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Educational technology
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Educational technology refers to the use of both physical hardware and educational theoretics. It encompasses several domains, including learning theory, computer-based training, online learning, and, Technology in education and education technology are two different concepts which deal with the use of technological tools and innovative educational strategies respectively. Educational technology is not restricted to high technology, Education technology is anything that enhances classroom learning in the utilization of blended or online learning. However, modern educational technology is an important part of society today. Each of these terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features. In practice, as technology has advanced, the narrowly defined terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology. Initially, virtual learning as defined in a semantic sense implied entering an environmental simulation within a virtual world. In practice, an education course refers to any instructional course in which all. As a further example, ubiquitous learning emphasizes an omnipresent learning milieu, smart learning is a component of the smart city concept. Helping people learn in ways that are easier, faster, surer, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of early tools. Various types of abacus have been used, writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium. From their introduction, books and pamphlets have held a prominent role in education, from the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs for classroom or home use. The first all multiple choice, large-scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence, further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after WWII using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is traced to the description of memex by Vannevar Bush in 1945, slide projectors were widely used during the 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw use from the late 1950s. Stanfords Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from early experiments. In 1971, Ivan Illich published an influential book called, Deschooling Society. By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries, in computer-based training or computer-based learning, the learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations
2.
Argument map
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In informal logic and philosophy, an argument map or argument diagram is a visual representation of the structure of an argument. An argument map typically includes the key components of the argument, traditionally called the conclusion, Argument maps can also show co-premises, objections, counterarguments, rebuttals, and lemmas. There are different styles of argument map but they are functionally equivalent and represent an arguments individual claims. Argument maps are used in the context of teaching and applying critical thinking. The purpose of mapping is to uncover the structure of arguments, identify unstated assumptions, evaluate the support an argument offers for a conclusion. Argument maps are designed to support deliberation of issues, ideas. An argument map is not to be confused with a map or a mind map. There is no consensus as to whether the conclusion should be at the top of the tree with the leading up to it or whether it should be at the bottom with the reasons leading down to it. Another variation diagrams an argument from left to right, according to Doug Walton and colleagues, an argument map has two basic components, One component is a set of circled numbers arrayed as points. Each number represents a proposition in the argument being diagrammed, the other component is a set of lines or arrows joining the points. The whole network of points and lines represents a kind of overview of the reasoning in the given argument, where several premises or groups of premises lead to a final conclusion the argument might be described as convergent. This is distinguished from a divergent argument where a single premise might be used to two separate conclusions. Intermediate conclusions or sub-conclusions, where a claim is supported by another claim that is used in turn to some further claim. An argument with this structure is called a complex argument. If there is a chain of claims containing at least one intermediate conclusion. Each of these structures can be represented by the equivalent box, in the following diagram, the contention is shown at the top, and the boxes linked to it represent supporting reasons, which comprise one or more premises. The green arrow indicates that the two support the contention, Argument maps can also represent counterarguments. Monroe Beardsleys 1950 book Practical Logic recommended the following procedure, Separate statements by brackets, put circles around the logical indicators
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Cladistics
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Therefore, members of a group are assumed to share a common history and are considered to be closely related. The techniques and nomenclature of cladistics have been applied to other disciplines, Cladistics in the original sense refers to a particular set of methods used in phylogenetic analysis, although it is now sometimes used to refer to the whole field. What is now called the cladistic method appeared as early as 1901 with a work by Peter Chalmers Mitchell for birds and subsequently by Robert John Tillyard in 1921, Hennig referred to his own approach as phylogenetic systematics. Phenetics was championed at this time by the numerical taxonomists Peter Sneath and Robert Sokal, originally conceived, if only in essence, by Willi Hennig in a book published in 1950, cladistics did not flourish until its translation into English in 1966. Today, cladistics is the most popular method for constructing phylogenies from morphological, unlike phenetics, cladistics is specifically aimed at reconstructing evolutionary histories. The way for computational phylogenetics was paved by phenetics, a set of commonly used from the 1950s to 1980s. Phenetics did not try to reconstruct phylogenetic trees, rather, it tried to build dendrograms from similarity data, the cladistic method interprets each character state transformation implied by the distribution of shared character states among taxa as a potential piece of evidence for grouping. The outcome of an analysis is a cladogram – a tree-shaped diagram that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified, every cladogram is based on a particular dataset analyzed with a particular method. Different datasets and different methods, not to mention violations of the mentioned assumptions, only scientific investigation can show which is more likely to be correct. Since the cladograms provide competing accounts of events, at most one of them is correct. Within the primates, all anthropoids are hypothesized to have had a common ancestor all of whose descendants were anthropoids, the prosimians, on the other hand, form a paraphyletic taxon. When two or more taxa that are not nested within each other share a plesiomorphy, it is a symplesiomorphy, symplesiomorphies do not mean that the taxa that exhibit that character state are necessarily closely related. For example, Reptilia is traditionally characterized by being cold-blooded, whereas birds are warm-blooded, an apomorphy or derived state is an innovation. It can thus be used to diagnose a clade – or even to help define a clade name in phylogenetic nomenclature, features that are derived in individual taxa are called autapomorphies. Autapomorphies express nothing about relationships among groups, clades are identified by synapomorphies, for example, the possession of digits that are homologous with those of Homo sapiens is a synapomorphy within the vertebrates. The tetrapods can be singled out as consisting of the first vertebrate with such digits homologous to those of Homo sapiens together with all descendants of this vertebrate and it is therefore inferred to have evolved by convergence or reversal. Both mammals and birds are able to maintain a constant body temperature
4.
Pie chart
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A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic which is divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice, is proportional to the quantity it represents, while it is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced, there are variations on the way it can be presented. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfairs Statistical Breviary of 1801, Pie charts are very widely used in the business world and the mass media. Pie charts can be replaced in most cases by other such as the bar chart. The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfairs Statistical Breviary of 1801, playfair presented an illustration, which contained a series of pie charts. One of those charts depicting the proportions of the Turkish Empire located in Asia, Europe and this invention was not widely used at first, The French engineer Charles Joseph Minard was one of the first to use pie charts in 1858, in particular in maps. Minards map,1858 used pie charts to represent the cattle sent from all around France for consumption in Paris, playfair thought that pie charts were in need of a third dimension to add additional information. It has been said that Florence Nightingale invented it, though in fact she just popularised it, a 3d pie cake, or perspective pie cake, is used to give the chart a 3D look. The use of superfluous dimensions not used to display the data of interest is discouraged for charts in general, a doughnut chart is a variant of the pie chart, with a blank center allowing for additional information about the data as a whole to be included. A chart with one or more separated from the rest of the disk is known as an exploded pie chart. This effect is used to highlight a sector, or to highlight smaller segments of the chart with small proportions. The polar area diagram is similar to a pie chart, except sectors are equal angles. The polar area diagram is used to plot cyclic phenomena, for example, if the count of deaths in each month for a year are to be plotted then there will be 12 sectors all with the same angle of 30 degrees each. The radius of each sector would be proportional to the root of the death count for the month. Léon Lalanne later used a diagram to show the frequency of wind directions around compass points in 1843. The wind rose is used by meteorologists. Nightingale published her rose diagram in 1858, the name coxcomb is sometimes used erroneously, this was the name Nightingale used to refer to a book containing the diagrams rather than the diagrams themselves. A ring chart, also known as a sunburst chart or a pie chart, is used to visualize hierarchical data
5.
Visualization (graphics)
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Visualization or visualisation is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been a way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of humanity. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, Visualization today has ever-expanding applications in science, education, engineering, interactive multimedia, medicine, etc. Typical of an application is the field of computer graphics. The invention of computer graphics may be the most important development in visualization since the invention of perspective in the Renaissance period. The development of animation also helped advance visualization, the use of visualization to present information is not a new phenomenon. It has been used in maps, scientific drawings, and data plots for over a thousand years, examples from cartography include Ptolemys Geographia, a map of China, and Minards map of Napoleons invasion of Russia a century and a half ago. Most of the learned in devising these images carry over in a straightforward manner to computer visualization. Edward Tufte has written three critically acclaimed books that explain many of these principles, Computer graphics has from its beginning been used to study scientific problems. However, in its early days the lack of power often limited its usefulness. The recent emphasis on visualization started in 1987 with the publication of Visualization in Scientific Computing, TV also offers scientific visualizations when it shows computer drawn and animated reconstructions of road or airplane accidents. Some of the most popular examples of scientific visualizations are computer-generated images that show real spacecraft in action, out in the void far beyond Earth, dynamic forms of visualization, such as educational animation or timelines, have the potential to enhance learning about systems that change over time. Apart from the distinction between interactive visualizations and animation, the most useful categorization is probably between abstract and model-based scientific visualizations, the abstract visualizations show completely conceptual constructs in 2D or 3D. These generated shapes are completely arbitrary, the model-based visualizations either place overlays of data on real or digitally constructed images of reality or make a digital construction of a real object directly from the scientific data. Scientific visualization is usually done with specialized software, though there are a few exceptions, there are also many proprietary software packages of scientific visualization tools. Data visualization is a subcategory of visualization dealing with statistical graphics. Scientific visualization focuses and emphasizes the representation of order data using primarily graphics. It is an important part of visualization and maybe the first one, as the visualization of experiments
6.
Timeline
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A timeline is a way of displaying a list of events in chronological order, sometimes described as a project artifact. Timelines can use any time scale, depending on the subject, most timelines use a linear scale, where a unit of distance is equal to a set amount of time. This time scale is dependent on the events in the timeline, a timeline of evolution can be over millions of years, whereas a timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks can take place over minutes. While most timelines use a linear timescale, for large or small timespans. Historically, timelines were static images, and generally drawn or printed on paper, timelines relied heavily on graphic design, and the ability of the artist to visualize the data. Timelines, no longer constrained by space and functional limitations, are now digital and interactive. ChronoZoom is an example of computer aided interactive timeline software, timelines are often used in education to help students and researchers with understanding the order or chronology of historical events and trends for a subject. When showing time on a scale on an axis, a timeline can be used to visualize time lapses between events, durations, and the simultaneity or overlap of spans and events. Timelines are particularly useful for studying history, as they convey a sense of change over time, wars and social movements are often shown as timelines. Timelines are also useful for biographies, in these cases, timelines are used to help team members to know what milestones need to be achieved and under what time schedule. For example, in the case of establishing a timeline in the implementation phase of the life cycle of a computer system. British Library interactive timeline Port Royal des Champs museum timeline
7.
Porphyry (philosopher)
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Porphyry of Tyre was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre, in the Roman Empire. He edited and published the Enneads, the collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus. His commentary on Euclids Elements was used as a source by Pappus of Alexandria and he also wrote many works himself on a wide variety of topics. His Isagoge, or Introduction, is an introduction to logic and philosophy, under Longinus he studied grammar and rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome, attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, at one point he became suicidal. On the advice of Plotinus he went to live in Sicily for five years to recover his mental health, on returning to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and completed an edition of the writings of Plotinus together with a biography of his teacher. Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient Neoplatonic writings as his pupil, the two men differed publicly on the issue of theurgy. In his later years, he married Marcella, a widow with seven children, little more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain. Porphyry is best known for his contributions to philosophy, in medieval textbooks, the all-important Arbor porphyriana illustrates his logical classification of substance. To this day, taxonomy benefits from concepts in Porphyrys Tree, the Introduction was translated into Arabic by Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ from a Syriac version. With the Arabicized name Isāghūjī it long remained the standard introductory text in the Muslim world and influenced the study of theology, philosophy, grammar. Besides the adaptations and epitomes of this work, many independent works on logic by Muslim philosophers have been entitled Isāghūjī, Porphyrys discussion of accident sparked a long-running debate on the application of accident and essence. There is debate as to whether it was written in his youth or closer in time to the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian, whether or not Porphyry was the pagan philosopher opponent in Lactantius Divine Institutes, written at the time of the persecutions, has long been discussed. The fragments of the Philosophy from Oracles are only quoted by Christians, especially Eusebius, Theodoret, Augustine, the fragments contain oracles identifying proper sacrificial procedure, the nature of astrological fate, and other topics relevant for Greek and Roman religion in the third century. Whether this work contradicts his treatise defending vegetarianism, which warned the philosopher to avoid animal sacrifice, is disputed among scholars. During his retirement in Sicily, Porphyry wrote Against the Christians which consisted of fifteen books, Porphyry acknowledged Jesus Christ only as an outstanding philosopher. Some thirty Christian apologists, such as Methodius, Eusebius, Apollinaris, Augustine, Jerome, in fact, everything known about Porphyry’s arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A. D.435 and again in 448. Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day and his aim was not to disprove the substance of Christianity’s teachings but rather the records within which the teachings are communicated
8.
Ramon Llull
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Ramon Llull, T. O. S. F. was a philosopher, logician, Franciscan tertiary and Majorcan writer. He is credited with writing the first major work of Catalan literature, recently surfaced manuscripts show his work to have predated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory. He is also considered a pioneer of computation theory, especially given his influence on Leibniz, within the Franciscan Order he is honored as a martyr. He was beatified in 1847 by Pope Pius IX and his feast day was assigned to 30 June and is celebrated by the Third Order of St. Francis. Llull was born into a family in Palma, the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Majorca. James I of Aragon founded Majorca to integrate the conquered territories of the Balearic Islands into the Crown of Aragon. Llulls parents had come from Catalonia as part of the effort to colonize the formerly Almohad ruled island, in 1257 he married Blanca Picany, with whom he had two children, Domènec and Magdalena. Although he formed a family, he lived what he would call the licentious. Llull served as tutor to James II of Aragon and later became Seneschal to the future King James II of Majorca, in 1263 Llull experienced a religious epiphany in the form of a series of visions. The vision came to him six times in all, leading him to leave his family, position, following his epiphany Llull became a Franciscan tertiary, taking inspiration from Saint Francis of Assisi. After a short pilgrimage he returned to Majorca, where he purchased a Muslim slave from whom he wanted to learn Arabic, for the next nine years, until 1274, he engaged in study and contemplation in relative solitude. He read extensively in both Latin and Arabic, learning both Christian and Muslim theological and philosophical thought. Between 1271 and 1274 he wrote his first works, a compendium of the Muslim thinker Al-Ghazalis logic and the Llibre de contemplació en Déu and his first elucidation of the Art was in Art Abreujada dAtrobar Veritat, in 1290. After spending some time teaching in France and being disappointed by the reception of his Art among students. It is this version that he became known for. It is most clearly presented in his Ars generalis ultima or Ars magna, the Art operated by combining religious and philosophical attributes selected from a number of lists. It is believed that Llulls inspiration for the Ars magna came from observing Arab astrologers use a device called a zairja, the Art was intended as a debating tool for winning Muslims to the Christian faith through logic and reason. Through his detailed analytical efforts, Llull built an in-depth theosophic reference by which a reader could enter any argument or question, the reader then used visual aids and a book of charts to combine various ideas, generating statements which came together to form an answer
9.
Data visualization
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Data visualization or data visualisation is viewed by many disciplines as a modern equivalent of visual communication. A primary goal of data visualization is to communicate clearly and efficiently via statistical graphics, plots. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence. It makes complex data more accessible, understandable and usable, users may have particular analytical tasks, such as making comparisons or understanding causality, and the design principle of the graphic follows the task. Tables are generally used where users will look up a specific measurement, Data visualization is both an art and a science. It is viewed as a branch of statistics by some. Increased amounts of data created by Internet activity and an number of sensors in the environment are referred to as big data or Internet of things. Processing, analyzing and communicating this data present ethical and analytical challenges for data visualization, the field of data science and practitioners called data scientists help address this challenge. Data visualization refers to the used to communicate data or information by encoding it as visual objects contained in graphics. The goal is to communicate clearly and efficiently to users. It is one of the steps in analysis or data science. According to Friedman the main goal of data visualization is to communicate clearly and effectively through graphical means. It doesnt mean that data needs to look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. Yet designers often fail to achieve a balance between form and function, creating gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve their main purpose — to communicate information. Indeed, Fernanda Viegas and Martin M. Wattenberg have suggested that an ideal visualization should not only communicate clearly, Data visualization is closely related to information graphics, information visualization, scientific visualization, exploratory data analysis and statistical graphics. In the new millennium, data visualization has become an area of research, teaching. According to Post et al. it has united scientific and information visualization, professor Edward Tufte explained that users of information displays are executing particular analytical tasks such as making comparisons or determining causality. The design principle of the information graphic should support the analytical task, indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations
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Decision tree
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A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like graph or model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to display an algorithm, Decision trees are commonly used in operations research, specifically in decision analysis, to help identify a strategy most likely to reach a goal, but are also a popular tool in machine learning. The paths from root to leaf represent classification rules, another use of decision trees is as a descriptive means for calculating conditional probabilities. Drawn from left to right, a tree has only burst nodes. Therefore, used manually, they can grow big and are then often hard to draw fully by hand. Traditionally, decision trees have been created manually — as the example shows — although increasingly. The decision tree can be linearized into decision rules, where the outcome is the contents of the node. In general, the rules have the form, if condition1 and condition2, Decision rules can be generated by constructing association rules with the target variable on the right. They can also denote temporal or causal relations, commonly a decision tree is drawn using flowchart symbols as it is easier for many to read and understand. Much of the information in a tree can be represented more compactly as an influence diagram, focusing attention on the issues. Decision trees can also be seen as models of induction rules from empirical data. An optimal decision tree is defined as a tree that accounts for most of the data. Several algorithms to generate such optimal trees have been devised, such as ID3/4/5, CLS, ASSISTANT, among decision support tools, decision trees have several advantages. Decision trees, Are simple to understand and interpret, people are able to understand decision tree models after a brief explanation. Have value even with little hard data, important insights can be generated based on experts describing a situation and their preferences for outcomes. Allow the addition of new possible scenarios Help determine worst, best, if a given result is provided by a model. Can be combined with other decision techniques, disadvantages of decision trees, For data including categorical variables with different number of levels, information gain in decision trees are biased in favor of those attributes with more levels. Calculations can get very complex particularly if many values are uncertain if many outcomes are linked
11.
Organizational chart
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An organizational chart is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs. The term is used for similar diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a group of languages. The organization chart is a diagram showing graphically the relation of one official to another, or others and it is also used to show the relation of one department to another, or others, or of one function of an organization to another, or others. This chart is valuable in that it one to visualize a complete organization. A companys organizational chart typically illustrates relations between people within an organization, such relations might include managers to sub-workers, directors to managing directors, chief executive officer to various departments, and so forth. When an organization chart grows too large it can be split into smaller charts for separate departments within the organization, the titles of officials and sometimes their names are enclosed in boxes or circles. Lines are generally drawn from one box or circle to another to show the relation of one official or department to the others, the Scottish-American engineer Daniel McCallum is credited for creating the first organizational charts of American business around 1854. This chart was drawn by George Holt Henshaw, the term organization chart came into use in the early twentieth century. In 1914 Brinton declared organization charts are not nearly so widely used as they should be, in those years industrial engineers promoted the use of organization charts. The term organigram originates in the 1960s and they only show formal relationships and tell nothing of the pattern of human relationships which develop. They also often do not show horizontal relationships and they often do not include customers. The example on the shows a simple hierarchical organizational chart. An example of a relationship in this chart would be between the general and the two colonels - the colonels are directly responsible to the general. An example of a relationship in this chart would be between Captain A, and Captain B who both work on level and both report to the Colonel B. Various shapes such as rectangles, squares, triangles, circles can be used to different roles. Color can be used both for shape borders and connection lines to indicate differences in authority and responsibility, and possibly formal, advisory, a department or position yet to be created or currently vacant might be shown as a shape with a dotted outline. Importance of the position may be shown both with a change in size of the shape in addition to its placement on the chart. Figurative system of human knowledge Organizational structure
12.
Memory
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Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences and related to systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory processor allows information from the world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor, information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material, finally, the function of long-term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems. Explicit and implicit functions of memory are known as declarative and non-declarative systems. These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory, semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory, non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. An example of a process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory. Memory is not a processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted, the amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage. Also, the process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory, normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived, the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than they can actually report, the first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm
Media related to Mind maps at Wikimedia Commons
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