 metres from the spot was searched using metal detectors. Peter Whatlings missing hammer was also recovered and donated to the British Museum, the hoard was concentrated in a single location, within the completely decayed remains of a wooden chest. Some items had been disturbed by burrowing animals and ploughing, the excavated hoard was taken to the British Museum. The discovery was leaked to the press, and on 19 November, although the full contents of the hoard and its value were still unknown, the newspaper article claimed that the hoard was worth £10 million. In response to the publicity, the British Museum held a press conference at the museum on 20 November to announce the discovery
8.
Roald Dahl
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Roald Dahl was a British novelist, short story writer, poet, screenwriter, and fighter pilot. His books have more than 250 million copies worldwide. He rose to prominence in the 1940s with works for children and adults and he became one of the worlds best-selling authors. He has been referred to as one of the greatest storytellers for children of the 20th century and his awards for contribution to literature include the 1983 World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement, and the British Book Awards Childrens Author of the Year in 1990. In 2008, The Times placed Dahl 16th on its list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945 and his books champion the kind-hearted, and feature an underlying warm sentiment. Dahls works for children include James and the Giant Peach, Charlie and his adult works include Tales of the Unexpected. Roald Dahl was born in 1916 at Villa Marie, Fairwater Road, in Llandaff, Cardiff, Wales, to Norwegian parents, Harald Dahl, Dahls father had emigrated to the UK from Sarpsborg in Norway, and settled in Cardiff in the 1880s. His mother came over and married his father in 1911, Dahl was named after the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen. His first language was Norwegian, which he spoke at home with his parents and his sisters Astri, Alfhild, Dahl and his sisters were raised in the Lutheran faith, and were baptised at the Norwegian Church, Cardiff, where their parents worshipped. In 1920, when Dahl was three years old, his sister, Astri, died from appendicitis. Weeks later, his father died of pneumonia at the age of 57, Dahl first attended the Cathedral School, Llandaff. This was known among the five boys as the Great Mouse Plot of 1924, a favourite sweet among British schoolboys between the two World Wars, Dahl would later refer to gobstoppers in his literary creation, Everlasting Gobstopper. Thereafter, he transferred to a school in England, St Peters in Weston-super-Mare. Roalds parents had wanted him to be educated at an English public school and, because of a regular ferry link across the Bristol Channel. His time at St Peters was an unpleasant experience for him and he was very homesick and wrote to his mother every week but never revealed to her his unhappiness. Only after her death in 1967 did he find out that she had saved every single one of his letters, in 2016, to mark the centenary of Dahls birth, his letters to his mother were abridged and broadcast as BBC Radio 4s Book of the Week. Dahl wrote about his time at St Peters in his autobiography Boy, from 1929, he attended Repton School in Derbyshire. There are echoes of these experiences in Dahls writings and his hatred of cruelty
9.
Spoon (liturgy)
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It is also called a cochlear, Latin for spoon. In Western Christianity a perforated spoon is used to any foreign particulate matter that falls into the wine. It is one of the items, in Western Christian Churches, by the 9th century, the Church began to use the Communion spoon for the same practical reasons, and it is this practice that remains in place today. In the Byzantine Rite, when it time for the Communion of the faithful, the Lamb is cut into smaller portions and placed in the chalice. In this way, the faithful receive both the Body and the Blood of Christ, without taking the Mysteries into their hands. At the end of the Liturgy, the deacon will use the Spoon to consume the remaining Gifts, since the Spoon is one of the Sacred Vessels it is usually kept on the Table of Oblation, where the bread and wine are prepared for the Eucharist. Often when a Chalice and Diskos are made, an Asterisk, Spoon, because it touches the Body and Blood of Christ, the liturgical spoon should be made of gold, or at least be gold plated. The Spoon is also used to prepare the Presanctified Gifts at the Sunday Liturgies during Great Lent, the priest will take up the Lamb in his left hand and hold it over the Chalice. With the Spoon in his hand, he will pour some of the Blood of Christ onto the underside of the Lamb. The Spoon, being an object, may not be used for any purpose other than the liturgical uses for which it is appointed. The spoon is often found as part of the ware of the altar. This is also true for the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Holy Spoon and Proper Hygiene article by the Orthodox Research Institute
10.
Oceanus
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Strictly speaking, Oceanus was the ocean-stream at the Equator in which floated the habitable hemisphere. Thus, the sun rises from the deep-flowing Oceanus in the east, in Greek mythology, this world-ocean was personified as a Titan, the eldest son of Uranus and Gaia. In Hellenistic and Roman mosaics, this Titan was often depicted as having the body of a muscular man with a long beard and horns. In Roman mosaics, such as that from Bardo he might carry a steering-oar, some scholars believe that Oceanus originally represented all bodies of salt water, including the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, the two largest bodies known to the ancient Greeks. Oceanus consort is his sister Tethys, and from their union came the ocean nymphs, also referred to as the three-thousand Oceanids, and all the rivers of the world, fountains, and lakes. In most variations of this myth, Oceanus also refused to side with Cronus in the revolt against their father. R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *-kay-an-, when Odysseus and Nestor walk together along the shore of the sounding sea they address their prayers to the great Sea-god who girdles the world. It is to Oceanus, not to Poseidon, that their thoughts are directed, Heracles forced Helios to lend him his golden bowl, in order to cross the wide expanse of the Ocean on his trip to the Hesperides. When Oceanus tossed the bowl about, Heracles threatened him and stilled his waves, the journey of Heracles in the sun-bowl upon Oceanus became a favored theme among painters of Attic pottery. Oceanus appears in Hellenic cosmography as well as myth, cartographers continued to represent the encircling equatorial stream much as it had appeared on Achilles shield. Apollonius of Rhodes calls the lower Danube the Keras Okeanoio in Argonautica, accion in the fourth century Gaulish Latin of Rufus Avienus, Ora maritima, was applied to great lakes. At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the island of Alba, sacred to the Pelasgian Apollo. Hecateus of Abdera refers to Apollos island from the region of the Hyperboreans and it was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles, in a hilly tumulus, was buried. Leto, the Hyperborean goddess, after nine days and nine nights of labour on the island of Delos gave birth to the god of the antique light. Old Romanian folk songs sing of a monastery on a white island with nine priests, nine singers, nine altars. Oceanid Ogyges Rasā Uranus Aeschylus, Persians, edited and translated by Alan H. Sommerstein. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press,2009, online version at Harvard University Press. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, London, William Heinemann Ltd.1921
11.
Nereid
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In Greek mythology, the Nereids are sea nymphs, the 50 daughters of Nereus and Doris, sister to Nerites. They often accompany Poseidon, the god of the sea, and can be friendly and helpful to sailors, Nereids are particularly associated with the Aegean Sea, where they dwelt with their father Nereus in the depths within a golden palace. The most notable of them are Thetis, wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles, Amphitrite, wife of Poseidon, and Galatea and they symbolized everything that is beautiful and kind about the sea. Their melodious voices sang as they danced around their father and they are represented as very beautiful girls, crowned with branches of red coral and dressed in white silk robes trimmed with gold, but who went barefoot. They were part of Poseidons entourage and carried his trident, in Homers Iliad XVIII, when Thetis cries out in sympathy for the grief of Achilles for the slain Patroclus, her sisters appear. The Nereid Opis is mentioned in Virgils Aeneid and she is called by the goddess Diana to avenge the death of the Amazon-like female warrior Camilla. Diana gives Opis magical weapons for revenge on Camillas killer, the Etruscan Arruns, Opis sees and laments Camillas death and shoots Arruns in revenge as directed by Diana. In modern Greek folklore, the term nereid has come to be used for all nymphs, fairies, or mermaids, Nereid, a moon of the planet Neptune, is named after the Nereids. This list is correlated from four sources, Homers Iliad, Hesiods Theogony, the Bibliotheca, because of this, the total number of names goes beyond fifty
12.
Triton (mythology)
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Triton is a mythological Greek god, the messenger of the sea. He is the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, god and goddess of the sea respectively and he is usually represented as a merman where he has the upper body of a human and the tail of a fish, sea-hued, according to Ovid his shoulders barnacled with sea-shells. Like his father, Poseidon, he carried a trident, however, Tritons special attribute was a twisted conch shell, on which he blew like a trumpet to calm or raise the waves. Its sound was such a cacophony, that when blown, it put the giants to flight. According to Hesiods Theogony, Triton dwelt with his parents in a palace in the depths of the sea. The story of the Argonauts places his home on the coast of Libya, when the Argonauts were lost in the desert, he guided them to find the passage from the river back to the sea. Triton was the father of Pallas and foster parent to the goddess Athena, Pallas was killed by Athena accidentally during a sparring fight between the two goddesses. Triton can sometimes be multiplied into a host of Tritones, daimones of the sea, in the Virgils Aeneid, book 6, it is told that Triton killed Misenus, son of Aeolus, by drowning him after he challenged the gods to play as well as he did. Over time, Tritons class and image came to be associated with a class of creatures, the Tritons, which could be male or female. Tritons were a race of sea gods and goddesses born from Triton, Triton lived with his parents, Poseidon and Amphitrite, who was also known as Celaeno, in a golden palace on the bottom of the sea. According to Homer it was called Aegae, unlike their ancestor Poseidon who is always fully anthropomorphic in ancient art, Tritons lower half is that of a fish, while the top half is presented in a human figure. This is debated often because their appearance is described throughout history. Ordinary Tritons were described in detail by the traveller Pausanias, the Tritons have the following appearance. On their heads they grow hair like that of marsh frogs not only in color, the rest of their body is rough with fine scales just as is the shark. Under their ears they have gills and a nose, but the mouth is broader. Their eyes seem to me blue, and they have hands, fingers, under the breast and belly is a tail like a dolphins instead of feet. They are often compared to other Merman/Mermaid like beings, such as Merrows, Selkies and they are also thought of as the aquatic versions of Satyrs. Another description of Tritons is that of the Centaur-Tritons, also known as Ichthyocentaurs who are depicted with two feet in place of arms
13.
Thiasos
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In Greek mythology and religion, the thiasus, was the ecstatic retinue of Dionysus, often pictured as inebriated revelers. Many of the myths of Dionysus are connected with his arrival in the form of a procession, the grandest such version was his triumphant return from India, which influenced symbolic conceptions of the Roman triumph and was narrated in rapturous detail in Nonnus Dionysiaca. In this procession, Dionysus rides a chariot, often drawn by big cats such as tigers, leopards, the thiasos of the sea god Poseidon is depicted as a triumphal wedding procession with Amphitrite, attended by figures such as sea nymphs and hippocamps. In historical Greek society, thiasoi were religious organizations whose existence was protected by law, the most significant members of the thiasus were the human female devotees, the maenads, who gradually replaced immortal nymphs. In Greek vase-paintings or bas-reliefs, lone female figures can be recognized as belonging to the thiasus by their brandishing the thyrsos, other regulars of the retinue were various nature spirits, including the sileni, phalluses much in evidence, satyrs, and Pan. The ithyphallic sileni are often shown dancing on vase paintings, the tutor of Dionysus is represented by a single aged Silenus. The retinue is sometimes shown being brought before a recipient, the tragic human welcomer of the gift of wine, Ikarios or Semachos. In the triumphal form of procession, Ariadne sometimes rides with Dionysus as his consort, heracles followed the thiasus for a short while following his loss of a drinking contest to Dionysus. On the 6th-century BC François Vase, Dionysus is accompanied in procession by the three Horae, other notable depictions in art include the silver Great Dish from the Mildenhall Treasure, the Lycurgus Cup, and in the Renaissance Titians Bacchus and Ariadne. The Dionysian retinue was a subject for Roman art, especially bas-reliefs. The marine or sea thiasos depicted Poseidon and his retinue, an original work of Skopas on this theme was taken to Rome and lost, but the scene is well represented in Roman art, from tiny decorative reliefs and large sarcophagus panels to extensive mosaics
14.
Bacchus
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Dionysus is the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness, fertility, theatre and religious ecstasy in ancient Greek religion and myth. Wine played an important role in Greek culture, and the cult of Dionysus was the religious focus for its unrestrained consumption. He may have been worshipped as early as c, 1500–1100 BC by Mycenean Greeks, traces of Dionysian-type cult have also been found in ancient Minoan Crete. His origins are uncertain, and his cults took many forms, some are described by ancient sources as Thracian, in some cults, he arrives from the east, as an Asiatic foreigner, in others, from Ethiopia in the South. He is a god of epiphany, the god that comes and his festivals were the driving force behind the development of Greek theatre. The earliest cult images of Dionysus show a male, bearded and robed. He holds a staff, tipped with a pine-cone and known as a thyrsus. Later images show him as a beardless, sensuous, naked or half-naked androgynous youth, in its fully developed form, his central cult imagery shows his triumphant, disorderly arrival or return, as if from some place beyond the borders of the known and civilized. His procession is made up of female followers and bearded satyrs with erect penises, some are armed with the thyrsus. The god himself is drawn in a chariot, usually by exotic beasts such as lions or tigers and this procession is presumed to be the cult model for the followers of his Dionysian Mysteries. He is also known as Bacchus, the adopted by the Romans. His thyrsus, sometimes wound with ivy and dripping with honey, is both a beneficent wand and a used to destroy those who oppose his cult and the freedoms he represents. As Eleutherios, his wine, music and ecstatic dance free his followers from self-conscious fear and care and those who partake of his mysteries are possessed and empowered by the god himself. The cult of Dionysus is also a cult of the souls, his maenads feed the dead through blood-offerings and he is sometimes categorised as a dying-and-rising god. Some scholars believe that Dionysus is a syncretism of a local Greek nature deity, Dionysus had a strange birth that evokes the difficulty in fitting him into the Olympian pantheon. His mother was a woman, Semele, the daughter of king Cadmus of Thebes, and his father was Zeus. Zeus wife, Hera, discovered the affair while Semele was pregnant, appearing as an old crone, Hera befriended Semele, who confided in her that Zeus was the actual father of the baby in her womb. Hera pretended not to believe her, and planted seeds of doubt in Semeles mind, curious, Semele demanded of Zeus that he reveal himself in all his glory as proof of his godhood
15.
Hercules
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Hercules is the Roman adaptation of the Greek divine hero Heracles, who was the son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmene. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures, the Romans adapted the Greek heros iconography and myths for their literature and art under the name Hercules. In later Western art and literature and in culture, Hercules is more commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick. This article provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the later tradition, Hercules is known for his many adventures, which took him to the far reaches of the Greco-Roman world. One cycle of these adventures became canonical as the Twelve Labours, one traditional order of the labours is found in the Bibliotheca as follows, Slay the Nemean Lion. Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis, clean the Augean stables in a single day. Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon. Steal the apples of the Hesperides, Hercules was a favorite subject for Etruscan art, and appears often on bronze mirrors. The Etruscan form Herceler derives from the Greek Heracles via syncope, a mild oath invoking Hercules was a common interjection in Classical Latin. Hercules had a number of myths that were distinctly Roman, one of these is Hercules defeat of Cacus, who was terrorizing the countryside of Rome. The hero was associated with the Aventine Hill through his son Aventinus, Mark Antony considered him a personal patron god, as did the emperor Commodus. Roman brides wore a belt tied with the knot of Hercules. The comic playwright Plautus presents the myth of Hercules conception as a sex comedy in his play Amphitryon, during the Roman Imperial era, Hercules was worshipped locally from Hispania through Gaul. Tacitus records a special affinity of the Germanic peoples for Hercules, in chapter 3 of his Germania, Tacitus states. They say that Hercules, too, once visited them, and they have also those songs of theirs, by the recital of this barditus as they call it, they rouse their courage, while from the note they augur the result of the approaching conflict. For, as their line shouts, they inspire or feel alarm, some have taken this as Tacitus equating the Germanic Þunraz with Hercules by way of interpretatio romana. In the Roman era Hercules Club amulets appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, distributed over the empire, mostly made of gold, a specimen found in Köln-Nippes bears the inscription DEO HER, confirming the association with Hercules
16.
Satyr
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In Greek mythology, a satyr is one of a troop of ithyphallic male companions of Dionysus with goat-like features and often permanent erection. Early artistic representations sometimes include horse-like legs, but in 6th-century BC black-figure pottery human legs are the most common, in Roman Mythology there is a concept similar to satyrs, with goat-like features, the faun, being half-man, half-goat, who roamed the woods and mountains. In myths they are associated with pipe-playing. Greek-speaking Romans often used the Greek term saturos when referring to the Latin faunus, the satyrs chief was Silenus, a minor deity associated with fertility. These characters can be found in the complete remaining satyr play, Cyclops, by Euripides. The satyr play was a short, lighthearted tailpiece performed after each trilogy of tragedies in Athenian festivals honoring Dionysus, there is not enough evidence to determine whether the satyr play regularly drew on the same myths as those dramatized in the tragedies that preceded. The groundbreaking tragic playwright Aeschylus is said to have especially loved for his satyr plays. Mature satyrs are depicted in Roman art with goats horns. As Dionysiac creatures they are lovers of wine and women, because of their love of wine, they are often represented holding wine cups, and they appear often in the decorations on wine cups. Attic painted vases depict mature satyrs as being built with flat noses, large pointed ears, long curly hair. Satyrs often carry the thyrsus, the rod of Dionysus tipped with a pine cone, in earlier Greek art, Silenos appear as old and ugly, but in later art, especially in Hellenistic art, he is softened into a more youthful and graceful aspect. This transformation or humanization of the Satyr appears throughout late Greek art, another example of this shift occurs in the portrayal of Medusa and in that of the Amazon, characters who are traditionally depicted as barbaric and uncivilized. A humanized Satyr is depicted in a work of Praxiteles known as the Resting Satyr, Praxiteles gives a new direction to the satyr in art. Although not mentioned by Homer, in a fragment of Hesiods works satyrs are called brothers of the nymphs and Kuretes. In the Dionysus cult, male followers are known as satyrs, in Attica there was a species of drama dealing with the legends of gods and heroes, and the chorus was composed of satyrs and sileni. In the Athenian satyr plays of the 5th century BC, the chorus commented on the action and this satyric drama burlesqued the serious events of the mythic past with lewd pantomime and subversive mockery. One complete satyr play from the 5th century survives, the Cyclops of Euripides, the Satyr and the Traveller, one of Aesops Fables, features the satyr as the benevolent host for a traveler in the forest in winter. The satyr is bewildered by the claim to be able to blow hot and cold with the same breath, first to warm his hands, then to cool his porridge
17.
Silenus
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In Greek mythology, Silenus was a companion and tutor to the wine god Dionysus. He is typically older than the satyrs of the Dionysian retinue, the original Silenus resembled a folkloric man of the forest with the ears of a horse and sometimes also the tail and legs of a horse. The later sileni were drunken followers of Dionysus, usually bald and fat with thick lips and squat noses, later still, the plural sileni went out of use and the only references were to one individual named Silenus, the teacher and faithful companion of the wine-god Dionysus. A notorious consumer of wine, he was drunk and had to be supported by satyrs or carried by a donkey. Silenus was described as the oldest, wisest and most drunken of the followers of Dionysus, and was said in Orphic hymns to be the young gods tutor. This puts him in a company of phallic or half-animal tutors of the gods, a group that include Priapus, Hermaphroditus, Cedalion and Chiron, but also includes Pallas, when intoxicated, Silenus was said to possess special knowledge and the power of prophecy. The Phrygian King Midas was eager to learn from Silenus and caught the old man by lacing a fountain from which Silenus often drank, as Silenus fell asleep, the kings servants seized and took him to their master. Silenus shared with the king a pessimistic philosophy, That the best thing for a man is not to be born, an alternative story was that when lost and wandering in Phrygia, Silenus was rescued by peasants and taken to King Midas, who treated him kindly. In return for Midas hospitality Silenus told him some tales and Midas, enchanted by Silenus’s fictions, entertained him for five days, Dionysus offered Midas a reward for his kindness towards Silenus, and Midas chose the power of turning everything he touched into gold. Another story was that Silenus had been captured by two shepherds, and regaled them with wondrous tales, in Euripidess satyr play Cyclops, Silenus is stranded with the satyrs in Sicily, where they have been enslaved by the Cyclops. They are the elements of the story, a parody of Homers Odyssey IX. Silenus refers to the satyrs as his children during the play, Silenus commonly figures in Roman bas-reliefs of the train of Dionysus, a subject for sarcophagi, embodying the transcendent promises of Dionysian cult. The Papposilenus is a representation of Silenus that emphasizes his old age, in vase painting, his hair is often white, and as in statuettes he has a pot belly, flabby breasts and shaggy thighs. In these depictions, it is clear that the Papposilenus is an actor playing a part. His costuming includes a body stocking tufted with hair that seems to have come into use in the mid-5th century BC. This thought is indeed so old that the one who first uttered it is no known, it has been passed down to us from eternity. Moreover, you know what is so often said and passes for a trite expression and he answered, It is best not to be born at all, and next to that, it is better to die than to live, and this is confirmed even by divine testimony. Pertinently to this say that Midas, after hunting, asked his captive Silenus somewhat urgently
18.
Pan (god)
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In Greek religion and mythology, Pan is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature of mountain wilds and rustic music, and companion of the nymphs. His name originates within the ancient Greek language, from the word paein, meaning to pasture and he has the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, in the same manner as a faun or satyr. With his homeland in rustic Arcadia, he is recognized as the god of fields, groves, and wooded glens, because of this, Pan is connected to fertility. The ancient Greeks also considered Pan to be the god of theatrical criticism, in the 18th and 19th centuries, Pan became a significant figure in the Romantic movement of western Europe and also in the 20th-century Neopagan movement. Many modern scholars consider Pan to be derived from the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European god *Péh2usōn, the Hindu god Pushan is believed to be a cognate of Pan. The connection between Pan and Pushan was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar Hermann Collitz, the name Pan is probably also a cognate with the Greek word πάειν, meaning to pasture, which shares an origin with the modern English word pasture. In his earliest appearance in literature, Pindars Pythian Ode iii,78, Pan is associated with a mother goddess, perhaps Rhea or Cybele, Pindar refers to virgins worshipping Cybele and Pan near the poets house in Boeotia. In some early sources such as Pindar, his father is Apollo via Penelope, Herodotus, Cicero, Apollodorus and Hyginus all make Hermes and Penelope his parents. Pausanias 8.12.5 records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to her husband, other sources report that Penelope slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result. This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pans name with the Greek word for all, in the mystery cults of the highly syncretic Hellenistic era, Pan is made cognate with Phanes/Protogonos, Zeus, Dionysus and Eros. Accounts of Pans genealogy are so varied that it must lie buried deep in mythic time, like other nature spirits, Pan appears to be older than the Olympians, if it is true that he gave Artemis her hunting dogs and taught the secret of prophecy to Apollo. Pan might be multiplied as the Pans or the Paniskoi, Kerenyi notes from scholia that Aeschylus in Rhesus distinguished between two Pans, one the son of Zeus and twin of Arcas, and one a son of Cronus. In the retinue of Dionysos, or in depictions of landscapes, there appeared not only a great Pan, but also little Pans, Paniskoi. The worship of Pan began in Arcadia which was always the seat of his worship. Arcadia was a district of people, culturally separated from other Greeks. Greek hunters used to scourge the statue of the god if they had been disappointed in the chase. Being a rustic god, Pan was not worshipped in temples or other built edifices and these are often referred to as the Cave of Pan. In the 4th century BC Pan was depicted on the coinage of Pantikapaion, the goat-god Aegipan was nurtured by Amalthea with the infant Zeus in Athens
19.
Pan-pipes
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The pan flutes are a group of musical instruments based on the principle of the closed tube, consisting of multiple pipes of gradually increasing length. Multiple varieties of panflutes have long been popular as folk instruments, the pipes are typically made from bamboo, giant cane, or local reeds. Other materials include wood, plastic, metal and ivory, the pan flute is named after Pan, the Greek god of nature and shepherds often depicted with such an instrument. The pan flutes tubes are stopped at one end, at which the wave is reflected giving a note an octave lower than that produced by an open pipe of equal length. In the traditional South American style, pipes are fine-tuned to correct pitch by placing small pebbles or dry corn kernels into the bottom of the pipes, contemporary makers of curved Romanian-style panpipes use wax to tune new instruments. Special tools are used to place or remove the wax, corks and rubber stoppers are also used, and are easier to quickly tune pipes. The pan flute is an end-blown flute, sound is produced by the vibration of an air-stream blowing across an open hole at the end of a resonating tube. The length of the tube determines the fundamental frequency, an overblown harmonic register is near a 12th above the fundamental in cylindrical tubes, but can approach an octave jump if a decreasing taper is used. According to the Fundamental Principle for pan flutes, the frequency, every time the pitch goes up one octave, the frequency doubles. Because there are 12 notes in a scale or a full octave. By this, it is possible to calculate the length of any pipe, the formula for calculating the length of a pan flute pipe is L = /4. Because of a property of compression within the tube, the length must be a little shorter to correct flat pitch, the extra length is helpful for a maker, who can use a cork or plug at the bottom to adjust the pitch. Some instruments use wax or pellets to tune the fundamental pitch of each tube, a tube that has a diameter 1/10 of its length yields a typical tone colour. An inner diameter range between 1/7 and 1/14 of the length L is acceptable, a narrow tube will sound reedy, while a wide one will sound flutey. If you are a perfectionist, multiply the bore diameter by 0.82 and this compensates for internal compression slowing frequency and the lips partially covering the voicing. Only tiny adjustments will be needed then to adjust fundamental pitch for air density, the pan flute is played by blowing horizontally across an open end against the sharp inner edge of the pipes. Each pipe is tuned to a keynote, called the fundamental frequency, by overblowing, that is, increasing the pressure of breath and tension of lips, odd harmonics, near a 12th in cylindrical tubes, may also be produced. The Romanian pan flute has the pipes arranged in a curved array, an advanced player can play any scale and in any key
20.
Maenad
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In Greek mythology, maenads were the female followers of Dionysus and the most significant members of the Thiasus, the gods retinue. Their name literally translates as raving ones, often the maenads were portrayed as inspired by Dionysus into a state of ecstatic frenzy through a combination of dancing and intoxication. During these rites, the maenads would dress in fawn skins and carry a thyrsus and they would weave ivy-wreaths around their heads or wear a bull helmet in honor of their god, and often handle or wear snakes. They went into the mountains at night and practiced strange rites, according to Plutarchs Life of Alexander, maenads were called Mimallones and Klodones In Macedon, epithets derived from the feminine art of spinning wool. Nevertheless, these warlike parthenoi from the hills, associated with a Dionysios pseudanor fake male Dionysus, in southern Greece they were described with Bacchae, Bassarides, Thyiades, Potniades and other epithets. The term maenad has come to be associated with a variety of women, supernatural, mythological. In Euripides play The Bacchae, maenads of Thebes murder King Pentheus after he bans the worship of Dionysus, Dionysus, Pentheus cousin, himself lures Pentheus to the woods, where the maenads tear him apart. His corpse is mutilated by his own mother, Agave, who tears off his head, a group of maenads also kill Orpheus. In ceramic art, the frolicking of Maenads and Dionysus is often a theme depicted on kraters, used to mix water and these scenes show the maenads in their frenzy running in the forests, often tearing to pieces any animal they happen to come across. They strike rocks with the thyrsus, and water gushes forth and they lower the thyrsus to the earth, and a spring of wine bubbles up. If they want milk, they scratch up the ground with their fingers, honey trickles down from the thyrsus made of the wood of the ivy, they gird themselves with snakes and give suck to fawns and wolf cubs as if they were infants at the breast. No weapon of iron can wound them, and the snakes harmlessly lick up the sweat from their heated cheeks, fierce bulls fall to the ground, victims to numberless, tearing female hands, and sturdy trees are torn up by the roots with their combined efforts. Having symbolically eaten his body and drunk his blood, the celebrants became possessed by Dionysus, Maenads are found the later references as priestesses of the Dionystic cult. They will give to you both the rites and good practices, and they will establish dance groups of Bacchus in your city. Dionysus came to his birthplace, Thebes, where neither Pentheus, his cousin who was now king, nor Pentheus’ mother Agave, Dionysus punished Agave by driving her insane, and in that condition, she killed her son and tore him to pieces. From Thebes, Dionysus went to Argos where all the women except the daughters of King Proetus joined in his worship, Dionysus punished them by driving them mad, and they killed the infants who were nursing at their breasts. He did the same to the daughters of Minyas, King of Orchomenos in Boetia, according to Opian, Dionysus delighted, as a child, in tearing kids into pieces and bringing them back to life again. He is characterized as the one, and the mad one
21.
Niello
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Niello is a black mixture of copper, silver, and lead sulphides, used as an inlay on engraved or etched metal. The resulting design, called a niello, was of much higher contrast, during the 10th to 13th century AD, Kievan Rus craftsmen possessed a high degree of skill in jewelry making. John Tsetses, a 12th-century Byzantine writer, praised the work of Kievan Rus artisans and likened their work to the creations of Daedalus, the Kievan Rus technique for niello application was first shaping silver or gold by repoussé work, embossing, and casting. The heat of the furnace would blacken the niello and make the other stand out more vividly. During the Mongol invasion from 1237 to 1240 AD, nearly all of Kievan Rus was overrun, settlements and workshops were burned and razed and most of the craftsmen and artisans were killed. Afterwards, skill in niello and cloisonné enamel diminished greatly, the Ukrainian Museum of Historic Treasures, located in Kiev, has a large collection of nielloed items mostly recovered from tombs found throughout Ukraine. Nielloware jewelry and related items from Thailand were popular gifts from American soldiers taking R&R in Thailand to their girlfriends/wives back home from the 1930s to the 1970s, most of it was completely handmade jewelry. The technique is as follows, The artisan would carve a particular character or pattern into the silver and he would then use the niello inlay to fill in the background. After being baked in a fire, the alloy would harden. It would then be sanded smooth and buffed, finally, a silver artisan would add minute details by hand. Filigree was often used for additional ornamentation, Nielloware is classified as only being black and silver colored. Other colored jewelry originating during this time uses a different technique and is not considered niello, many of the characters shown in nielloware are characters originally found in the Hindu legend Ramayana. The Thai version is called Ramakien, important Thai cultural symbols were also frequently used. Collecting Thai jewelry is a hobby with many jewelry enthusiasts. The Kiev museum of historic treasures, overview of Siam Sterling Nielloware, Tampa, FL Dittell, C. Survey of Siam Sterling Nielloware, Bookbaby Publishers Maryon, Herbert, untracht, Oppi Metal techniques For Craftsmen, New York 1968. The Siam Sterling Nielloware Site Nielloware in Thailand Niello information site
22.
Solder
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Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent bond between metal workpieces. The word solder comes from the Middle English word soudur, via Old French solduree and soulder, from the Latin solidare, meaning to make solid. In fact, solder must be melted in order to adhere to and connect the pieces together, whenever possible, the solder should also be resistant to oxidative and corrosive effects that would degrade the joint over time. Solder that is intended for use in making connections between electronic components also usually has favorable electrical characteristics. Soft solder typically has a melting point range of 90 to 450 °C, and is used in electronics, plumbing. Manual soldering uses an iron or soldering gun. Alloys that melt between 180 and 190 °C are the most commonly used, soldering performed using alloys with a melting point above 450 °C is called hard soldering, silver soldering, or brazing. In specific proportions, some alloys can become eutectic — that is, non-eutectic alloys have markedly different solidus and liquidus temperatures, and within that range they exist as a paste of solid particles in a melt of the lower-melting phase. In electrical work, if the joint is disturbed in the pasty state before it has solidified totally, for electrical and electronics work, solder wire is available in a range of thicknesses for hand-soldering, and with cores containing flux. It is also available as a paste or as a preformed foil shaped to match the workpiece, alloys of lead and tin were commonly used in the past, and are still available, they are particularly convenient for hand-soldering. Lead-free solders have been increasing in use due to regulatory requirements plus the health and they are almost exclusively used today in consumer electronics. Plumbers often use bars of solder, much thicker than the used for electrical applications. Jewelers often use solder in thin sheets, which cut into snippets. In the US, manufacturers may receive tax benefits by reducing the use of lead-based solder, lead-free solders in commercial use may contain tin, copper, silver, bismuth, indium, zinc, antimony, and traces of other metals. Most lead-free replacements for conventional 60/40 and 63/37 Sn-Pb solder have melting points from 5 to 20 °C higher and it may be desirable to use minor modification of the solder pots used in wave-soldering, to reduce maintenance cost due to increased tin-scavenging of high-tin solder. Lead-free solder may be desirable for critical applications, such as aerospace and medical projects. Tin-Silver-Copper solders are used by two-thirds of Japanese manufacturers for reflow and wave soldering, tin-based solders readily dissolve gold, forming brittle intermetallics, for Sn-Pb alloys the critical concentration of gold to embrittle the joint is about 4%. Indium-rich solders are more suitable for soldering thicker gold layer as the rate of gold in indium is much slower
23.
Esquiline Treasure
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The Esquiline Treasure is an ancient Roman silver treasure that was found in 1793 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. The hoard is considered an important example of antique silver work from the 4th century AD. Since 1866,57 objects, representing the majority of the treasure, have been in the British Museum. Two of the most important objects in the treasure are the ornate silver-gilt engraved boxes known as the Projecta Casket, the treasure was part of the belongings of a wealthy Roman household of high social status, which can probably be identified. It has been observed that the majority of the major surviving late Roman silver hoards are in the British Museum and these items were found in the ruins of a Roman building, which was at that time in the premises of the monastery of San Francesco di Paola in Rome. The first official record of the finds was made one year after their discovery by the famous Italian classical archaeologist, the treasure passed through many hands before eventually being acquired by the French collector and one-time ambassador to Rome the Duc de Blacas. In 1866 his collection was sold in its entirety to the British Museum, however, two other items in the treasure can be found in the Musee du Petit Palais in Paris, and the Museo Nazionale in Naples. The so-called Projecta Casket is one of the most famous and magnificent examples of silver craftsmanship from late antiquity in Rome. It is partially gilded to highlight areas, and was made by the repoussé technique - that is the ornamented relief was achieved by means of pressing or pushing back the metal surface. The box is 55.9 cm long,28.6 cm high and 43.2 cm wide and has a weight of 8.2 kg, the base of the box has swinging handles at each end. The five panels on the lid of the box represent three mythological scenes, a portrait and a bathing scene. On the top panel of the lid are half-length figures of a man and woman within a wreath held by standing erotes, the attire of the two figures are clearly that of an affluent couple from late antiquity. The woman is wearing a tunic with a large necklace. In her hands she holds a roll of paper, the man is in a long-sleeved tunic that he wears under a chlamys. The four panels of the box itself depict bathing and dressing scenes and these are placed between columns joined by alternating arches and bottomless pediments, all under a frieze with scrolling vines. In one scene, Projecta is shown sitting on a chair holding a decorated box similar in shape to the Muse Casket. She wears a long-sleeved tunic under a colobium or short-sleeved tunic, a smaller inscription on the front rim of the lid gives the weight as XXII-III, meaning XXII, III, S or Twenty-two pounds, three and one-half ounces in Roman units. Another ornate object in the treasure is the Muse Casket, which is a silver box
24.
Traprain Law
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Traprain Law is a hill about 221m in elevation, located 6 km east of Haddington in East Lothian, Scotland. It is the site of an oppidum or hill fort, which covered at its maximum extent about 16 ha, whether it was a seasonal meeting place or permanent settlement is a matter of speculation. The hill was already a place of burial by around 1500 BC, the ramparts were rebuilt and re-aligned many times in the following centuries. Excavations have shown it was occupied in the Late Iron Age from about AD40 through the last quarter of the 2nd century. In the 1st century the Romans recorded the Votadini as a British tribe in the area and they emerged as a kingdom under the Brythonic version of their name Gododdin and Traprain Law is thought to have been their capital before moving to Din Eidyn. This hill was known as Traprain Law from the late 18th century. This is etymologically a Cumbric name cognate with Welsh tref farm, before that, it is found on old maps as Dunpendyrlaw. Locally, and particularly amongst fishermen who use it as a landmark and this name seems also to be etymologically Cumbric, cognate with Welsh din fort and pelydr spear shafts, thus meaning fort of the spear shafts. A team led by Curle and Cree began the first excavations in 1914 and continued them until 1923, finding layers of fragmentary stone, in 1919, Alexander Ormiston Curle recovered a hoard of Silver plate. Consisting of over 53 pounds of sliced-up Roman era silver, the discovery was made in a pit within the boundary of the settlement earlier uncovered. Four Gallic coins were discovered with the hoard, one of the emperor Valens, the quality of some of the items suggests that they may have come from as far afield as Rome, Ravenna, or possibly Antioch or Constantinople. Most objects had been crushed and hacked to pieces, and only some were left intact, a great deal of the find was table silver, but there was also early Christian items and remnants from a Roman officers uniform. It had originally thought that the objects had been brought back from a raid abroad. Later finds such as at Mildenhall, Suffolk showed that silverware of this nature was certainly in use in Roman Britain, a further suggestion is that it had been brought back on a raid by the Votadini across Hadrians Wall. Further excavations were made in 1939 by Cruden and in 1947 by Bersu, the collection was restored where appropriate and sent to the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh and now is in the care of the Royal Museum of Scotland. In legend, Traprain Law was the cliff from which Thenaw, saved by divine providence, she was transported by boat to Saint Serfs community in Culross, where she gave birth to Kentigern, later also known as Mungo. Up to 1891 Traprain Law was the origin of the 6 inch and 1,2500 Ordnance Survey maps of East Lothian, after that year the East Lothian maps were drawn according to the meridian of The Buck in Aberdeenshire. Age of spirituality, late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century,389,1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ISBN9780870991790 Great Sites, Trapain Law, Ian Armit, British Archaeology, February 2001
25.
Centaur
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A centaur, or occasionally hippocentaur, is a mythological creature with the upper body of a human and the lower body of a horse. The centaurs were usually said to have born of Ixion. Another version, however, makes them children of a certain Centaurus and this Centaurus was either himself the son of Ixion and Nephele or of Apollo and Stilbe, daughter of the river god Peneus. In the later version of the story his twin brother was Lapithes, ancestor of the Lapiths, Centaurs were said to have inhabited the region of Magnesia and Mount Pelion in Thessaly, the Foloi oak forest in Elis, and the Malean peninsula in southern Laconia. Another tribe of centaurs was said to have lived on Cyprus, according to Nonnus, they were fathered by Zeus, who, in frustration after Aphrodite had eluded him, spilled his seed on the ground of that land. Unlike those of mainland Greece, the Cyprian centaurs were horned, there were also the Lamian Pheres, twelve rustic daimones of the Lamos river. They were set by Zeus to guard the infant Dionysos, protecting him from the machinations of Hera, the Lamian Pheres later accompanied Dionysos in his campaign against the Indians. Centaurs subsequently featured in Roman mythology, and were familiar figures in the medieval bestiary and they remain a staple of modern fantastic literature. The strife among these cousins is a metaphor for the conflict between the lower appetites and civilized behavior in humankind, theseus, a hero and founder of cities, who happened to be present, threw the balance in favour of the right order of things, and assisted Pirithous. The Centaurs were driven off or destroyed, another Lapith hero, Caeneus, who was invulnerable to weapons, was beaten into the earth by Centaurs wielding rocks and the branches of trees. Centaurs are thought of in many Greek myths as wild as untamed horses, like the Titanomachy, the defeat of the Titans by the Olympian gods, the contests with the Centaurs typify the struggle between civilization and barbarism. The Centauromachy is most famously portrayed in the Parthenon metopes by Phidias, a painted terracotta centaur was found in the Heros tomb at Lefkandi, and by the Geometric period, centaurs figure among the first representational figures painted on Greek pottery. An often-published Geometric period bronze of a warrior face-to-face with a centaur is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in Greek art of the Archaic period, centaurs are depicted in three different forms. Some centaurs are depicted with a human torso attached to the body of a horse at the withers, where the neck would be. Class B centaurs are depicted with a body and legs, joined at the waist with the hindquarters of a horse. A third type, designated Class C, depicts centaurs with human forelegs terminating in hooves, Baur describes this as an apparent development of Aeolic art, which never became particularly widespread. At a later period, paintings on some amphoras depict winged centaurs, Centaurs were also frequently depicted in Roman art. The most common theory holds that the idea of centaurs came from the first reaction of a culture, as in the Minoan Aegean world
26.
Conch shell
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Conch is a common name that is applied to a number of different medium to large-sized sea snails or their shells. The term generally applies to large snails whose shell has a high spire, in North America, a conch is often identified as a queen conch, found off the coast of Florida. Queen conches are valued for fish bait, and are known as seafood. The group of conchs that are referred to as true conchs are marine gastropod molluscs in the family Strombidae, specifically in the genus Strombus. For example, see Lobatus gigas, the conch, and Laevistrombus canarium. Many other species are often called conch, but are not at all closely related to the family Strombidae, including Melongena species. Species commonly referred to as conchs also include the sacred chank or more correctly shankha shell, the English word conch is attested in Middle English, coming from Latin concha, which in turn comes from Greek konchē ultimately from PIE root *konkho-, cognate with Sanskrit śaṅkha. The meat of conchs is eaten raw in salads, or cooked, as in burgers, chowders, fritters, all parts of the conch meat are edible. In The Bahamas, conch is served in fritter form, or as a raw. In the West Indies, local people eat conch in soups, stews, restaurants all over the islands serve this particular meat. In the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Haiti, conch is commonly eaten in curries or in a spicy soup and it is locally referred to as lambi. In The Turks and Caicos Islands, the Annual Conch Festival is held in November each year, local restaurateurs compete for the best and most original conch dishes, that are then judged by international chefs. Free sampling of the dishes follows the judging, along with those festivities, other competitions, events, and music performances occur well into the evening. In Puerto Rico, conch is served as a ceviche, often called ensalada de carrucho, consisting of raw conch marinated in lime juice, olive oil, vinegar, garlic, green peppers and it is also used to fill empanadas. In East Asian cuisines, this seafood is often cut into thin slices, Conch shells can be used as wind instruments. They are prepared by cutting a hole in the spire of the shell near the apex, sometimes a mouthpiece is used, but some shell trumpets are blown without one. Many different kinds of mollusks can produce pearls, pearls from the queen conch, L. gigas, are rare and have been collectors items since Victorian times. In some gemological texts, non-nacreous gastropod pearls used to be referred to as calcareous concretions because they were porcellaneous, rather than nacreous, although non-nacreous, the surface of fine conch pearls has a unique and attractive appearance of its own
27.
Flange
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Thus flanged wheels are wheels with a flange on one side to keep the wheels from running off the rails. The term flange is used for a kind of tool used to form flanges. Pipes with flanges can be assembled and disassembled easily, a flange can also be a plate or ring to form a rim at the end of a pipe when fastened to the pipe. A blind flange is a plate for covering or closing the end of a pipe, a flange joint is a connection of pipes, where the connecting pieces have flanges by which the parts are bolted together. Surrey and York flanges fit to the top of the hot water tank allowing all the water to be taken without disturbance to the tank and they are often used to ensure an even flow of water to showers. An Essex flange requires a hole to be drilled in the side of the tank, there is also a Warix flange which is the same as a York flange but the shower output is on the top of the flange and the vent on the side. The York and Warix flange have female adapters so that they fit onto a male tank, a closet flange provides the mount for a toilet. There are many different flange standards to be found worldwide, to allow easy functionality and inter-changeability, these are designed to have standardised dimensions. Common world standards include ASA/ANSI/ASME, PN/DIN, BS10, and JIS/KS, in most cases these are interchangeable as most local standards have been aligned to ISO standards, however some local standards still differ. Further, many of the flanges in each standard are divided into pressure classes, again these are not generally interchangeable. These pressure classes also have differing pressure and temperature ratings for different materials, the ANSI/ASME pressure classes for Flat-Face flanges are 125# and 250#. The classes for Ring-Joint, Tongue & Groove, and Raised-Face flanges are 150#, 300#, 600#, 900#, 1500#, and 2500#. The flange faces are made to standardized dimensions and are typically flat face, raised face, tongue and groove, or ring joint styles. Flange designs are available as weld neck, slip-on, lap joint, socket weld, threaded, Pipe flanges that are made to standards called out by ASME B16.5 or ASME B16.47 are typically made from forged materials and have machined surfaces. B16.5 refers to nominal pipe sizes from ½ to 24, B16.47 covers NPSs from 26 to 60. However these classes do not correspond to maximum pressures in psi, instead, the maximum pressure depends on the material of the flange and the temperature. For example, the pressure for a Class 150 flange is 285 psi. The gasket type and bolt type are generally specified by the standard, however, sometimes the standards refer to the ASME Boiler and these flanges are recognized by ASME Pipe Codes such as ASME B31.1 Power Piping, and ASME B31.3 Process Piping
28.
Augusta Raurica
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Augusta Raurica is a Roman archaeological site and an open-air museum in Switzerland located on the south bank of the Rhine river about 20 km east of Basel near the villages of Augst and Kaiseraugst. It is the site of the oldest known Roman colony on the Rhine, Augusta Raurica, or Colonia Augusta Rauracorum, was founded by Lucius Munatius Plancus around 44 BC in the vicinity of a local Gallic tribe, the Rauraci, relatives of the Helvetii. Successful colonization of the site had to wait for Augustus conquest of the central Alps around 15 BC, the oldest find to date at Augusta Raurica has been dated to 6 BC by dendrochronology. The inscription on Munatius Plancus grave merely states the name of the colony as Colonia Raurica, a fragmentary inscription from the Augustinian period speaks of the Colonia P M naris merita ica. Apart from this reference, the first certain witness to the use of the name Augustus comes from the geographer Ptolemy in the Ancient Greek form Augústa Rauríkon. Augusta Raurica played an important role in Augustus plans of conquest with two other colonies that bear his name, Augusta Praetoria and Augusta Vindelicum, during excavations it was determined that the city was founded on a high plateau just south of the Rhine river. This point is the site of the Roman castrum, or military fortification, the city is, therefore, well-defended by steep slopes to the north, east, and west. The next step in planning the city was the surveying of the according to the architects plans for the city. Every important public building had its place, starting with the temple of Jupiter as the sacred high point from which the street network would spread. The architect, who was responsible for executing the plans for the city, other longitudinal streets were laid out parallel to the main street at intervals of 55 meters. The main street was divided into sections of 66 meters. This created a series of blocks of around 50 by 60 meters. The streets were laid on a bed of gravel and flanked by gutters on both sides. The more important roads featured covered sidewalks behind rows of columns, the limits of Colonia Raurica can no longer be determined with absolute accuracy. However the approximate boundaries can be determined by examining the extent of Augst in the Early Middle Ages, new research, based on tiles stamped with the mark of the Vindonissa Legion, indicates some administrative dependence on Vindonissa. This would indicate that the colony reached over the Bözberg toward Frick, the western boundary, was near the mouth of the Birs, possibly marked by a border station. Early Roman cremation remains, found in 1937 by the church in Neuallschwil, the Colonia Raurica, on the whole, contained the modern Canton of Basel, the Frick valley, and the eastern Jura Mountains of the Canton of Solothurn. The total area of the colony was around 700 km², by the 2nd century AD, Augusta Raurica was a prosperous commercial trading centre and, in its glory days, the capital of a local Roman province
29.
Hoxne hoard
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The objects are now in the British Museum in London, where the most important pieces and a selection of the rest are on permanent display. In 1993, the Treasure Valuation Committee valued the hoard at £1.75 million. The hoard was buried as an oak box or small chest filled with items in metal, sorted mostly by type with some in smaller wooden boxes. Remnants of the chest, and of such as hinges. The coins of the date it after AD407, which coincides with the end of Britain as a Roman province. The owners and reasons for burial of the hoard are unknown, but it was carefully packed and the contents appear consistent with what a single very wealthy family might have owned. Given the lack of large silver serving vessels and of some of the most common types of jewellery, the Hoxne Hoard contains several rare and important objects, including a gold body-chain and silver-gilt pepper-pots, including the Empress pepper pot. The Hoxne Hoard is also of archaeological significance because it was excavated by professional archaeologists with the items largely undisturbed. The find helped to improve the relationship between metal detectorists and archaeologists, and influenced a change in English law regarding finds of treasure. The hoard was discovered in a field of a farm, about 2.4 kilometres southwest of the village of Hoxne in Suffolk, on 16 November 1992. Peter Whatling, the tenant farmer, had lost a hammer and asked his friend Eric Lawes, while searching the field with his metal detector, Lawes discovered silver spoons, gold jewellery and numerous gold and silver coins. After retrieving a few items, he and Whatling notified the landowners, the following day, a team of archaeologists from the Suffolk Archaeological Unit carried out an emergency excavation of the site. The entire hoard was excavated in a day, with the removal of several large blocks of unbroken material for laboratory excavation. The area within a radius of 30 metres from the spot was searched using metal detectors. Peter Whatlings missing hammer was also recovered and donated to the British Museum, the hoard was concentrated in a single location, within the completely decayed remains of a wooden chest. Some items had been disturbed by burrowing animals and ploughing, the excavated hoard was taken to the British Museum. The discovery was leaked to the press, and on 19 November, although the full contents of the hoard and its value were still unknown, the newspaper article claimed that the hoard was worth £10 million. In response to the publicity, the British Museum held a press conference at the museum on 20 November to announce the discovery
30.
BBC Television
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BBC Television is a service of the British Broadcasting Corporation. The corporation has operated in the United Kingdom under the terms of a royal charter since 1927 and it produced television programmes from its own studios since 1932, although the start of its regular service of television broadcasts is dated to 2 November 1936. The BBCs domestic television channels have no advertising and collectively they account for more than 30% of all UK viewing. The services are funded by a television licence, the BBC operates several television networks, television stations, and related programming services in the United Kingdom. As well as being a broadcaster, the corporation also produces a number of its own programmes in-house. The simultaneous transmission of sound and pictures was achieved on 30 March 1930, by late 1930, thirty minutes of morning programmes were broadcast from Monday to Friday, and thirty minutes at midnight on Tuesdays and Fridays after BBC radio went off the air. Bairds broadcasts via the BBC continued until June 1932, the BBC began its own regular television programming from the basement of Broadcasting House, London, on 22 August 1932. Ally Pally housed two studios, various stores, make-up areas, dressing rooms, offices, and the transmitter itself. BBC television initially used two systems on alternate weeks, the 240-line Baird intermediate film system and the 405-line Marconi-EMI system. The use of both made the BBCs service the worlds first regular high-definition television service, it broadcast from Monday to Saturday between 15,00 and 16,00, and 21,00 and 22,00. The two systems were to run on a basis for six months, early television sets supported both resolutions. Television production was switched from Bairds company to what is now known as BBC One on 2 August 1932, regularly scheduled electronically scanned television began from Alexandra Palace in London on 2 November 1936, to just a few hundred viewers in the immediate area. The first programme broadcast – and thus the first ever, on a dedicated TV channel – was Opening of the BBC Television Service at 15,00, the first major outside broadcast was the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in May 1937. The service was reaching an estimated 25, 000–40,000 homes before the outbreak of World War II which caused the service to be suspended in September 1939. Also, many of the services technical staff and engineers would be needed for the war effort. According to figures from Britains Radio Manufacturers Association,18,999 television sets had been manufactured from 1936 to September 1939, BBC Television returned on 7 June 1946 at 15,00. Jasmine Bligh, one of the announcers, made the first announcement, saying. Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh, the Mickey Mouse cartoon of 1939 was repeated twenty minutes later
31.
Berthouville Treasure
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The Berthouville treasure is a hoard of Roman silver uncovered by ploughing in March 1830 at the hamlet of Villeret in the commune of Berthouville in the Eure département of Normandy, northern France. Purchased at the time of discovery for a modest 15,000 francs, the Berthouville hoard was discovered when a ploughshare struck a Roman tile. Once dislodged, the tile uncovered the buried temple treasure a mere 20 cm beneath the modern surface. The treasure belonged to a sanctuary of Mercury Canetonensis, in the mid 1st century BCE, Julius Caesar had identified Mercury as one of the main deities of Gaul. In his Gallo-Roman form Mercury is frequently found with a Gaulish epithet, the treasure consists of silver and other metalwork, of varying type, quality and dates in the 1st to late 2nd centuries of the Common Era. The trésor de Berthouville is one of three known depositories securely associated with local religious cult in Gaul and Britannia. The hoard was hidden in the late 2nd or early 3rd century, the find totaled 93 items, some of which were dissociated handles and silver appliqués, with a total weight of 25 kg. Most of the items are bowls, cups and jugs, there are also two silver statuettes of Mercury and a silver bust of a goddess, probably his mother Maia, perhaps representing Romanized versions of Gallic deities. The pairing of a Roman god with a Gallic goddess would be characteristic of Gallo-Roman religion, four of the bowls have incised emblematic designs associated with Mercury, and the formulaic Latin initialism VSLM, standing for votum solvit libens merito. Nine of the form a group of luxury domestic silver of 1st century date with iconographic connections to Dionysus rather than to Mercury. Domitius Tutus, they include a pair of silver drinking cups with Dionysiac imagery of centaurs. Excavations near the find-spot in 1861-62 and 1986 revealed a Gallo-Roman theatre, the restored treasure will be exhibited at the Getty Villa in 2014. Ch. Picard, Un cénacle littéraire hellénistique sur deux vases d argent du trésor de Berthouville-Bernay MonPiot 44, the Berthouville Silver Treasure and Roman Luxury
32.
Sevso Treasure
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The Sevso or Seuso Treasure is a hoard of silver objects from the late Roman Empire. The first pieces appeared on the market in London in 1980, documentation was provided in which it was stated that the treasure had been found in the Tyre and Sidon regions of Lebanon. The claims of ownership by these countries were rejected by a US court, scotland Yard still has an open case on the matter. On 26 March 2014 Prime Minister of Hungary Viktor Orbán announced that half of the Sevso Treasure had been bought by Hungary, the Prime Minister described the treasure as Hungarys family silverware. The origin and provenance of the treasure are likely known, the treasure trove consists of 14 large decorated silver vessels and the copper cauldron which contained them, and has been dated to the late 4th or early 5th century AD. The hoard first came to attention in 1980, when a piece in the possession of two antiquities dealers from Vienna was offered for sale in London. Further pieces reached the market, and what is believed to be the complete hoard was acquired by a consortium headed by Spencer Compton, 7th Marquess of Northampton. When that deal fell through, the treasure was put up for sale in New York in 1990 by Sothebys, the sale was halted when documentation was thought to be false, and the governments of Hungary, Yugoslavia and Lebanon each made claims of ownership. Hungarian authorities claim that the treasure was discovered by a soldier, József Sümegh. Sümeghs dead body was found in a cellar in 1980. The official investigation at the time determined that he had committed suicide, as of 2012 the criminal investigation is still ongoing. Yugoslavias case was based on claims that the treasure had originally found on 30 June 1960. The village is some 20 kilometres north of the city of Pula, according to local witnesses, the treasure had been discovered in old trenches in a nearby Yugoslav Peoples Army compound. In the 1980s the JNA gave permission to local archeologists, led by Vesna Girardi-Jurkić, however, very few details of the project were ever released to the public as the alleged site was entirely within a military area closed off to civilians. After the breakup of Yugoslavia the newly independent Croatia pressed on with the case, in November 1993, the New York Court of Appeals rejected the claims, and found no case for removing the treasure from the possession of the Marquess of Northampton 1987 Settlement. The silver was locked away in a vault while further legal proceedings followed. The Marquess sued his solicitors Allen & Overy for damages in relation to advice given during the purchase of the silver, and that case was settled out of court in 1999 for a reported £15 million. The Hungarian claim of possession of the Sevso Treasure is likely justified by the fact that on one of the plates, the Hunting Plate
33.
List of hoards in Britain
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The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. Hoards dating to Neolithic period, approximately 4000 to 2000 BC, comprise stone weapons, such hoards are very rare, and only a few are known from Britain. A large number of associated with the British Bronze Age. A smaller number of hoards include gold torcs and other items of jewellery, as coinage was not in use during the Bronze Age in Great Britain, there are no hoards of coins from this period. A large number of associated with the British Iron Age. Most of the hoards comprise silver or gold Celtic coins known as staters, usually numbered in the tens or hundreds of coins, although the Hallaton Treasure contained over 5,000 silver and gold coins. In addition to hoards of coins, a number of hoards of gold torcs and other items of jewellery have been found, including the Snettisham Hoard, Hoards associated with the Anglo-Saxon culture, from the 6th century to 1066, are relatively uncommon. Those that have been found include both hoards of coins and hoards of jewellery and metalwork such as sword hilts and crosses, the Staffordshire Hoard is the largest Anglo-Saxon hoard to have been found, comprising over 1,500 items of gold and silver. More Anglo-Saxon artefacts have been found in the context of grave burials than hoards in England and these include major finds from Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, Taplow in Buckinghamshire, Prittlewell, Mucking and Broomfield in Essex, and Crundale and Sarre in Kent. Hoards associated with Pictish culture, dating from the end of Roman occupation in the 5th century until about the 10th century, have found in eastern and northern Scotland. These hoards often contain silver brooches and other items of jewellery, most hoards from the post-medieval period, later than 1500, date to the period of the English Civil War, from which time over 200 hoards are known. List of hoards in Ireland List of hoards in the Channel Islands Barton, Caroline, Hitchcock, Fi, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Bland, Roger, ed. Treasure Annual Report 1998 -1999, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Gannon, Anna, Voden-Decker, Lisa, Bland, Roger, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Gannon, Anna, Voden-Decker, Lisa, Bland, Roger, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Hitchcock, Fi, ed. Treasure Annual Report 2004, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Lewis, Michael, ed. Portable Antiquities and Treasure Annual Report 2007, department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum
34.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
35.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
36.
Seven Ages of Britain (BBC series)
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Seven Ages of Britain is a BBC television documentary series written and presented by David Dimbleby. The seven part series was first aired on Sunday nights at 9, the series covers the history of Britains greatest art and artefacts over the past 2000 years. Each episode covers a different period in British history, in Australia, all seven episodes aired on ABC1 each Tuesday at 8, 30pm from 7 September 2010. Originally the series was to air in late 2009, but was later re-scheduled to early 2010, the HD edition of the show aired on BBC HD and repeats aired on BBC Two. In Summer 2009 artist Nathaniel Mellors was commissioned by the BBC to make a work of modern art to introduce the final episode of the series. The resultant work The Seven Ages of Britain Teaser features Dimbleby voicing a silicon mask cast from his own face, alongside actors Gwendoline Christie, Channel 4 had previously aired a series by the same title but covering a broader time period in 2003, presented by Bettany Hughes. The series has since picked up by the Discovery Channel. Seven Ages of Britain at BBC Online Seven Ages of Britain at the Open University
37.
Queen Elizabeth II Great Court
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It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 2000. It is the largest covered square in Europe, controversially, some of the stone in the court is from France, rather than being Portland Stone from southern England as agreed in the original contract with the masons. Within the Great Court, there are shops and a café, the court acts as a central linking point for the museum, somewhat like I. M. Peis Louvre Pyramid in Paris. The central courtyard of the British Museum was occupied by the British Library until 1997 when it moved to St Pancras, at that time the entire courtyard was filled with bookshelves, three stories high. To get from one side of the museum to the visitors had to go round. Once the Library had moved out, the bookstacks were cleared, a new ground level was created, a storey higher than the original courtyard, with the space below used to accommodate the Clore Education Centre and the African galleries. The South Portico was largely rebuilt, with two new lifts incorporated for disabled access to the levels of the museum. A new gridshell glass roof was provided over the courtyard to create a covered space at the centre of the museum. The British Library Reading Room at the centre of the courtyard was retained and refurbished for use as the Museum library and information centre. North of the Reading Room there is a block with a shop at ground level, a gallery for temporary exhibitions above. The Clore Education Centre is housed in the level of the Great Court. He supported the Museums global role, diagrid Thin-shell structure List of thin shell structures Great Court, British Museum including 360° panorama Sounds and video of the Great Court
38.
King's Library
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The Kings Library was one of the most important collections of books and pamphlets of the Age of Enlightenment. Assembled by George III, this library of over 65,000 volumes was subsequently given to the British nation by George IV. It was housed in a specially built gallery in the British Museum from 1827 to 1997, as a learned man, George III had a genuine regard for learning, developed under the influence of his tutor the Earl of Bute. On becoming king he began assembling a new collection of mainly scholarly works. Smith had been collecting in Venice for several decades, acquiring books from a range of sources in north Italy, the collection was notable for its 260 incunabula, including many early Venetian and north Italian volumes with fine illumination and bindings. In total the king bought 6,000 volumes from Smith and these were not kept together in George IIIs library, but nevertheless can be identified by the word Smith marked in each volume by the kings librarian. There do not seem to have any further large purchases before 1766. However, from 1766 onwards the king began to develop the collection significantly, a particularly important period was 1768-71, when Frederick Augusta Barnard, one of the library staff, travelled extensively in Europe on the kings behalf, and made major purchases. Important acquisitions later came from the libraries of James West, Anthony Askew, Richard Farmer, the Library was kept at the Queens House, the residence later to be extended and renamed Buckingham Palace. There it occupied four specially built rooms, from at least the 1770s bookbinding was carried out on the premises, and by 1776 the bindery occupied five rooms in the basement. The Library style of binding can be described as fine, Richard Dalton, employed as a librarian by George III from 1755 onwards, was in charge of the collection until 1774. He was followed by Barnard, who was librarian until the collections transfer to the British Museum. Samuel Johnson also advised on the Librarys collection policy, the Library was open to anyone with a genuine scholarly purpose, and in Georges lifetime was visited by John Adams and Joseph Priestley as well as Johnson. It is noteworthy that the king allowed scholars such as Priestley, whose political and religious opinions he disagreed with, to use the Library. These issues were resolved in January 1823 when, after a period of negotiation with the government, in the intervening period rumours had appeared in the British press that he was considering selling the library to the Tsar, it is not known if there was any truth in these. He specified that the library was to be together. The Museum lacked the room to house the collection, but fortunately plans for a significant neoclassical extension of the Museums buildings had already drawn up by the architect Robert Smirke. While the government had for some time resisted the Museums requests for money for this project, thus the arrival of the Kings Library was a catalyst for the growth of the Museum into the grand building we see today
39.
British Museum Reading Room
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The British Museum Reading Room, situated in the centre of the Great Court of the British Museum, used to be the main reading room of the British Library. In 1997, this moved to the new British Library building at St Pancras, London. Designed by Sydney Smirke and opened in 1857, the Reading Room was in use until its temporary closure for renovation in 1997. It was reopened in 2000, and from 2007 to 2014 it was used to temporary exhibitions. It has since been closed while its use remains under discussion. The building was designed by Sydney Smirke and was constructed between 1854 and 1857, the building used cast iron, concrete, glass and the latest technology in ventilation and heating. Book stacks built around the room were made of iron to take the huge weight. There were forty kilometres of shelving in the prior to the librarys relocation to the new site. The Reading Room was officially opened on 2 May 1857 with a breakfast laid out on the catalogue desks, a public viewing was held between 8 and 16 May which attracted over 62,000 visitors. Tickets to it included a plan of the library, regular users had to apply in writing and be issued a readers ticket by the Principal Librarian. G. Wells and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, in 1997 the British Library moved to its own specially constructed building next to St Pancras Station and all the books and shelving were removed. The Reading Room was reopened in 2000, allowing all visitors and it held a collection of 25,000 books focusing on the cultures represented in the museum along with an information centre and the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Centre. In 2007 the books and facilities installed in 2000 were removed, the general library for visitors moved to a room accessible through nearby Room 2, but closed permanently on 13 August 2011. This is a library that has also had distinguished users, including Thomas Babington Macaulay, William Thackeray, Robert Browning, Giuseppe Mazzini, Charles Darwin. In 2014, the British Museum opened its new World Conservation, the museum has been consulting on the future of the Reading Room, but as of June 2014, its future is still undecided. The British Museum Reading Room has become iconic and it is the subject of an eponymous poem, The British Museum Reading Room, by Louis MacNeice. Much of the action of David Lodges 1965 novel The British Museum Is Falling Down takes place in the old Reading Room, the Glass Ceiling of Anabel Donalds 1994 novel is the ceiling of the Reading Room, where the denouement is set. Alfred Hitchcock used the Reading Room and the dome of the British Museum as a location for the climax of his first sound film Blackmail
40.
Akan Drum
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The Akan Drum is a drum that was made in West Africa and was later found in the Colony of Virginia in North America. It is now the oldest African-American object in the British Museum, the drum is a reminder of all three continents involvement in the estimated twelve million people transported across the Atlantic as part of the slave trade. The drum is normally displayed in room 26, the drum is made from two species of wood that are native to sub-Saharan Africa, Baphia and Cordia africana. The latter fine-grained hardwood is known for its ability to be carved and its resonance, the drumskin came from a deer hide and was stretched over the wooden structure using vegetable fibre. The drum was made in the Ghana region of West Africa between 1700 and 1745, and is presumed to have travelled to America on board a slave ship. As all the left with nothing it is presumed that the drum was either brought by a member of the crew or possibly by a son of the African chief who had sold the slaves for transportation. To exercise their captives, the traders would dance the slaves. It is supposed that this was why the drum was transported, the word Akan refers to the culture in what is today Ghana and includes the Fante, Asante and Akuapem people. There is a striking but unexplained similarity between the phrase Akan Drum and the phrase Aiken Drum, used in British folksongs from the 18th century and this particular drum was obtained in Virginia by the Rev. Clerk on behalf of the British collector Sir Hans Sloane. Sloane had travelled through Jamaica and had observed at first hand slaves playing instruments including those that were to evolve into the banjo, Sloane gathered examples of the tools of slavery and other artifacts which included this drum. Sloane used his collection to found the British Museum in 1753, sloanes catalogue records this item as drum made of a hollowed tree carved the top being bracd wt. peggs & thongs wt. the bottom hollow from Virginia. In 1906, curators at the British Museum realised that the drum could not have created by Native Americans. In the 1970s, it possible to use expertise from Kew Gardens to determine that the wood was grown in Africa. The drum is thought to have originally been made for a musician in an African chiefs orchestra and this is the oldest African-American object in the British Museum and was part of its founding collection. This drum was chosen to be featured in A History of the World in 100 Objects, the drum has also been used as the lead object in a special display at the British Museum in 2010 called From Africa to America, drumming, slavery, music. The slave owners were unsure of how they should treat African music, on some plantations drums were banned
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Aubin Codex
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The Aubin Codex is a textual and pictorial history of the Aztecs from their departure from Aztlán through the Spanish conquest to the early Spanish colonial period, ending in 1607. Among other topics, the Aubin Codex has a description of the massacre at the temple in Tenochtitlan in 1520. Also called Manuscrito de 1576, this codex is held by the British Museum in London, a copy of the original is held at the Princeton University library in the Robert Garrett Collection there. British Museum. org, Aubin Codex — catalogue record, Reference number AN237162001, Codex Aubin, MSS279 Series 9 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University
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Benin Bronzes
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The Benin Bronzes are a group of more than a thousand commemorative metal plaques and sculptures that decorated the royal palace of the Benin Kingdom in modern-day Nigeria. In 1897, most of the plaques and other objects were removed by the British during an expedition to the area as imperial control was being consolidated in Southern Nigeria. Two hundred of the pieces were taken to the British Museum, London, today, a large number are held by the British Museum. Other notable collections are in Germany and the United States, the Benin Bronzes led to a greater appreciation in Europe of African culture and art. Initially and naively, it appeared incredible to the discoverers that people supposedly so primitive, some even concluded that Benin knowledge of metallurgy came from the Portuguese traders who were in contact with Benin in the early modern period. Today, it is clear that the bronzes were made in Benin from an indigenous culture, many of these dramatic sculptures date to the thirteenth century, centuries before contact with Portuguese traders, and a large part of the collection dates to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is believed that two golden ages in Benin metal workmanship occurred during the reigns of Esigie and of Eresoyen, while the collection is known as the Benin Bronzes, like most West African bronzes the pieces are mostly made of brass of variable composition. There are also made of mixtures of bronze and brass, of wood, of ceramic. The metal pieces were made using lost-wax casting and are considered among the best sculptures made using this technique, bronze and ivory objects had a variety of functions in the ritual and courtly life of the Kingdom of Benin. They were used principally to decorate the palace, which contained many bronze works. They were hung on the pillars of the palace by nails punched directly through them, as a courtly art, their principal objective was to glorify the Oba—the divine king—and the history of his imperial power or to honor the queen mother. Art in the Kingdom of Benin took many forms, of bronze and brass reliefs. In tropical Africa of the center, the technique of lost-wax casting was developed early. When a king died, his successor would order that a head be made of his predecessor. Approximately 170 of these sculptures exist, and the oldest date from the twelfth century, the Oba, or king, monopolized the materials that were most difficult to obtain, such as gold, elephant tusks, and bronze. These kings made possible the creation of the splendid Benin bronzes, thus, in 1939, heads very similar to those of the Benin Empire were discovered in Ife, the holy city of the Yoruba, which dated to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This discovery supported an earlier tradition holding that it was artists from Ife who had taught Benin the techniques of bronze metalworking, recognition of the antiquity of the technology in Benin advanced when these sculptures were dated definitively to that era. Few examples of African art had been collected by Europeans in the eighteenth century and this attitude changed after the Benin Expedition of 1897
