1.
Vichy France
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Vichy France is the common name of the French State headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. In particular, it represents the southern, unoccupied Free Zone that governed the southern part of the country, from 1940 to 1942, while the Vichy regime was the nominal government of France as a whole, Germany militarily occupied northern France. Thus, while Paris remained the de jure capital of France, following the Allied landings in French North Africa in November 1942, southern France was also militarily occupied by Germany and Italy. The Vichy government remained in existence, but as a de facto client and it vanished in late 1944 when the Allies occupied all of France. After being appointed Premier by President Albert Lebrun, Marshal Pétain ordered the French Governments military representatives to sign an armistice with Germany on 22 June 1940, Pétain subsequently established an authoritarian regime when the National Assembly of the French Third Republic granted him full powers on 10 July 1940. At that point, the Third Republic was dissolved, calling for National Regeneration, the French Government at Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy, with central planning a key feature. Labour unions came under government control. The independence of women was reversed, with a put on motherhood. Paris lost its status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June 1941, the French State maintained nominal sovereignty over the whole of French territory, but had effective full sovereignty only in the unoccupied southern zone libre. It had limited and only civil authority in the zones under military occupation. The occupation was to be a state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war. The French Government at Vichy never joined the Axis alliance, Germany kept two million French soldiers prisoner, carrying out forced labour. They were hostages to ensure that Vichy would reduce its forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food. French police were ordered to round up immigrant Jews and other such as communists. Public opinion in some quarters turned against the French government and the occupying German forces over time, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, and resistance to them increased. Most of the legal French governments leaders at Vichy fled or were subject to show trials by the GPRF, thousands of collaborators were summarily executed by local communists and the Resistance in so-called savage purges. The last of the French State exiles were captured in the Sigmaringen enclave by de Gaulles French 1st Armoured Division in April 1945, in 1940, Marshal Pétain was known as a First World War hero, the victor of the battle of Verdun
2.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
3.
Maquis du Vercors
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The Maquis du Vercors was a rural group of the French Forces of the Interior resistance that fought the 1940–1944 German occupation of France in World War II. The Maquis du Vercors used the prominent scenic plateau known as the Massif du Vercors as a refuge, many members of the maquis, known as maquisards, died fighting in 1944 in the Vercors Plateau. From 16 to 24 April 1944 the Milice attacked the village of Vassieux, burning several farms, nevertheless, the local population continued to support the Resistance movement. In his BBC speech, de Gaulle pronounced the famous line le chamois des Alpes bondit which signalled the 4,000 maquisards to begin the uprising. The Maquis returned to the traditional style of petite guerre, engaging in harassment. Reserve-Division of the Wehrmacht,4 reserve mountain light infantry battalions,2 reserve infantry battalions,2 reserve artillery batteries, other units, Kampfgruppe « Zabel »,3 Ost-Bataillonen, about 200 Feldgendarmen,1 security battalion,1 police battalion, about 400 paratroopers. According to Peter Lieb, two crashed and eight of them landed a bit further on, so the first wave of assault consisted only of about a hundred soldiers. Peter Lieb spécifies that the Kommandeur der Sipo-SD of Lyon, SS-Obersturmbannführer Werner Knab, was airborne on Vassieux on 21 July. Shot and wounded, he was evacuated in a Fieseler Fi 156 Storch on 24 July and he would have played an important part in the torture and the slaughter of the Maquisards of Vercors and the inhabitants of Vassieux. On 23 July 1944,3 Go-242 gliders, towed by bombers Heinkel-111, and 20 DFS-230 gliders transported one Ost-Kompanie, thomas and Ketley wrote that the Fallschirm-Kampfgruppe « Schäfer » was detached from Kampfgeschwader 200 on 8 June 1944. It was made up of volunteers out of Fallschirmjäger-Bewährungstruppe, mustered at Tangerhütte, günther Gellermann says that the Fallschirm-Kampfgruppe « Schäfer » was under Luftflotte 3 command and no longer under Kampfgeschwader 200 command. This followed the declaration of freedom from the German occupation in some towns, on 3 July 1944 the Free Republic of Vercors was proclaimed, the first democratic territory in France since the beginning of the German occupation in 1940. The Free Republic had its own flag, i. e. the French Republic tricolour featuring the Cross of Lorraine and the V for Vercors and Victory, and its coat of arms and it was a short-lived regime, it ceased to exist before the end of the month. Maquisards appealed to Free French agencies based in London and Algiers to supply them with arms and heavier weaponry to counter the German action. We shall not forget the bitterness of having been abandoned alone and without support in time of battle, the battle and the maquisards of Vercors also prominently feature in Frank Yerbys 1974 novel The Voyage Unplanned. French director Jean-Paul Le Chanoi made Au Coeur de lOrage, a documentary about the French Resistance during the Second World War, the movie, composed of Allied clandestine film recordings and German newsreel, focuses on the battle of the Vercors Plateau during July 1944. Four young Europeans meet with historians and witnesses of our past… They investigate the events of the Second World War in Germany, in France and in Russia. Maquis des Glières Maquis du Mont Mouchet French Resistance Free French Forces French Forces of the Interior Liberation of Paris List of French possessions and colonies
4.
Maquis du Mont Mouchet
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The Maquis du Mont Mouchet were a group of French resistance fighters during the Second World War. Based at Mont Mouchet, its goal was to delay the convergence of German forces in the south of France with those in Normandy, in order to aid the allies in the reconquest of France. The Germans, having discovered the maquis, made several attacks up until May 1944 with about 3,000 men and using aviation, little information is available on the German forces. Out of revenge for their previous losses, the Germans pillaged several of the surrounding villages, in the course of the battles, the French Forces of the Interior sustained severe losses,238 killed and 180 wounded as well as about 100 hostages executed by the Nazis
5.
Joseph Darnand
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Joseph Darnand was a French soldier, leader of the Vichy French collaborators with Nazi Germany and a Waffen-SS officer. Darnand was born at Coligny, Ain, Rhône-Alpes in France, on 8 January 1916, he enlisted in the 35th Infantry Regiment. He was promoted to corporal in April 1917, sergeant on 1 June 1917, demobilised after the armistice, he again enlisted for two years in the army in September 1919. After a stint in the army of occupation in Germany, he participated in the campaign against the forces of Kemal Atatürk in Cilicia and he ended his service in July 1921 as a sub-lieutenant. He worked as a cabinetmaker and later founded his own company in Nice. At the beginning of World War II, Darnand volunteered to join the French army and was commissioned as a lieutenant and he served in the Maginot Line and was decorated for bravery. During the Phoney War he took part in commando actions against German forces. He was captured in June 1940 but fled to Nice and he became a leading figure in the Vichy French organization Légion Francaise des combattants and recruited troopers for the fight against Bolshevism. The next year, he founded the collaborationist militia, Service dordre légionnaire and he offered his help against the French Resistance. On 1 January 1943 he transformed the organization into the Milice, although Pierre Laval was its official president, Darnand was its de facto leader. The last overture to the Free French was made in July 1943, after failing to join the Resistance, Darnand definitively turned to Nazi Germany and the next month was made an officer of the SS. Darnands turn to the SS was also influenced by the fact that miliciens were being targeted for assassination by the Resistance but Vichy and Wehrmacht authorities refused to arm the Milice. In joining the SS, Darnand took an oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler. In December 1943, he head of police and later secretary of the interior. Joseph Darnand expanded the Milice and by 1944 it had over 35,000 members, the organization played an important role in investigating the French Resistance. After the Normandy Invasion and Allied advance, Darnand fled to Germany in September 1944 and he received a promotion to Sturmbannführer on 1 November 1944. In April 1945, he had to flee from Sigmaringen to Meran in Northern Italy. Escape of Darnand Gerald Steinacher, „Ich mache Sie zum Erzbischof von Paris, wenn Sie uns helfen” Die Flucht der Vichy-Regierung nach Norditalien 1945, in, Der Schlern, Heft 1,2007, p. 23–35
6.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
7.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
8.
French Resistance
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The Résistance also planned, coordinated, and executed acts of sabotage on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and telecommunications networks. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944 and this burden amounted to approximately 20 million German reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect. Prices soared, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among children, the elderly. The labour shortage was worsened by the fact that a number of the French were also held as prisoners of war in Germany. Beyond these hardships and dislocations, the occupation became increasingly unbearable, onerous regulations, strict censorship, incessant propaganda and nightly curfews all played a role in establishing an atmosphere of fear and repression. The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers infuriated many French men, as reprisals for Résistance activities, the authorities established harsh forms of collective punishment. For example, the militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. A typical policy statement read, After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, during the occupation, an estimated 30,000 French civilian hostages were shot to intimidate others who were involved in acts of resistance. In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group and they worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. The group collaborated closely with the Nazis, and was the Vichy equivalent of the Gestapo security forces in Germany and their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Résistance suspects. After the liberation of France in the summer of 1944, the French executed many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens for their collaboration. Many of those who escaped arrest fled to Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS, the experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville, Many résistants often spoke of some climax when they saw some intolerable act of injustice, after which they could not longer remain passive. Barthelt recalled, I recognized him only by his hat, only by his hat, I tell you and because I was waiting on the roadside to see him pass. I saw his face all right, but there was no skin on it, both his poor eyes had been closed into two purple and yellow bruises. In the beginning, resistance was limited to such as severing phone lines, vandalizing posters. Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de lHomme which circulated clandestinely, the Musée de lHomme was founded by two professors, Paul Rivet and the Russian émigré Boris Vildé in July 1940
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
Pierre Laval
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Pierre Laval was a French politician. During the time of the Third Republic, he served as Prime Minister of France from 27 January 1931 to 20 February 1932, Laval began his career as a socialist, but over time drifted far to the right. Following Frances surrender and armistice with Germany in 1940, he served in the Vichy Regime, after the liberation of France in 1944, Laval was arrested by the French government under General Charles de Gaulle. In what some consider a flawed trial, Laval was found guilty of high treason. His manifold political activities have left a complicated and controversial legacy, Laval was born 28 June 1883 at Châteldon, Puy-de-Dôme, in the northern part of Auvergne. His father worked in the village as a proprietor, butcher and postman, he also owned a vineyard. Laval was educated at the school in Châteldon. At age 15, he was sent to a Paris lycée to study for his baccalauréat, returning south to Lyon, he spent the next year reading for a degree in zoology. Laval joined the Socialists in 1903, when he was living in Saint-Étienne,62 km southwest of Lyon, I was never a very orthodox socialist, he said in 1945, by which I mean that I was never much of a Marxist. My socialism was much more a socialism of the heart than a doctrinal socialism, I was much more interested in men, their jobs, their misfortunes and their conflicts than in the digressions of the great German pontiff. Laval returned to Paris in 1907 at the age of 24 and he was called up for military service and, after serving in the ranks, was discharged for varicose veins. In April 1913 he said, Barrack-based armies are incapable of the slightest effort, because they are badly-trained and, above all and he favoured abolition of the army and replacement by a citizens militia. During this period, Laval became familiar with the doctrines of Georges Sorel. In 1909, he turned to the law, shortly after becoming a member of the Paris bar, he married the daughter of a Dr Joseph Claussat and set up a home in Paris with his new wife. Their only child, a daughter called Josée Laval, was born in 1911, Josée married René de Chambrun, whose uncle, Nicholas Longworth III, married Alice Roosevelt, daughter of United States President Theodore Roosevelt. Although Lavals wife came from a family, she never participated in politics. Laval was generally considered to be devoted to his family, the years before the First World War were characterised by labour unrest, and Laval defended strikers, trade unionists, and left-wing agitators against government attempts to prosecute them. At a trade conference, Laval said, I am a comrade among comrades
11.
Summary execution
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A summary execution is an execution in which a person is accused of a crime and immediately killed without benefit of a full and fair trial. Under international law, refusal to accept lawful surrender in combat is also categorized as a summary execution, in nearly all civilian jurisdictions, summary execution is illegal, as it violates the right of the accused to a fair trial. This right shall be protected by law, no man shall be deprived of his life arbitrarily. Penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court, in practice, though, extrajudicial killings have been performed by police and domestic forces in various countries and times, sometimes under martial law. It is also performed by armed bands fighting against governments and common citizens, under military law, summary execution is illegal in almost all circumstances, as a military tribunal would be the competent judge needed to determine guilt and declare a sentence of death. However, there are exceptions to this rule in emergencies. However, some classes of combatants may not be accorded POW status, in the past, summary execution of pirates, spies, and francs-tireurs have been performed and considered legal under existing international law. Many of the victors, such as France, Poland. This was in fact the second Commando Order, the first being issued by Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt on July 21,1942, stipulating that parachutists should be handed over to the Gestapo. If they do not meet all of these, they may be considered francs-tireurs and punished as criminals in a military jurisdiction, soldiers who are wearing uniforms of the opposing army after the start of combat may be considered illegal combatants and subject to summary execution. Many armies have performed this kind of false flag ruse in the past, within a states policy, martial law may be declared in emergencies such as invasions or insurrections, and in such a case constitutionally protected rights would be suspended. Note that this would not include killing a suspect who is directly endangering anothers life, which police can always legally do, hence, these kinds of extraordinary acts are almost always seen as illegal violations of human rights. Disappearances Encounter killings by police Extrajudicial punishment Extrajudicial killing Nguyễn Văn Lém Retributive justice Rovetta massacre Vigilante
12.
Assassination
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Assassination is the murder of a prominent person, often a political leader or ruler, usually for political reasons or payment. The word assassin is believed to derive from the word Hashshashin. It referred to a group of Nizari Shia Persians who worked against various Arab, founded by the Persian Hassan-i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut in Iran from the 8th to the 14th centuries, and also controlled the castle of Masyaf in Syria. The group killed members of the Persian, Abbasid, Seljuq, the word for murder in many Romance languages is derived from this same root word. Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics and it dates back at least as far as recorded history. The Old Testament story of Judith illustrates how a woman frees the Israelites by tricking and assassinating Holofernes, a warlord of the rival Assyrians, with whom the Israelites were at war. King Joash of Judah was recorded as being assassinated by his own servants, Joab assassinated Absalom, King Davids son, chanakya wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman consul Julius Caesar. Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later, the practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Kes failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassination were performed by an individual or a small group, the earliest were the sicarii in 6 A. D. who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe and this account is, however, contentious among historians, it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes. The myth of the Curse of King Zvonimir is based on the legend of his assassination, in 1192, Conrad of Montferrat, the de facto King of Jerusalem, was killed by an assassin. The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland, William the Silent of the Netherlands, in Russia alone, two emperors, Paul I and his grandson Alexander II, were assassinated within 80 years. In the United Kingdom, only one Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has ever been assassinated—Spencer Perceval on May 11,1812. In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, there have been at least 20 known attempts on U. S. presidents lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated in September of 1935, the Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland. Adolf Hitler, meanwhile, was almost killed by his own officers, indias Father of the Nation, Mohandas K. Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30,1948, by Nathuram Godse
13.
One-party state
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All other parties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a limited and controlled participation in elections. One-party states explain themselves through various methods, most often, proponents of a one-party state argue that the existence of separate parties runs counter to national unity. Others argue that the one party is the vanguard of the people, the Soviet government argued that multiple parties represented the class struggle, which was absent in Soviet society, and so the Soviet Union only had one party, the Communist Party. Some one-party states only outlaw opposition parties, while allowing allied parties to exist as part of a permanent coalition such as a popular front. However, these parties are largely or completely subservient to the ruling party, examples of this are the Peoples Republic of China under the United Front, or the National Front in former East Germany. Others may allow non-party members to run for seats, as was the case with Taiwans Tangwai movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Within their own countries, dominant parties ruling over one-party states are referred to simply as the Party. One-party systems often arise from decolonization because one party has had a dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles. One-party states are often, but not always, considered to be authoritarian or totalitarian, however, not all authoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on one-party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and certain military dictatorships, have all political parties illegal. The term communist state is used in the West to apply to states in which the ruling party subscribes to a form of Marxism–Leninism. While the role of the Communist Party is enshrined in the constitution, no party is permitted to campaign or run candidates for election, the party was conceived by the original Black American settlers and their descendants who referred to themselves as Americo-Liberians. Initially, its ideology was influenced by that of the Whig Party in the United States. Over time it developed into a powerful Masonic Order that ruled every aspect of Liberian society for well over a century until it was overthrown in 1980, while the True Whig Party still exists today, its influence has substantially declined
14.
Bren light machine gun
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The Bren gun, usually called simply the Bren, was a series of light machine guns made by Britain in the 1930s and used in various roles until 1992. Although fitted with a bipod, it could also be mounted on a tripod or vehicle-mounted, the Bren was a licensed version of the Czechoslovak ZGB33 light machine gun, which in turn, was a modified version of ZB vz. 26, which British Army officials had tested during a firearms service competition in the 1930s, the later Bren featured a distinctive top-mounted curved box magazine, conical flash hider, and quick change barrel. The name Bren was derived from Brno, Moravia, the Czechoslovak city where the Zb vz.26 was originally designed, the original and main designer was Václav Holek, a gun inventor and design engineer. In the 1950s many Brens were rebarrelled to accept the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge and it was replaced in the British Army as the section LMG by the L7 general-purpose machine gun, a heavier belt-fed weapon. This was, in turn, supplemented in the 1980s by the L86 Light Support Weapon firing the 5. 56×45mm NATO round, the Bren is still manufactured by Indian Ordnance Factories as the Gun, Machine 7. 62mm 1B. At the close of the First World War in 1918, the British Army was equipped with two automatic weapons, the Vickers medium machine gun and the Lewis light machine gun. The Vickers was heavy and required a supply of water to keep it in operation, although the BAR was recommended, the sheer number of Lewis guns available and the difficult financial conditions meant that nothing was done. Various new models of machine gun were tested as they became available, and in 1930. This time the weapons tested included the SIG Neuhausen KE7, the Vickers-Berthier, following these trials, the British Army adopted the Czechoslovak ZB vz.26 light machine gun manufactured in Brno in 1935, although a slightly modified model, the ZB vz. 27, rather than the ZB vz.26 which had submitted for the trials. The design was modified to British requirements under new designation ZGB33, the magazine was curved in order to feed the rimmed.303 British cartridge, a change from the various rimless Mauser-design cartridges such as the 8mm Mauser round previously used by Czech designs. These modifications were categorised in various numbered designations, ZB vz,32, and finally the ZGB33, which was licensed for manufacture under the Bren name. The vented gas drove a piston which in turn actuated the breech block, each gun came with a spare barrel that could be quickly changed when the barrel became hot during sustained fire, though later guns featured a chrome-lined barrel which reduced the need for a spare. To change barrels, the catch in front of the magazine was rotated to unlock the barrel. The carrying handle above the barrel was used to grip and remove the hot barrel without burning the hands, the Bren was magazine-fed, which slowed its rate of fire and required more frequent reloading than British belt-fed machine guns such as the larger.303 Vickers machine gun. The magazines also prevented the ammunition from getting dirty, which was more of a problem with the Vickers with its 250-round canvas belts, the sights were offset to the left, to avoid the magazine on the top of the weapon. The position of the sights meant that the Bren could be fired only from the right shoulder, in the British and Commonwealth armies, the Bren was generally issued on a scale of one per rifle section, with three rifle sections in each platoon
15.
Torture
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Torture is the act of deliberately inflicting physical or psychological pain on an organism in order to fulfill some desire of the torturer or compel some action from the victim. Torture, by definition, is a knowing and intentional act, in other cases, the torturer may be indifferent to the condition of the victim. Alternatively, some forms of torture are designed to inflict pain or leave as little physical injury or evidence as possible while achieving the same psychological devastation. The torturer may or may not kill or injure the victim, depending on the aim, even a form of torture that is intentionally fatal may be prolonged to allow the victim to suffer as long as possible. Although torture is sanctioned by some states, it is prohibited under international law, although widely illegal and reviled there is an ongoing debate as to what exactly is and is not legally defined to be torture. It is a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Torture is also prohibited for the signatories of the United Nations Convention Against Torture, despite these findings and international conventions, organizations that monitor abuses of human rights report widespread use condoned by states in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which is currently in force since June 26,1987, provides a broad definition of torture. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or incidental to and this definition includes torture as part of domestic violence or ritualistic abuse, as well as in criminal activities. The Rome Statute is the treaty set up the International Criminal Court. The treaty was adopted at a conference in Rome on 17 July 1998. The Rome Statute provides a simplest definition of torture regarding the prosecution of war criminals by the International Criminal Court, since 1973, Amnesty International has adopted the simplest, broadest definition of torture. Title 18 of the United States Code contains the definition of torture in 18 U. S. C, §2340, which is only applicable to persons committing or attempting to commit torture outside of the United States. The Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991 provides remedies to individuals who are victims of torture by persons acting in a capacity of any foreign nation. The definition is similar to the U. S. Code §2340, Torture grew into an ornate discipline, where calibrated violence served two functions, to investigate and produce confessions and to attack the body as a form of punishment. Entire populaces of towns would show up to witness an execution by torture in the public square and those who had been spared torture were commonly locked barefooted into the stocks, where children took delight in rubbing feces into their hair and mouths. The Age of Enlightenment in the world further developed the idea of universal human rights. The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 marks the recognition at least nominally of a ban of torture by all UN member states
16.
Gestapo
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The Gestapo, abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, or the Secret State Police, was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe. The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various security agencies of Prussia into one organization. Then from 27 September 1939 forward, it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt and was considered an organization to the SS Sicherheitsdienst. This gave Göring command of the largest police force in Germany, soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the Geheime Staatspolizei, which was abbreviated for a stamp and became known as the Gestapo. He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office, and its first commander was Rudolf Diels, a protégé of Göring. Diels was appointed with the title of chief of Abteilung Ia of the Political Police of the Prussian Interior Ministry, Diels was best known as the primary interrogator of Marinus van der Lubbe after the Reichstag fire. In late 1933, the Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick wanted to integrate all the forces of the German states under his control. Göring outflanked him by removing the Prussian political and intelligence departments from the interior ministry. Göring himself took over the Gestapo in 1934 and urged Hitler to extend the agencys authority throughout Germany and this represented a radical departure from German tradition, which held that law enforcement was a Land and local matter. In this, he ran into conflict with Heinrich Himmler, who was chief of the second most powerful German state. Frick did not have the muscle to take on Göring by himself so he allied with Himmler, with Fricks support, Himmler took over the political police of state after state. Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to counteract the power of the Sturmabteilung, Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934. Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia, Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SS Security Service. Himmler wanted to free himself entirely from Roehm, who he viewed as an obstacle, roehms position was menacing as upwards of over 4. Several Nazi chieftains, among them Goering, Joseph Goebbels, Rudolf Hess, both the SD and Gestapo released information concerning an imminent putsch by the SA. Once persuaded, Hitler acted by setting Himmlers SS into action, on 17 June 1936, Hitler decreed the unification of all police forces in the Reich and named Himmler as Chief of German Police. This action effectively merged the police into the SS and removed it from Fricks control, Himmler was nominally subordinate to Frick as police chief, but as Reichsführer-SS, he answered only to Hitler
17.
Schutzstaffel
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The Schutzstaffel was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party in Nazi Germany. It began with a guard unit known as the Saal-Schutz made up of NSDAP volunteers to provide security for party meetings in Munich. In 1925, Heinrich Himmler joined the unit, which had by then been reformed, under his direction, it grew from a small paramilitary formation to one of the most powerful organizations in Nazi Germany. From 1929 until the collapse in 1945, the SS was the foremost agency of security, surveillance. The two main constituent groups were the Allgemeine SS and Waffen-SS, the Allgemeine SS was responsible for enforcing the racial policy of Nazi Germany and general policing, whereas the Waffen-SS consisted of combat units of troops within Nazi Germanys military. A third component of the SS, the SS-Totenkopfverbände, ran the concentration camps, additional subdivisions of the SS included the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst organizations. The SS was the organization most responsible for the killing of an estimated 5.5 to 6 million Jews. Members of all of its branches committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during World War II, the SS was also involved in commercial enterprises and exploited concentration camp inmates as slave labor. After Nazi Germanys defeat, the SS and the NSDAP were judged by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg to be criminal organizations, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the highest-ranking surviving SS officer at the time, was found guilty of crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials and hanged in 1946. By 1923, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler had created a volunteer guard unit known as the Saal-Schutz to provide security at their meetings in Munich. The same year, Hitler ordered the formation of a bodyguard unit dedicated to his personal service. He wished it to be separate from the mass of the party, including the paramilitary Sturmabteilung. The new formation was designated the Stabswache, originally the unit was composed of eight men, commanded by Julius Schreck and Joseph Berchtold, and was modeled after the Erhardt Naval Brigade, a Freikorps of the time. The unit was renamed Stoßtrupp in May 1923, the Stoßtrupp was abolished after the failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, an attempt by the NSDAP to seize power in Munich. In 1925, Hitler ordered Schreck to organize a new bodyguard unit and it was tasked with providing personal protection for Hitler at NSDAP functions and events. That same year, the Schutzkommando was expanded to an organization and renamed successively the Sturmstaffel. Officially, the SS marked its foundation on 9 November 1925, the new SS was to provide protection for NSDAP leaders throughout Germany. Hitlers personal SS protection unit was enlarged to include combat units
18.
Sten
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The STEN was a family of British submachine guns chambered in 9×19mm and used extensively by British and Commonwealth forces throughout World War II and the Korean War. They were notable for having a design and very low production cost making them effective insurgency weapons for resistance groups. STEN is an acronym, from the names of the chief designers. Shepherd and Harold Turpin, and EN for Enfield, over four million Stens in various versions were made in the 1940s. The Sten emerged while Britain was engaged in the Battle of Britain, the army was forced to replace weapons lost during the evacuation from Dunkirk while expanding at the same time. Prior to 1941 the British were purchasing all the Thompson submachine guns they could from the United States, the Americans entry into the war at the end of 1941 placed an even bigger demand on the facilities making Thompsons. In order to equip a sufficient fighting force to counter the Axis threat. Shepherd had been recalled to service after having retired and spending time at BSA. The Sten shared design features, such as its side-mounted magazine configuration, with the Royal Navys Lanchester submachine gun, in terms of manufacture, the Lanchester was entirely different, being made of high-quality materials with pre-war fit and finish, in stark contrast to the Stens austere execution. The Lanchester and Sten magazines were even interchangeable, the Sten used simple stamped metal components and minor welding, which required minimal machining and manufacturing. Much of the production could be performed by small workshops, with the firearms assembled at the Enfield site, over the period of manufacture the Sten design was further simplified, the most basic model, the Mark III, could be produced from five man-hours of work. Some of the cheapest versions were made from only 47 different parts and it was distinctive for its bare appearance, and its horizontal magazine. The Sten has been described as, highly unreliable, prone to jamming and it was unsuitable for guerrilla operations in open country because it encouraged waste of ammunition. But it was easy and cheap to produce – a gun was said to cost fifteen shillings – and was supplied to the Resistance in huge quantities, the Sten underwent various design improvements over the course of the war. Most changes to the process were more subtle, designed to give greater ease of manufacture. Build quality ranged from good to poor Sten guns of late 1942 and beyond were, in general, highly effective weapons. The Sten was replaced by the Sterling submachine gun from 1953 and was withdrawn from British service in the 1960s. The other Commonwealth nations made or adopted their own replacements, the Sten was a blowback-operated submachine gun firing from an open bolt with a fixed firing pin on the face of the bolt
19.
Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
20.
Franc-Garde
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The Franc-Garde was the armed wing of the French Milice and was taken alone or alongside German forces in major battles against the Maquis from late 1943 to August 1944. The Franc-Garde, soon announced the creation of the French Militia on 30 January 1943, was actually implemented June 2 the same year in Calabria camp near Vichy. Its field of action, initially confined to the free zone, was formally extended to the former occupied zone as of January 27,1944. His role was to support the national revolution undertaken by the Vichy government in predominantly involved in policing, but also assisting, inter alia and it was his review, The Assault. The first two were trained thirty piloted in cities where dissent was the most active, Lyon and Annecy, the names of thirty hundred and should not be misled on the real effective. For example, the trentaine dAnnecy, became hundred, had only 72 men in May 1944, in any case, even with the mobilization of volunteers in the spring and summer 1944, the size of the Franc-Garde never exceeded 4,000 men. In October - November 1944, facing the advance of allied troops, the Franc-Garde consisted of volunteers, aged 18 to 45 years old, who lived in barracks and were paid based on the official salary of a sergeant of the Police National. There were two hundred types, normal traveling on foot or bicycle and mobile with motorbikes, cars and trucks, uniform, The francs-gardes, the only militia in uniform, adopted the dark blue dress Alpine model 1941. The symbol of a white Greek letter gamma, on black, was used in a badge worn in the right buttonhole. In combat situations, usually in the fight against the guerrillas, armament, Because of the reluctance of the German Army, the Franc-Garde was only slowly and gradually armed. Finally, each Ten was equipped with two Sten submachine guns, the French MAC 24/29 machine gun and MAS36 rifles, following a German refusal, the Franc-Garde could never get heavy weapons, artillery or armored vehicles. In 1944, a Franc-Garde school was set up in Poitiers, jacques Delperrié de Bayac, Histoire de la Milice, 1918–1945, Fayard,1969, reprinted in paperback Marabout. Pierre Giolitto, Histoire de la Milice, Editions Perrin, collection Tempus,2002, david Littlejohn, Foreign Legions of the Third Reich, James Bender Publishing, USA1987. Pascal Ory, Les Collaborateurs 1940-1945, éditions du Seuil,1976, pascal Ory, Les Contributors 1940-1945, Editions du Seuil,1976. Secret police Joseph Darnands Service dordre légionnaire Maquis des Glières Maquis du Vercors
21.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
22.
Gamma
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Gamma is the third letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 3, in Ancient Greek, the letter gamma represented a voiced velar stop /ɡ/. In Modern Greek, this represents either a voiced velar fricative or a voiced palatal fricative. In the International Phonetic Alphabet and other modern Latin-alphabet based phonetic notations, the Greek letter Gamma Γ was derived from the Phoenician letter for the /g/ phoneme, and as such is cognate with Hebrew gimel ג. In Archaic Greece, the shape of gamma was closer to a classical lambda, letters that arose from the Greek gamma include Etruscan
23.
Aries (astrology)
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Aries /ˈɛəriːz/ is the first astrological sign in the zodiac, spanning the first 30 degrees of celestial longitude. Under the tropical zodiac, the Sun transits this sign mostly between March 21 and April 19 each year and this time duration is exactly the first month of Solar Hejri calendar. The symbol of the ram is based on the Chrysomallus, the ram that provided the Golden Fleece. According to the system of astrology, the Sun enters the sign of Aries when it reaches the northern vernal equinox. Since 1900 the vernal equinox date has ranged from March 20 at 08h GMT to March 21 at 19h GMT, March 19 at 23,20 will occur in 2044 UT1. Individuals born between these dates, depending on system of astrology they subscribe to, may be called Arians or Ariens. Aries is the first fire sign in the zodiac, the fire signs being Leo. In contrast, under the zodiac, the sun currently transits Aries from April 15 to May 14. In western astrology, Aries is a sign of initiative, a leader, with bravery, uncomfortable with inaction, Aries is the Cardinal sign of Fire, and thus is the zodiac of drive. Ruled by Mars, Aries is strongly autonomous, and can be headstrong and crass, with the Ram as their standard, Aries tends toward obstinate and self-seeking. Jaunty and self-supporting, Aries is capable of independence and this quality may encourage others to emulate—but Aries is unlikely to pause for supporters. When Aries is found in a chart, there is enthusiasm, people under the Aries sign are believed to be like a child who is frank, enthusiastic, fierce, bit hotheaded and loyal to their friends. Since Aries is the first astrological sign in spring during which everything comes to life, longitude of Sun, apparent geocentric ecliptic of date, interpolated to find time of crossing 0°, 30°
24.
Astrological sign
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In Western astrology, astrological signs are the twelve 30° sectors of the ecliptic, starting at the vernal equinox, also known as the First Point of Aries. The order of the signs is Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius. The concept of the zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology, and was influenced by Hellenistic culture. According to astrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of as above, so below, beyond the celestial bodies, other astrological points that are dependent on geographical location and time are also referenced within this ecliptic coordinate system. Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiacs names, Western astrology measures from Equinox and Solstice points, while Jyotiṣa or Vedic astrology measures along the equatorial plane. In Western and Indian astrology, the emphasis is on space, in Chinese astrology, by contrast, the emphasis is on time, with the zodiac operating on cycles of years, months, and hours of the day. A common feature of all three traditions however, is the significance of the Ascendant — the zodiac sign that is rising on the horizon at the moment of a persons birth. While Western astrology is essentially a product of Greco-Roman culture, some of its basic concepts originated in Babylonia. Isolated references to signs in Sumerian sources are insufficient to speak of a Sumerian zodiac. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction, by the 4th century BC, Babylonians astronomy and their system of celestial omens were influencing the Greek culture and, by the late 2nd century BC, Egyptian astrology was also mixing in. Association of the signs with Empedocles four classical elements was another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs. The following table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude, with the Latin names and the English translation. The longitude intervals, being a division, are closed for the first endpoint and open for the second — for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus. Association of calendar dates with astrological signs only makes sense when referring to Sun sign astrology, Empedocles, a fifth-century BC Greek philosopher, identified Fire, Earth, Air, and Water as elements. Different mixtures of these produced the different natures of things. Empedocles said that those who were born with equal proportions of the four elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions. The four astrological elements are considered as a direct equivalent to Hippocrates personality types. A modern approach looks at elements as the substance of experience
25.
Zodiac
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The zodiac is an area of the sky centered upon the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year. The paths of the Moon and visible planets also remain close to the ecliptic, within the belt of the zodiac, in western astrology and astronomy, the zodiac is divided into twelve signs, each sign occupying 30° of celestial longitude. Because the signs are regular, they do not correspond exactly to the boundaries of the twelve constellations after which they are named, the English word zodiac derives from zōdiacus, the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek zōidiakòs kýklos, meaning circle of little animals. Zōidion is the diminutive of zōion, the name reflects the prominence of animals among the twelve signs. The construction of the zodiac is described in Ptolemys vast 2nd century AD work, the term zodiac may also refer to the region of the celestial sphere encompassing the paths of the planets corresponding to the band of about eight arc degrees above and below the ecliptic. The zodiac of a planet is the band that contains the path of that particular body, e. g. the zodiac of the Moon is the band of five degrees above. By extension, the zodiac of the comets may refer to the band encompassing most short-period comets, the division of the ecliptic into the zodiacal signs originates in Babylonian astronomy during the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The zodiac draws on stars in earlier Babylonian star catalogues, such as the MUL. APIN catalogue, around the end of the 5th century BC, Babylonian astronomers divided the ecliptic into twelve equal signs, by analogy to twelve schematic months of thirty days each. Each sign contained thirty degrees of longitude, thus creating the first known celestial coordinate system. Because the division was made into equal arcs, 30° each, in Babylonian astronomical diaries, a planet position was generally given with respect to a zodiacal sign alone, less often in specific degrees within a sign. When the degrees of longitude were given, they were expressed with reference to the 30° of the zodiacal sign, in astronomical ephemerides, the positions of significant astronomical phenomena were computed in sexagesimal fractions of a degree. For daily ephemerides, the positions of a planet were not as important as the astrologically significant dates when the planet crossed from one zodiacal sign to the next. The Babylonian star catalogs entered Greek astronomy in the 4th century BC, Babylonia or Chaldea in the Hellenistic world came to be so identified with astrology that Chaldean wisdom became among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination through the planets and stars. Hellenistic astrology derived in part from Babylonian and Egyptian astrology, horoscopic astrology first appeared in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Dendera zodiac, a dating to ca.50 BC, is the first known depiction of the classical zodiac of twelve signs. The earliest extant Greek text using the Babylonian division of the zodiac into 12 signs of 30 equal degrees each is the Anaphoricus of Hypsicles of Alexandria. Particularly important in the development of Western horoscopic astrology was the astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy, whose work Tetrabiblos laid the basis of the Western astrological tradition. Under the Greeks, and Ptolemy in particular, the planets, Houses, Ptolemy lived in the 2nd century AD, three centuries after the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes by Hipparchus around 130 BC
26.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
27.
Smith & Wesson Model 10
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In production since 1899, it is a six-shot double-action revolver with fixed sights. Over its long run it has been available with barrel lengths of 2 in,3 in,4 in,5 in. Barrels of 2.5 inches are also known to have made for special contracts. Some 6,000,000 of the type have been produced over the years, making it the most popular centerfire revolver of the 20th century. In 1899, the United States Army and Navy placed orders with Smith & Wesson for two to three thousand Model 1899 Hand Ejector revolvers chambered for the M1892.38 Long Colt U. S, in 1902 the.38 Military & Police was introduced, featuring substantial changes. These included major modification and simplification of the internal lockwork and the addition of a locking underlug on the barrel to engage the previously free-standing ejector rod, barrel lengths were 4,5,6, and 6.5 inches with a rounded butt. Serial numbers for the Military & Police ranged from number 1 in the series to 20,975, most of the early M&P revolvers chambered in.38 Special appear to have been sold to the civilian market. By 1904, S&W was offering the.38 M&P with a rounded or square butt, and 4-, 5-, heat treating of cylinders began in 1919. The S&W Model 10 military revolvers produced from 1942 to 1944 had serial numbers with a V prefix and it is noteworthy that early Victory Models did not always have the V prefix. Most Victory Models sent to Britain were fitted with 4-inch or 5-inchbarrels, the Victory Model was used by United States forces during World War II, being chambered in the well-known and popular.38 Special cartridge. Some of these remained in service well into the 1990s with units of the United States Armed Forces. Until the introduction of the Beretta M9 9mm pistol in 1990, U. S. Army helicopter crew members, criminal Investigation Division agents were issued.38 caliber revolvers with two inch barrels. The Victory Model remained in use with Air National Guard tanker, rechambering of. 38-200 cylinders to.38 Special results in oversized chambers, which may cause problems. Lee Harvey Oswald was carrying a re-chambered Victory Model when he was apprehended on November 22,1963, other distinguishing features of the Victory Model revolver are the lanyard loop at the bottom of the grip frame, and the use of smooth walnut grip panels. However some early models did use a grip, most notably the pre-1942 manufacture. After World War II, Smith & Wesson returned to manufacturing the M&P series, in 1957, Smith & Wesson adopted the convention of using numeric designations to distinguish their various models of handguns, and the M&P was renamed the Model 10. The M&P/Model 10 has been available in blued steel finish and nickel finish for most of its production run. The model has also offered throughout the years with both the round butt and square butt, i. e. grip patterns
28.
8mm French Ordnance
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The 8mm/92 is a rimmed cartridge used in the 8mm M1892 revolver and inexpensive handguns manufactured in Belgium and Spain. These are usually copies of the Modele Dordonnance revolver itself or of then reputable foreign firearms and its dimensions are close to those of the 8mm Gasser. Its bullet is cylindro-ogival and is of the jacketed type and its power is comparable to that of the original 7. 65mm Browning. Bullets are either.330 caliber for cast lead bullets or.329 caliber for full-metal-jacketed bullets and it may be reloaded with resized. 32-20 cases. 8 mm Lebel Revolver M928 mm Revolver Réglementaire Francaise M.18928 mm French Revolver M18928 mm Revolver M.1892
29.
Beret
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A beret is a soft, round, flat-crowned hat, usually of woven, hand-knitted wool, crocheted cotton, wool felt, or acrylic fibre. Mass production began in 19th century France and Spain, countries with which it remains associated, Berets are worn as part of the uniform of many military and police units worldwide, as well as by other organisations. Such headgear has been popular among the nobility and artists across Europe throughout modern history, the commercial production of Basque-style berets began in the 17th century in the Oloron-Sainte-Marie area of Southern France. Originally a local craft, beret-making became industrialised in the 19th century, the first factory, Beatex-Laulhere, claims production records dating back to 1810. In Western fashion, men and women have worn the beret since the 1920s as sportswear, military berets were first adopted by the French Chasseurs Alpins in 1889. They were approved for use by King George V in 1924, the black RTR beret was made famous by Field Marshal Montgomery in the Second World War. The beret fits snugly around the head, and can be shaped in a variety of ways – in the Americas it is commonly worn pushed to one side. In Central and South America, local custom usually prescribes the manner of wearing the beret, there is no rule and older gentlemen usually wear it squared on the head. It can be worn by men and women. Military uniform berets feature a headband or sweatband attached to the wool, made either from leather, silk or cotton ribbon, the drawstrings are, according to custom, either tied and cut off or tucked in or else left to dangle. The beret is often adorned with a cap badge, either in cloth or metal, some berets have a piece of buckram or other stiffener in the position where the badge is intended to be worn. Berets are not usually lined, but many are lined with silk or satin. In military berets, the headband is worn on the outside, the traditional beret, usually has the sweatband folded inwardly. In such a case, these berets have only an inch or so of the same woollen material designed to be folded inwardly. Newer beret styles made of Polar fleece are also popular and they are very popular and common in the Basque Country. The colours adopted for folk costumes varied by region and purpose, black and blue are worn more frequently than red and white, the people of Aragon adopted red berets while the black beret became the common headgear of workers in France and Spain. A big commemorative black beret is the trophy in sport or bertso competitions, including Basque rural sports, the Basque portions of the Tour de France. It may bear sewn ornamental references to the achievement or contest, the black beret was once considered the national cap of France in Anglo-Saxon countries and is part of the stereotypical image of the Onion Johnny
30.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
31.
Philippe Henriot
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Philippe Henriot was a French poet, journalist, politician, and Minister in the French government at Vichy, where he directed propaganda broadcasts. He also joined the Milice part-time and he became a committed member of the Catholic nationalist right. In 1936 General de Castelnau, leader of the FNC, described Henriot as an ardent defender of religion, at the beginning of World War II, he was strongly anti-German. In 1940, after the surrender of France to Germany, Henriot became active as a journalist working for the French government headed by Philippe Pétain which had removed to Vichy, in December 1943 he was appointed Secretary of State for Information. During his career he created programs and broadcast through Radio Paris and he developed a war of propaganda against the Free French Forces and the BBC, whose spokesmen were Pierre Dac and Maurice Schumann. Seeking to shape the perceptions of the French government and German occupation, there is no doubt Henriots broadcasts were influential, attracting a large and diverse audience. It was said that Henriot is listened to by everyone, enemies or supporters, families shift their meal times so as not to miss him. There is no-one left in the street at the time he speaks, on 6 January 1944, Henriot was appointed as the French Minister of Information and Propaganda. In 1943, Henriot joined the paramilitary Milice with a conviction that Christian civilisation was engaged in a life. Disguised as members of the Milice, they had persuaded him to open his door, in retaliation, the Milice assassinated Georges Mandel, a strong opponent of collaboration. Henriot was afforded a state funeral in Paris, presided over by Cardinal Suhard in Notre Dame Cathedral. His coffin was placed, surrounded by French flags and flowers, in front of the Hôtel de Ville, where thousands filed past to mourn him – less than two months before the Liberation of Paris
32.
Joseph Goebbels
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Paul Joseph Goebbels was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust, Goebbels, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in their northern branch and he was appointed as Gauleiter for Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Goebbels Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the media, arts. He was particularly adept at using the new media of radio. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, as the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitlers underground bunker complex, Hitler committed suicide on 30 April. In accordance with Hitlers will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany, the following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide. Paul Joseph Goebbels was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, both of his parents were Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a clerk, his mother Katharina was ethnically Dutch. Goebbels had five siblings, Konrad, Hans, Maria, Elisabeth, and Maria, in 1932, Goebbels published a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumors that his grandmother was of Jewish ancestry. During childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health, which included a bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot and he underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg and he was rejected for military service in World War I due to his deformity. Goebbels was educated at a Christian Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur in 1917 and he was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honor to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest and he studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church, historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disabilities
33.
Anti-fascism
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Anti-fascism is opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. The anti-fascist movement began in a few European countries in the 1920s, with the development and spread of Italian Fascism, i. e. original fascism, the National Fascist Partys ideology was met with increasingly militant opposition by Italian communists and socialists. Organizations such as the Arditi del Popolo and the Italian Anarchist Union were born in the period 1919–1921 to combat the nationalist and fascist surge of the post-World War I period, thus as soon as Fascism coalesced into a coherent ideology, a militant leftist opposition sprouted in response. Furthermore, in the words of historian Eric Hobsbawm, as Fascism developed and spread, after the outbreak of World War II, the Albanian, Serbian, and Polish resistances were instrumental in antifascist action and underground resistance. This combination of irreconcilable nationalisms and leftist partisans constitute the earliest roots of European antifascism, the historian Norman Davies argues in his book Europe at War 1939–1945, No Simple Victory that anti-fascism does not offer a coherent political ideology, but rather that it is an empty vessel. The motive would be to lend legitimacy to the dictatorship of the proletariat and was done at the time the USSR was pursuing a policy of collective security, in Italy, Benito Mussolinis Fascist regime used the term anti-fascist to describe its opponents. Mussolinis secret police was officially known as Organizzazione per la Vigilanza e la Repressione dellAntifascismo, Italian for Organization for Vigilance, in Italy in the 1920s, anti-fascists—many from the labour movement—fought against the violent Blackshirts and against the rise of fascist leader Benito Mussolini. The General Confederation of Labour and the PSI refused to recognize the anti-fascist militia. The PCI organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor, the Italian anarchist Severino Di Giovanni, who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 March on Rome, organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community. Italian liberal anti-fascist Benedetto Croce wrote Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals, another notable Italian liberal anti-fascist around that time was Piero Gobetti. Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the Slovenes and Croats in the annexed to Italy after World War I. The most influential was the militant insurgent organization TIGR, which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military. During World War II, many members of the Italian resistance left their houses and went to live in the mountainside, fighting against Italian fascists, many cities in Italy, including Turin, Naples and Milan, were freed by anti-fascist uprisings. In Italy, the first anti-fascist resistance emerged within the Slovene minority in Italy, not only in multi-ethnic areas, but also in the areas where the population was exclusively Slovene, the use of Slovene language in public places, including churches, was forbidden. Children, if they spoke Slovene, were punished by Italian teachers who were brought by the Fascist State from Southern Italy, the Slovene teachers, writers, and clergy were sent to the other side of Italy. The first anti-fascist organization, called TIGR, was formed in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence and its guerrilla fight continued into the late 1920s and 1930s when by the mid-1930s, already 70.000 Slovenes fled Italy mostly to Slovenia and South America. The Slovene anti-fascist resistance in Yugoslavia during World War II was led by Liberation Front of the Slovenian People, soviet revolutionary Leon Trotsky wrote, ighting squads must be created. Nothing increases the insolence of the fascists so much as flabby pacifism on the part of the workers organisations, political cowardice without organised combat detachments, the most heroic masses will be smashed bit by bit by fascist gangs
34.
Victor Basch
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Basch Viktor Vilém, or Victor-Guillaume Basch was a French politician and professor of germanistics and philosophy at the Sorbonne descending from Hungary. He was engaged in the Zionist Movement, in the Ligue des droits de lhomme and his father was the journalist and political activist, Raphael Basch. Born in Budapest in 1863, Victor Basch emigrated with his family to France as a child, in 1885 he was appointed professor at the University of Nancy, and in 1887 at the University of Rennes, where he became friend with Jean Jaurès. During the Dreyfus affair Basch was the leader of the Dreyfusards at Rennes, both as a Jew and a Dreyfusard, Basch was subjected to persecution at the hands of the fanatical anti-Semitic populace. In a 1916 interview cited by his biographer and granddaughter, the French historian Françoise Basch, Victor Basch declared, I struggle and suffered for my Jewishness. However, biographer Françoise Basch underscores that her grandfather identified with his history and the suffering of persecuted Jews. He fought and suffered for the principles of legal and social justice as well as human rights and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Isidore Singer. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company, Victor Basch, de laffaire Dreyfus au crime de la milice. George R. Whyte, The Dreyfus affair, a chronological history, Basingstoke 2008
35.
Georges Mandel
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Georges Mandel was a French journalist, politician, and French Resistance leader. Born Louis George Rothschild in Chatou, Yvelines, he was the son of a tailor and his family was Jewish originally from Alsace. They moved into France in 1871 to preserve their French citizenship when Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by the German Empire at the end of the Franco-Prussian War, Mandel began working life as a journalist for LAurore, a literary and socialist newspaper founded in 1897 by Émile Zola and Georges Clemenceau. They notably defended Alfred Dreyfus during the Dreyfus Affair of the 1890s, as Minister of the Interior, Clemenceau later brought Mandel into politics as his aide. Described as Clemenceaus right-hand man, Mandel helped Clemenceau control the press, in 1919 Mandel was elected to the Chamber of Deputies from Gironde. He lost his seat when the Cartel des Gauches swept the 1924 elections, by 1932, he had become the Chairman of the Chambers universal suffrage committee. Its actions led to passage of legislation enfranchising women, although the proposal was an anathema to the Senate, in 1934, Mandel was appointed Minister of Posts and oversaw the first official television transmission in French. Mandel was a conservative and an outspoken opponent of Nazism and Fascism. In the 1930s, he played a role to that of Winston Churchill in the United Kingdom. He opposed Pierre Lavals plan to partition Ethiopia following its invasion by Benito Mussolinis Italy, Mandel advocated a military alliance with the Soviet Union and opposed the Munich Agreement. During the 1936 Albert Sarraut government, Mandel served as both Minister of Posts and High Commissioner for Alsace and Lorraine. After the fall of the Popular Front government, he served as Minister of Colonies from 1938 to 18 May 1940, in September 1939, after the outbreak of the German-Polish War, Mandel argued that the French Army should fight an offensive war. Mandel was accused by some on the Right of being a warmonger, Mandel opposed the Armistice with the rapidly advancing Germans. Shortly thereafter, the British general Edward Spears, Churchills military liaison officer, offered Mandel the chance to leave on his plane, Mandel declined, saying, You fear for me because I am a Jew. Well, it is just because I am a Jew that I will not go tomorrow, it would look as though I was afraid, as if I was running away. Only 25 other deputies and one senator embarked with Mandel on the Massilia on 21 June, including Pierre Mendès France, Mandel was arrested on 8 August 1941 in Morocco by General Charles Nogues on the orders of Pierre Laval, Prime Minister of the Vichy government. He was conveyed to the Château de Chazeron via Fort du Portalet, Churchill tried unsuccessfully to arrange Mandels rescue. He described Mandel as the first resister and is believed to have preferred him over Charles de Gaulle to lead the Free French Forces, following pressure from the Germans and the Riom Trial, all four were sentenced to life imprisonment on 7 November 1941
36.
Zone libre
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The zone libre was a partition of the French metropolitan territory during World War II, established at the Second Armistice at Compiègne on 22 June 1940. It lay to the south of the line and was administered by the French government of Marshal Philippe Pétain based in Vichy. To the north lay the zone occupée in which the powers of Vichy France were severely limited, in November 1942, the zone libre was invaded by the German and Italian armies in Case Anton, as a response to Operation Torch, the Allied landings in North Africa. Thenceforth, the zone libre and zone occupée were renamed the zone sud, from then on both were under German military administration. The line separating French territory into two zones was defined on a map attached to the treaty. Begins, in the East, at the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, thence, it passes at a distance of twenty kilometres to the east of the Tours-Angoulême-Libourne railway line, then further by Mont-de-Marsan and Orthez, up to the Spanish border. This separation line took effect on 25 June 1940 and it was thereafter referred to as the ligne de démarcation. In the occupied parts of France, the German Reich will exercise all rights of an occupying power, when the Allies invaded North Africa on 8 November 1942, the Germans and Italians immediately occupied the remaining free part of France. After being renamed zone sud, it was ruled by the Wehrmacht as a part of occupied France. The liberation of France began on 6 June 1944 with the Allied forces landing on D-Day, most of France was liberated by September 1944. The zone libre constituted an area of 246,618 square kilometres, approximately 45% of France. The ligne de démarcation passed through 13 of the 90 departments, henri Espieux suggests, During the occupations, the Franks were separated from the Occitans by the famous demarcation line. We have long thought that the route of line was suggested to Hitler by the romance language specialists in his entourage. The Italian occupation zone concerned certain border areas conquered by Italian troops and this zone was of limited importance, comprising 800 square kilometeres and 28,000 inhabitants. Four departments were covered by the Italian occupation, Alpes-Maritimes, Basses-Alpes, Hautes-Alpes. In addition, a zone was established containing all French territory within 50 km from the zone of Italian occupation. The department of Corsica was neither occupied nor demilitarized by any provision of the armistice, on 8 November 1942 Allied forces invaded French North Africa. German and Italian forces responded on 11 November 1942 by invading the zone libre in Case Anton, after the capitulation of Italy at Cassibile became public knowledge on 8 September 1943, the Italian armies retreated and the Germans united the southern zone under their own exclusive control
37.
Haute-Savoie
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Haute-Savoie is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of south-eastern France, bordering both Switzerland and Italy. To the north is Lake Geneva and Switzerland, to the south and southeast are the Mont Blanc, the French entrance to the Mont Blanc Tunnel to Italy is in Haute-Savoie. It is noted for winter sports, the first Winter Olympic Games were held at Chamonix in 1924, before 1860, the territory occupied by modern Haute-Savoie and the adjoining department of Savoie had been part of the Kingdom of Sardinia since the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Annexation of the region by France was formalized in the Treaty of Turin on March 24,1860, from November 1942 to September 1943, Haute-Savoie was subjected to military occupation by Fascist Italy. The Maquis des Glières operated from Haute-Savoie, Haute-Savoie comprises four arrondissements, divided into 294 communes and 17 cantons. Haute-Savoie has the largest range of elevations of all the departments in France, the lowest point is 250 metres in the Rhône River Valley, some of the worlds best-known ski resorts are in Haute-Savoie. Its mountainous terrain makes mountain passes important to trade and economic life, some of the most important are the Col de la Forclaz and the Mont Blanc Tunnel, linking Chamonix to Courmayeur in the Aosta Valley. As of 1996,178,624 hectares of Haute-Savoie is forested, compared to 34.4 percent for the Rhone-Alpes region and 27.1 percent for France as a whole. Of the forested area 141,063 hectares is managed for timber and other forest products, national nature reserves are designated by the French government as areas where an outstanding natural heritage is present in both rare and typical areas in terms of species and geology. Management is charged to local organizations, with direction and evaluation focusing on protection for future generations. Lake Annecy is an attraction, along with the town of Évian-les-Bains, perhaps the best-known town on the French shore of Lake Geneva. Haute-Savoie is entirely within the watershed of the Rhone, there were 4,450 farmers in 1999,4,800 farmers and over 1,700 full-time farm employees at the end of 2006. In 1999, crop production was valued at €71.5 million, dairy production is a large part of the Haute-Savoie economy, earning €117.2 million in 2006 and representing 74 percent of the net animal-product worth. The average expenditure per capita in 2006 was €21,706, with the 2004–2007 rise of the euro, Swiss customer traffic decreased five or six percent. At the end of 2006, traditional small businesses represented 84 percent of businesses and 40 percent of retail space,4,301 companies were established in 2004 in Haute-Savoie, nearly 80 percent in the service sector, with a high percentage offering service to individuals. This accounted for 21.6 percent of new businesses, the most active sectors were real estate, construction, business services and the food industry. In 1999, Haute-Savoie had 2,779 industrial companies producing 13.60 percent of all business income. T, firms engaged in screw-cutting are major employers in the department. While the automotive industry is the client, firms also service the electronics, household-appliance
Vichy France
Nazi Germany
