1.
Arrow (Israeli missile)
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Jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States, development of the system began in 1986 and has continued since, drawing some contested criticism. Undertaken by Israel Aerospace Industries and Boeing, it is overseen by the Israeli Ministry of Defenses Homa administration, the system is transportable, as it can be moved to other prepared sites. Following the construction and testing of the Arrow 1 technology demonstrator, production, the Arrow is considered one of the most advanced missile defense programs currently in existence. It is the first operational missile defense system designed and built to intercept. The first Arrow battery was declared operational in October 2000. The spaceflight upper-tier portion of Israels missile defense, Arrow 3, was declared operational on January 18,2017, Arrow 3 operates at greater speeds, greater range and at greater altitudes than Arrow 2, intercepting ballistic missiles during the space-flight portion of their trajectory. According to the chairman of the Israeli Space Agency, Arrow 3 may serve as an anti-satellite weapon, the Arrow program was launched in light of the acquisition by Arab states of long ranged surface-to-surface missiles. It was chosen over RAFAEL Armament Development Authoritys AB-10 missile defense system since the Arrow was judged to be a complete concept and have greater range. The AB-10 system was criticized as being merely an improved MIM-23 Hawk, the Gulf War, which exposed the controversial performance of the Patriot missile against Iraqi Al Hussein missiles, gave further impetus to the development of the Arrow. It was initially designed to intercept missiles such as the SS-1 Scud, its Al Hussein derivative, the SS-21 Scarab operated by Syria, the Arrow evolved also with an eye on the advanced missile programs of Iran. Yitzhak Rabin, then Defense Minister of Israel, viewed the emerging missile threat as one of the most dangerous future threats on Israels security, the multibillion-dollar development program of the Arrow is undertaken in Israel with the financial support of the United States. When the development program began, the projection for the total cost of its development, the price of a single Arrow missile was estimated at $3 million. Between 1989 and 2007 some $2.4 billion had been invested in the Arrow program. Israel contributes approximately $65 million annually, the Arrow program encountered opposition from the IAF, whose traditional doctrine of deterrence and use of preemptive strikes stand in sharp contrast with the nature of the missile. In addition, the IAF feared that the procurement of the missiles would diminish the resources allocated towards offensive projects such as fighter aircraft. A criticism of the concept of defense for Israel was aired by Dr. Reuven Pedatzur in a comprehensive study published in 1993 by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies. Pedatzur argued that it was simple to fool an Arrow-type defensive system with simple, cheap, and easily installed countermeasures. He doubted Israels defense industries could rise to the challenge of such a complex system, at the same time, John E
2.
Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
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It is part of the United States national missile defense strategy. Aegis BMD is designed to intercept ballistic missiles post-boost phase and prior to reentry and it enables warships to shoot down enemy ballistic missiles by expanding the Aegis Combat System with the addition of the AN/SPY-1 radar and Standard missile technologies. Aegis BMD-equipped vessels can transmit their target detection information to the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system and, if needed, Aegis BMD does not have the ability to intercept ICBMs, although future versions may allow limited intercept capability. The current system uses the Lockheed Martin Aegis Weapon System and the Raytheon RIM-161 Standard Missile 3, the current effort to deploy Aegis ballistic missile defense was begun during the mid-1980s as part of President Ronald Reagans Strategic Defense Initiative. The SDI plan was initially for a space-based railgun system, however, due to technological constraints, the system was transformed into a surface-based system known as the Lightweight Exo-atmospheric Projectile. The original testing of the LEAP was done as part of the Army LEAP program, later, SDIO worked with the Navy to test the LEAP on the Terrier missile. The Terrier LEAP demonstration program lasted from 1991 into 1995 and consisted of four flight tests, during the late 1990s, the U. S. Navy was tasked to provide a weapon system for exploratory testing of LEAP. This phase was designated the Aegis LEAP Intercept program, the program was for two successful intercepts in five attempts. On June 13,2002, the second successful ALI intercept occurred during the FM-3 flight test mission, initial Aegis BMD success may have contributed to President George W. Bushs decision to deploy an emergency ballistic missile capability by late 2004. Upon the completion of the ALI program, Aegis BMD was transitioned to the production phase, the first Block I production SM-3 was delivered in October 2004, and the Aegis 3.0 update was delivered in 2005. S. In 2009 several U. S. Navy ships were fitted with SM-3 missiles to serve this function, warships of Japan and Australia also have been given weapons and technology to enable them to participate as well. Current Aegis BMD hardware includes the SM-3 Block-1a missile and other improvements to the Aegis Weapons System, future development of the Aegis BMD system includes Launch on Remote capability, upgraded SM-3 avionics and hardware, and an upgraded Aegis Weapon System. In 2012 Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense will merge with Aegis Open Architecture, the Launch on Remote capability involves the use of off-board sensors, such as the Space Tracking and Surveillance System to provide a targeting solution for a SM-3 launch. The variations of the Aegis BMD system currently in service are the 3.6.1 version, the MDA and the US Navy plan to deploy more advanced versions, such as the 5.0,5.1 and 5.2, in the future. The improved versions will be equipped with advanced processors and software, BMD capable ships can have their BMD capabilities upgraded from earlier versions to later versions. A land-based component, Aegis Ashore, also is planned and this would consist of equipment which is commonly used by the Navy being deployed in land-based facilities. This would include SPY-1 radars and a battery of Standard Missile-3s, the Obama administration’s plans call for two sites, the first in Romania at Deveselu that was opened in May 2015 and the second in Poland in 2018. In 2020, both will get the latest versions of the Aegis BMD software and the latest version of the SM-3, some radar facilities will be placed in Turkey at a future date
3.
RIM-161 Standard Missile 3
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Although primarily designed as an anti-ballistic missile, the SM-3 has also been employed in an anti-satellite capacity against a satellite at the lower end of low Earth orbit. The SM-3 is primarily used and tested by the United States Navy, the SM-3 evolved from the proven SM-2 Block IV design. Initial work was done to adapt SM-3 for land deployment to especially accommodate the Israelis, but they chose to pursue their own system. Compared to the GMDs Ground-Based Interceptor however, the SM-3 Block I has about 1⁄5 to 1⁄6 of the range. A significant improvement in this respect, the SM-3 Block II variant widens the missiles diameter from 0.34 m to.53 m, the highly modified Block IIA missile shares only the first-stage motor with the Block I. The Block IIA was designed to allow for Japan to protect against a North Korean attack with fewer deployed ships, the Block IIA is being jointly developed by Raytheon and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the latter manages the third-stage rocket motor and nose cone. The U. S. budgeted cost to date is $1.51 billion for the Block IIA, the ships AN/SPY-1 radar finds the ballistic missile target and the Aegis weapon system calculates a solution on the target. When the missile is ordered to launch, the Aerojet MK72 solid-fuel rocket booster launches the SM-3 out of the ships Mark 41 vertical launching system, the missile then establishes communication with the launching ship. Once the booster burns out, it detaches, and the Aerojet MK104 solid-fuel dual thrust rocket motor takes over propulsion through the atmosphere, the missile continues to receive mid-course guidance information from the launching ship and is aided by GPS data. The ATK MK136 solid-fueled third-stage rocket motor fires after the second stage burns out, the TSRM is pulse fired and provides propulsion for the SM-3 until 30 seconds to intercept. At that point the third stage separates, and the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile kinetic warhead begins to search for the target using pointing data from the launching ship, the Aerojet throttleable divert and attitude control system allows the kinetic warhead to maneuver in the final phase of the engagement. The KWs sensors identify the target, attempt to identify the most lethal part of the target, if the KW intercepts the target, it provides 130 megajoules of kinetic energy at the point of impact. Independent studies by some experts have raised some significant questions about the missiles success rate in hitting targets. The first tests prototype interceptors, expensive mock warheads werent used in the tests since specific lethality capability wasnt a test objective—the objective was to hit the target missile. Contrary to the assertions of Postol and Lewis, all three resulted in successful target hits with the unitary ballistic missile target destroyed. In an October 25,2012 test, a SM-3 Block IA failed to intercept a SRBM, on 4 October 2013, an SM-3 Block IB eliminated the medium-range ballistic missile target at the highest altitude of any test to date. The test was the 26th successful intercept for the SM-3 program, post-mission data showed that the intercept was slightly lower than anticipated, but the systems adjusted to ensure the missile intercepted the target. The SM-3 Block IB is expected to be delivered for service in 2015, on 6 June 2015, an SM-3 Block IIA was successfully tested
4.
Anti-ballistic missile
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An anti-ballistic missile is a surface-to-air missile designed to counter ballistic missiles. Ballistic missiles are used to deliver nuclear, chemical, biological or conventional warheads in a flight trajectory. There are only two systems in the world that can intercept ICBMs, besides them, many smaller systems exist, that generally cannot intercept intercontinental strategic missiles, even if within range—an incoming ICBM simply moves too fast for these systems. The Russian A-35 anti-ballistic missile system, used for the defense of Moscow, the currently active system is called A-135. The system uses Gorgon and Gazelle missiles with nuclear warheads to intercept incoming ICBMs, the U. S. Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system has reached initial operational capability. Instead of using a charge, it launches a kinetic projectile. The George W. Bush administration accelerated development and deployment of a proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a purpose test and interception facility in Alaska. President Bush referenced the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense, the current GMD system has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a rogue state such as North Korea. Israels Arrow 3 system entered service in 2017. It is designed for interception of ballistic missiles during the spaceflight portion of their trajectory. It may also act as an anti-satellite weapon, during 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to discuss potential future ballistic missile defence programs. In the end, the recommended deployment of early warning. During spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the United States and Poland as well as the Czech Republic were published, the plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the launch site in Poland. The system was announced to be aimed against ICBMs from Iran and this caused harsh comments by Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe security conference during spring 2007 in Munich. Other European ministers commented that any change of strategic weapons should be negotiated on NATO level, as of July 2007, a majority of Poles were opposed to hosting a component of the system in Poland. Project 640 had been the PRCs indigenous effort to develop ABM capability, the Academy of Anti-Ballistic Missile & Anti-Satellite was established from 1969 for the purpose of developing Project 640. The project was to involve at least three elements, including the sensors and guidance/command systems, the Fan Ji missile interceptor
5.
USS Shiloh (CG-67)
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USS Shiloh is a Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruiser of the United States Navy, named in remembrance of the Battle of Shiloh in the American Civil War. She was built at the Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine, the vessel is commanded by Captain Adam M. Aycock. With her guided missiles and rapid-fire cannons, she is capable of facing and defeating threats in the air, on the sea, or the ashore and she also carries two Seahawk LAMPS multi-purpose helicopters, mainly for anti-submarine warfare. On 3 September 1996, while in the Carl Vinson carrier battle group and she deployed with the Battle Group again in July 2002, and was among the first cruisers to launch missiles in Operation Iraqi Freedom. In March 2003 Shiloh was assigned to Cruiser-Destroyer Group Three, the Shiloh returned to her homeport San Diego, California on 25 April 2003, ending an unusually long nine-month deployment. In January 2005, she participated in Operation Unified Assistance, rendering aid to those who suffered from the 26 December 2004 tsunami off the coast of Aceh, the Shiloh was one of the first American ships to arrive on scene. On 22 June 2006, a Standard Missile Three launched from Shiloh intercepted a multi-stage ballistic missile launched from the Pacific Missile Range Facility at Barking Sands, Hawaii. In August 2006, she arrived on station at Yokosuka Naval Base in Yokosuka, Japan, replacing the USS Chancellorsville, on 8 July 2009, Petty Officer 1st Class Christopher Geathers fell from the ships fantail into Tokyo Bay while rigging shore power cables. A two-and-a-half-day search failed to locate Geathers and he was declared missing, nevertheless, the report did not recommend disciplinary action against any of the ships crewmembers. The ship is featured prominently in the 2012 naval thriller, Fire of the Raging Dragon, the ship is mentioned in Highschool of the Dead with the JDS Kirishima And JDS Kongo When the 3 ships intercept ICBSS. This article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U. S. government publication, is in the public domain
6.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
7.
Ticonderoga-class cruiser
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The Ticonderoga class of guided missile cruisers is a class of warships in the United States Navy, first ordered and authorized in the 1978 fiscal year. The class uses passive phased-array radar and was planned as a class of destroyers. Ticonderoga-class guided-missile cruisers are multi-role warships and their Mk 41 VLS can launch Tomahawk cruise missiles to strike strategic or tactical targets, or fire long-range antiaircraft Standard Missiles for defense against aircraft or anti-ship missiles. Their LAMPS III helicopters and sonar systems allow them to perform antisubmarine missions, Ticonderoga-class ships are designed to be elements of carrier battle groups or amphibious assault groups, as well as performing missions such as interdiction or escort. Of the 27 completed vessels,19 were built by Ingalls Shipbuilding, all but one of the ships in the class are named for noteworthy events in U. S.22 ships were active in 2016, and expected to serve for 35 years since commissioning. One ship of the class, Vincennes, became infamous in 1988 when she shot down Iran Air Flight 655, resulting in 290 civilian deaths. The investigation report recommended that the AEGIS large screen display be changed to allow the display of information on plots. On 20 February 2008, at approximately 22,30 EST, the military intended that the missiles kinetic energy would rupture the hydrazine fuel tank allowing the toxic fuel to be consumed during re-entry. The Department of Defense confirmed that the tank had been directly hit by the missile. Due to Budget Control Act of 2011 requirements to cut the Defense Budget for FY2013 and subsequent years, for the U. S. Defense 2013 Budget Proposal, the U. S. Navy was to decommission seven cruisers early in fiscal years 2013 and 2014. While this is a new requirement as of 2011, and the U. S. S, the U. S. House of Representatives passed a budget bill to require that these cruisers instead be refitted to handle the missile defense role. By October 2012, the U. S. Navy had decided not to four of the cruisers early in order to maintain the size of the fleet. Four Ticonderoga-class cruisers, plus 21 Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, are scheduled to be equipped for antiballistic missile, the Ticonderoga-class cruisers design was based on that of the Spruance-class destroyer. When they were designed, they had the most powerful electronic warfare equipment in the U. S. Navy and these ships were one of the first classes of warships to be built in modules, rather than being assembled from the bottom up. Operations research was used to study manpower requirements on the Ticonderoga class and it was found that four officers and 44 enlisted sailors could be removed from the ships complement by removing traditional posts that had been made obsolete. The Aegis Cruisers are Double Enders, and along with the Zumwalt-class, are the surface combatants in the fleet that can employ two 5 guns simultaneously. This capability gives it greater firepower via the two guns that can employ guided projectiles, in addition to the added radar capability, the Ticonderoga-class ships built after USS Thomas S. Gates included two Mark 41 Vertical Launching Systems. More importantly, the VLS enables all missiles to be on full stand-by at any given time, the original five ships had Mark 26 twin-arm launchers that limited their missile capacity to a total of 88 missiles, and that could not fire the Tomahawk missile
8.
Cruiser
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A cruiser is a type of warship. The term has been in use for several hundred years, and has had different meanings throughout this period. In the middle of the 19th century, cruiser came to be a classification for the intended for cruising distant waters, commerce raiding. Cruisers came in a variety of sizes, from the medium-sized protected cruiser to large armored cruisers that were nearly as big as a pre-dreadnought battleship. With the advent of the battleship before World War I. The very large battlecruisers of the World War I era that succeeded armored cruisers were now classified, along with dreadnought battleships, in the later 20th century, the obsolescence of the battleship left the cruiser as the largest and most powerful surface combatant after the aircraft carrier. The role of the cruiser varied according to ship and navy, often including air defense, during the Cold War, the Soviet Navys cruisers had heavy anti-ship missile armament designed to sink NATO carrier task forces via saturation attack. The U. S. Adams guided-missile destroyers tasked with the air defense role. Indeed, the newest U. S. Navy destroyers are more heavily-armed than some of the cruisers that they succeeded, currently only three nations operate cruisers, the United States, Russia, and Peru. The term cruiser or cruizer was first commonly used in the 17th century to refer to an independent warship, Cruiser meant the purpose or mission of a ship, rather than a category of vessel. However, the term was used to mean a smaller, faster warship suitable for such a role. The Dutch navy was noted for its cruisers in the 17th century, while the Royal Navy—and later French and Spanish navies—subsequently caught up in terms of their numbers, during the 18th century the frigate became the preeminent type of cruiser. A frigate was a small, fast, long range, lightly armed ship used for scouting, carrying dispatches, the other principal type of cruiser was the sloop, but many other miscellaneous types of ship were used as well. During the 19th century, navies began to use steam power for their fleets, the 1840s saw the construction of experimental steam-powered frigates and sloops. By the middle of the 1850s, the British and U. S. Navies were both building steam frigates with very long hulls and a gun armament, for instance USS Merrimack or Mersey. The 1860s saw the introduction of the ironclad, the first ironclads were frigates, in the sense of having one gun deck, however, they were also clearly the most powerful ships in the navy, and were principally to serve in the line of battle. In spite of their speed, they would have been wasted in a cruising role. The French constructed a number of smaller ironclads for overseas cruising duties, starting with the Belliqueuse and these station ironclads were the beginning of the development of the armored cruisers, a type of ironclad specifically for the traditional cruiser missions of fast, independent raiding and patrol
9.
Phased array
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Phased arrays were first used in military radar systems to scan the radar beam quickly across the sky to detect planes and missiles. These phased array systems are now widely used, and phased arrays are spreading to civilian applications. The phased array principle is used in acoustics, and phased arrays of acoustic transducers are used in medical ultrasound imaging scanners. The term is used to a lesser extent for unsteered array antennas in which the phase of the feed power. For example, AM broadcast radio antennas consisting of multiple mast radiators fed so as to create a specific radiation pattern are also called phased arrays. A passive phased array or passive electronically scanned array is an array in which the antenna elements are connected to a single transmitter and/or receiver. PESAs are the most common type of phased array, an active phased array or active electronically scanned array is a phased array in which each antenna element has its own transmitter/receiver unit, all controlled by the computer. A conformal antenna is an array in which the individual antennas. The phase shifters compensate for the different path lengths of the due to the antenna elements varying position on the surface. Conformal antennas are used in aircraft and missiles, to integrate the antenna into the surface of the aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag. Phased array transmission was shown in 1905 by Nobel laureate Karl Ferdinand Braun who demonstrated enhanced transmission of radio waves in one direction. During World War II, Nobel laureate Luis Alvarez used phased array transmission in a rapidly steerable radar system for ground-controlled approach, at the same time, the GEMA in Germany built the Mammut 1. It was later adapted for radio astronomy leading to Nobel Prizes for Physics for Antony Hewish and this design is also used for radar, and is generalized in interferometric radio antennas. In 2007, DARPA researchers announced a 16 element phased array antenna which was also integrated with all the necessary circuits on a single silicon chip. The relative amplitudes of—and constructive and destructive interference effects among—the signals radiated by the individual antennas determine the radiation pattern of the array. A phased array may be used to point a fixed radiation pattern, simultaneous electrical scanning in both azimuth and elevation was first demonstrated in a phased array antenna at Hughes Aircraft Company, California in 1957. Phased arrays are used in communication as a wavelength-selective splitter. For information about active and passive phased array radars, see also active electronically scanned array, for shortwave broadcasts many stations use arrays of horizontal dipoles
10.
Ballistic Missile Early Warning System
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The RCA 474L Ballistic Missile Early Warning System was a United States Air Force Cold War system of radar, computer, and communications systems that included ballistic missile detection radars. The network of 12 radars for detecting a mass ballistic missile attack launched on northern approaches 15 to 25 minutes warning time also provided Project Space Track satellite data, BMEWS consisted of two types of radars and various computer and reporting systems to support them. The first type of radar consisted of large, fixed rectangular partial-parabolic reflectors with two primary feed points. They produced two fan-shaped microwave beams that allowed them to detect targets across a wide horizontal front at two narrow vertical angles. These were used to provide wide-front coverage of missiles rising into their radar horizon, the second type of radar was used for fine tracking of selected targets, and consisted of a very large steerable parabolic reflector under a large radome. These radars provided high-resolution angular and ranging information that was fed to a computer for rapid calculation of the impact points of the missile warheads. Cape Canaveral missiles, and an adjunct high-power UHF test facility employed the Millstone transmitter to stress-test the components that were candidates for the operational BMEWS. A prototype AN/FPS-43 BMEWS radar completed at Trinidad in 1958 went operational on February 4,1959, on June 30,1958, NORAD emphasized that the BMEWS could not be considered as a self-contained entity separate from the Nike Zeus, or vice versa. In late 1959, ARPA opened the 474L System Program Office, and BMEWS 12th Missile Warning Squadron at Thule…began operating in January 1960. Clear AFS construction began in August 1958 with 700 workers, and Thule Site J construction began by May 18,1960, with radar pedestals complete by June 2. Thule testing began on May 16,1960, IOC was on September 30, the Clear Msl Early Warning Stn, Nenana, AK was assigned to Hanscom Field, Massachusetts, by the JCA on April 1,1961. Joseph P. Kaufman was charged with giving defense data to, the 71st Surveillance Wing, Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, was activated on December 6,1961 at Ent AFB. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Moorestown AN/FPS-49 radar on October 24 was withdrawn from SPADATS,1962 strikes and walkouts delayed Fylingdales planned completion from March until September 1963 and on November 7, the Pentagon BMEWS display subsytem installation was complete. At the end of 1962, NORAD was concerned over BMEWS virtual inability to detect objects beyond a range of 1500 nautical miles, the Moorestown FPS-49 completed a BMEWS signature analysis program on scale models by January 1963. g. The AN/FPS-92 with 66-inch panels was added to Clear in 1966, and in 1967, BMEWS modification testing was complete on May 15, in 1968, Ents 9th Division HQ had a Spacetrack/BMEWS Maintenance Section. In 1975, SECDEF told Congress that Clear would be closed when Cobra Dane, by 1976, BMEWS included IBM7094, CDC6000, and Honeywell 800 computers. On October 1,1979, Thule and Clear transferred to Strategic Air Command when ADCOM was broken up then to Space Command in 1982. To replace AN/FSQ-28 predictors, a late 1970s plan for processing returns from MIRVs installed in new Missile Impact Predictor computers was complete by September 1984
11.
RAF Fylingdales
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RAF Fylingdales is a Royal Air Force station on Snod Hill in the North York Moors, England. It is a base and is also part of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System. As part of intelligence-sharing arrangements between the United States and United Kingdom, data collected at RAF Fylingdales are shared between the two countries and its primary purpose is to give the British and US governments warning of an impending ballistic missile attack. A secondary role is the detection and tracking of orbiting objects, while the radar station remains a British asset operated and commanded by the Royal Air Force, it also forms one of three stations in the United States BMEWS network. The other two stations in the network are Thule Air Base, Greenland and Clear Air Force Station, to this end a United States Air Force liaison officer is stationed at the base. The primary radars of RAF Fylingdales are Active electronically scanned array radars, mounted on each face of a truncated tetrahedron and this makes Fylingdales unique amongst its peers in that it covers a full 360 degrees. Each of the three arrays contains around 2560 transmit/receive modules, total power output equates to some 2.5 MW. The functions of RAF Fylingdales have been subject to criticism from groups, such as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. These stem from concerns regarding the association with nuclear warfare. They argue against the UK assisting the US National Missile Defense programme with RAF Fylingdales ability to detect attacks, the Ministry of Defence defends the use and role of the facility however, regarding RAF Fylingdales as part of the UKs contribution to counter a military threat. Another RAF Station, RAF Menwith Hill, is located in Yorkshire and has a close arrangement with the United States. It too has been the focus of protests, the monitoring function is referred to in the Jethro Tull song Fylingdale Flyer which appears on the album A and in the Slipstream video. The station was built by the Radio Corporation of America in 1962, RAF Fylingdales consisted of three 40-metre-diameter golfballs or geodesic domes containing mechanically steered radar. It became a local tourist attraction as a result, the issue was investigated by the local NHS organisation, the Scarborough, Whitby and Ryedale Primary Care Trust, and a report was released in December. It concluded that there was no link between RAF Fylingdales and local cancer rates nor any abnormal risk, as cancer rates in the area proved to be normal. A2003 MoD report on the impact of the NMD upgrade at RAF Fylingdales reiterated that the base was within health guidelines, in the late 1990s the United States decided to pursue a National Missile Defense plan fully, and RAF Fylingdales attracted further publicity. To improve tracking capabilities the United States wanted the use of Fylingdales as part of its NMD network, after receiving a formal request from the US, the British Government agreed to its use as an NMD tracking facility in 2003. This decision has led to renewed demonstrations by CND and other anti-nuclear and anti-war protestors and it has also complicated Britains fragile relationship with certain European Union states such as France
12.
Missile
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In modern language, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket. Missiles have four components, targeting and/or missile guidance, flight system, engine. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes, surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, all known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is any thrown object, the word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning to send. In military usage, munitions projected towards a target are broadly categorised as follows, a powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions not fired from a gun are called bombs whether guided or not, munitions that are fired from a gun are known as projectiles whether guided or not. If explosive, they are more specifically as shells or mortar bombs. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes, hand grenades are not usually classed as missiles. The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II, most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, however, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. Guided missiles have a number of different system components, Targeting and/or missile guidance Flight system Engine Warhead Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves and this radiation may emanate from the target, it may be provided by the missile itself, or it may be provided by a friendly third party. The first two are known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV guidance—using either visible light or infrared—in order to see the target, the picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target or by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead used a pigeon to steer the missile to its target, many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a system such as INS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the current position and the position of the target
13.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
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Intercontinental ballistic missile
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An intercontinental ballistic missile is a guided ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 kilometres primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery. Similarly, conventional, chemical, and biological weapons can also be delivered with varying effectiveness, most modern designs support multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, allowing a single missile to carry several warheads, each of which can strike a different target. Early ICBMs had limited precision that allowed them to be used only against the largest targets such as cities and they were seen as a safe basing option, one that would keep the deterrent force close to home where it would be difficult to attack. Attacks against military targets, if desired, still demanded the use of a more precise manned bomber, the result is that the power of a nuclear explosion to rupture hardened structures is greatly decreased by the distance from the impact point of the nuclear weapon. So a near-direct hit is generally necessary, as only diminishing returns are gained by increasing bomb yield, second- and third-generation designs dramatically improved accuracy to the point where even the smallest point targets can be successfully attacked. Short and medium-range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theatre ballistic missiles, the ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945, the progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants, in the immediate post-war era, the US and USSR both started rocket research programs based on the German wartime designs, especially the V-2. In the US, each branch of the military started its own programs, in the USSR, rocket research was centrally organized, although several teams worked on different designs. Early designs from both countries were short-range missiles, like the V-2, but improvements quickly followed, in the USSR early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. This changed in 1953 when Sergei Korolyov was directed to development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the R-7 developed with some speed, the first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash 400 km from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957, the R-7 flew over 6,000 km, the first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in north-west Russia. It was the same R-7 launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of R-7, Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. The U. S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the RTV-A-2 Hiroc project and this was a three-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut after only three successful launches in 1948 of the second stage design, used to test variations on the V-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly forming US Air Force did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first thermonuclear weapon, the Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957, the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket blew up
15.
Military tactics
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Military tactics are the science and art of organizing a military force, and the techniques for combining and using weapons and military units to engage and defeat an enemy in battle. Changes in philosophy and technology have been reflected in changes to military tactics, in contemporary military science, tactics are the lowest of three planning levels, strategic, operational, and tactical. The highest level of planning is strategy, how force is translated into political objectives by bridging the means, the intermediate level, operational, the conversion of strategy into tactics, deals with formations of units. Military tactics answer the questions of how best to deploy and employ forces on a small scale, some practices have not changed since the dawn of warfare, assault, ambushes, skirmishing, turning flanks, reconnaissance, creating and using obstacles and defenses, etc. Using ground to best advantage has not changed much either, heights, rivers, swamps, passes, choke points, and natural cover, can all be used in multiple ways. Before the nineteenth century, many tactics were confined to battlefield concerns. Nowadays, specialized tactics exist for many situations, for example for securing a room in a building, technological changes can render existing tactics obsolete, and sociological changes can shift the goals and methods of warfare, requiring new tactics. Tactics define how soldiers are armed and trained, each – constrained by his weaponry, logistics and social conditioning – would use a battlefield differently, but would usually seek the same outcomes from their use of tactics. The First World War forced great changes in tactics as advances in technology rendered prior tactics useless, list of military tactics Combat arms Johnson, Rob, Michael Whitby, John France. How to win on the battlefield,25 key tactics to outwit, outflank, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Muhm, Gerhard. German Tactics in the Italian Campaign, Gerhard Muhm, La Tattica nella campagna ass d’Italia, in LINEA GOTICA AVAMPOSTO DEI BALCANI, Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas, Roma 1993. Contemporary Marine tactics for war fighting Napoleons tactics and strategy Small Unit Actions during German Campaign in Russia
16.
Missile defense systems by country
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Missile defense systems are a type of missile defense intended to shield a country against incoming missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missile or other ballistic missiles. The United States, Russia, France, India and Israel have all developed missile defense systems, the term Missile defense system broadly means a system that provides any defense against any missile type by any country. Any mechanism which can detect and then destroy a missile before it can cause any harm is called a missile defence system, the role of defense against nuclear missiles has been a heated military and political topic for several decades. However, missile defense is no longer limited to interception of nuclear weapons. The gradual development and proliferation of technology has blurred the line between the technologies for the interception of tactical missiles and the interception of strategic missiles. High-performance tactical ballistic missiles carrying non-nuclear payloads now have the ability to affect strategic balance in conflict zones, likewise, high-performance tactical missile defense systems can now influence force deployment strategies. Italy and France have developed a family called Aster. Aster 30 is capable of missile defense. Royal Navy Type 45 destroyers and French Navy and Italian Navy Horizon -class frigates are armed with PAAMS, also, France is developing another version, Aster 30 block II which can destroy ballistic missiles with a maximum range of 3000 km. It will have a Kill Vehicle warhead, superficie-Aria Media Portata Terrestre is a development of Aster using batteries of Aster 30 missiles. Aster 15 and 30 missiles differ only in the size of their booster - total weights being 310 kg and 450 kg respectively, Aster 30 requires the longer tubes of the SYLVER A50 launcher, but its range is extended from 30 kilometres to 120 kilometres. Aster 30 is also capable of missile defense. The first stage booster of the missile is designed and manufactured by Avio of Italy. Indias air defence network has two principal components - the ‘Air Defence Ground Environment System’ and the ‘Base Air Defence Zones’, the ADGES network provides for wide area radar coverage and permits the detection and interception of most aerial incursions into Indian airspace. The BADZ system is far more concentrated with radars, interceptors, SAMs and AAA units working in conjunction to provide an intense, the Ballistic Missile Defence Program is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi-layered ballistic missile defense system to protect India from ballistic missile attacks. The two-tiered shield should be able to intercept any incoming missile launched 5,000 kilometers away, PAD was tested in November 2006, followed by AAD in December 2007. With the test of the PAD missile, India became the country to have successfully developed an Anti-ballistic missile system, after United States, Russia. On 6 March 2009, India again successfully tested its missile defense shield, on 6 May 2012, it was announced that Phase-I is complete and can be deployed to protect two Indian cities at a short notice
17.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
18.
Missile Defense Agency
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The Missile Defense Agency is the section of the United States governments Department of Defense responsible for developing a layered defense against ballistic missiles. The agency has its origins in the Strategic Defense Initiative which was established in 1983 and was headed by Lt. General James Alan Abrahamson and it was renamed the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization in 1993, and then renamed the Missile Defense Agency in 2002. The current commander is U. S. Navy Vice Admiral James D. Syring, see United States national missile defense for the history of DoD missile defense programs. According to the agencys web-page, The Missile Defense Agencys mission is to develop, test and our programmatic strategy is to develop, rigorously test, and continuously evaluate production, deployment and operational alternatives for the ballistic missile defense system. Missile defense systems being developed and tested by MDA are primarily based on hit-to-kill technology and it has been described as hitting a bullet with a bullet - a capability that has been successfully demonstrated in test after test. Ballistic Missile Defense Systems must be able to be operated in different regions of the world in order for the success of the MDA mission, the International Strategy was approved by the MDA Director in 2007. The general strategy for international efforts is, Outreach, Communicate the importance of missile defense by promoting worldwide BMDS by sharing information with allies, capability and Interoperability, Identify and integrate U. S and partner systems to create global missile defense system. Technology, Identify and evaluate possible international technology in support of BMDS capabilities, investment, Identify and execute investment opportunities with allies and partners. Workforce, Shape a qualified workforce to execute the MDA International Strategy, iran currently has short- and medium- range missiles with guidance systems. Iran’s launch of a range, solid fuel ballistic missile demonstrates its ability to hit targets in Israel. Iran also successfully launched the Safir Space Launch Vehicle on Feb 2,2009 and it was then speculated that development of an ICBM was not far behind. Intelligence reports that a missile could be built sometime between 2010 and 2015 perhaps using help from Russian and North Korean technology and they also successfully demonstrated the staging and separation technologies required to launch a Taepo-Dong 2 ICBM which has the capability to reach the United States. The Taepodong missile was first tested in 2006, and failed 40 seconds into midflight, on 1 January 2017, North Korea announced its final preparation for a test of an ICBM, for the first time. Syria has been identified as a host for Short Range Ballistic Missiles, MDA divides its systems into four phases, boost, ascent, mid-course and terminal, each corresponding to a different phase of the threat ballistic missile flight regime. The more opportunities you have to shoot it down, the better the chance of success, alternatively activities are categorized in five blocks. For example, block 4.0 is Defend Allies and Deployed Forces in Europe from Limited Iranian Long-Range Threats and that plan, however, was scrapped by the Obama administration on September 17,2009. Boost phase Can intercept all ranges of missiles, but the missile boost phase is only one to five minutes. It is the best time to track the missile because it is bright, the missile defense interceptors and sensors must be within close proximity to the launch, which is not always possible
19.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme
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The Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi-layered ballistic missile defence system to protect from ballistic missile attacks. The two-tiered shield should be able to intercept any incoming missile launched from 5,000 kilometres away, the system also includes an overlapping network of early warning and tracking radars, as well as command and control posts. The PAD was tested in November 2006, followed by the AAD in December 2007, with the test of the PAD missile, India became the fourth country to have successfully developed an anti-ballistic missile system, after United States, Russia, and Israel. The system has several tests but system is yet to be officially commissioned. Since the early 90s, India has faced the threat of missile attacks from Pakistan against which it has fought multiple wars in the past. In May 1998, India for the time tested nuclear weapons. With Pakistans testing of weapons and missile delivery systems, this threat intensified. India has also developed and tested missile delivery systems, in 1999, the Kargil War between India and Pakistan became the first direct conflict between two declared nuclear powers. This was immediately interpreted as a threat of a nuclear retaliation by Pakistan in the event of an extended war. The leader of Pakistans senate noted that the purpose of developing weapons becomes meaningless if they are not used when they are needed, some experts believe that following nuclear tests in 1998, Pakistani military was emboldened by its nuclear deterrent cover to markedly increase coercion against India. Phase-I of the system will enable interception of missiles up to a 2, 000-km range, Development of the anti-ballistic missile system began in 1999. Around 40 public and private companies were involved in the development of the systems and they include Bharat Electronics Ltd and Bharat Dynamics Ltd, Astra Microwave, ASL, Larsen & Toubro, Vem Technologies Private Limited and KelTech. Development of the LRTR and MFCR was led by Electronics and Radar Development Establishment, Defence Research and Development Laboratory developed the mission control software for the AAD missile. Research Centre, Imarat developed navigation, electromechanical actuation systems and the radar seeker. Advanced System Laboratory provided the motors, jet vanes and structures for the AAD and PAD, high Energy Materials Research Laboratory supplied the propellants for the missile. Two new anti ballistic missiles that can intercept IRBMs are being developed and these high speed missiles are being developed to intercept ballistic missiles with a range of around 5,000 km. The test trials of two systems are expected to take place in 2011. The new missile will be similar to the THAAD missile deployed by the US and these missiles will travel at hypersonic speeds and will require radars with scan capability of over 1,500 km to successfully intercept the target
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Thermosphere
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The thermosphere is the layer of the Earths atmosphere directly above the mesosphere. The exosphere is above that but is a layer of the atmosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, taking its name from the Greek θερμός meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about 85 kilometres above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass. Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation, temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2,000 °C. Radiation causes the particles in this layer to become electrically charged, enabling radio waves to be refracted. The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2,500 °C during the day. Even though the temperature is so high, one would not feel warm in the thermosphere, a normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 °C, at least at night, because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact. In the anacoustic zone above 160 kilometres, the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound, the dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides, which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating. Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the gas and the ionospheric plasma. The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere and it is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude and at about 85 km. The density of the Earths atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude, the total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρA H ≃1 kg/cm2 within a column of one square centimeter above the ground. 80% of that mass is concentrated within the troposphere, the mass of the thermosphere above about 85 km is only 0. 002% of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the atmospheric regions can be expected. Turbulence causes the air within the atmospheric regions below the turbopause at about 110 km to be a mixture of gases that does not change its composition. Its mean molecular weight is 29 g/mol with molecular oxygen and nitrogen as the two dominant constituents, the lighter constituents atomic oxygen, helium, and hydrogen successively dominate above about 200 km altitude and vary with geographic location, time, and solar activity. The ratio N2/O which is a measure of the density at the ionospheric F region is highly affected by these variations. These changes follow from the diffusion of the constituents through the major gas component during dynamic processes
22.
A-135 anti-ballistic missile system
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The A-135 anti-ballistic missile system is a Russian military complex deployed around Moscow to counter enemy missiles targeting the city or its surrounding areas. It is a successor to the previous A-35, and compliant with the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty from which the US unilaterally withdrew in 2002, the A-135 system attained alert status on February 17,1995. It is operational although its 51T6 component was deactivated in February 2007, a newer missile is expected to replace it. There is an operational test version of the system at the test site in Sary Shagan, Kazakhstan, the system is operated by the 9th Division of Anti-Missile Defence, part of the Air Defence and Missile Defence Command of the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. A-135 consists of the Don-2N battle management radar and two types of ABM missiles and it gets its data from the wider Russian early warning system which is sent to the command centre which then forwards tracking data to the Don-2N radar. The Don-2N radar is a large battle-management phased-array radar with 360° coverage, tests were undertaken at the prototype Don-2NP in Sary Shagan in 2007 to upgrade its software. 68 launchers of short-range 53T6 endoatmospheric interceptor nuclear-tipped missiles at five sites with 12 or 16 missiles each. Designed by NPO Novator, similar to US Sprint missile and these are tested roughly annually at the Sary Shagan test site. Currently decommissioned 16 launchers of long-range 51T6 exoatmospheric interceptor nuclear-tipped missiles at two sites with eight missiles each. The wider early warning system consists of, Two Daryal-type bistatic phased-array early warning radars, deployed at Pechora and Qabala radar in Qabala, dnepr radars at Mishelevka, Olenegorsk, and Balkhash, Sary Shagan, Kazakhstan. Voronezh radar US-KMO and US-K satellites, Command, control, communications and intelligence services. The successor system, dubbed Samolet-M supposedly will employ a new, conventional, main Centre for Missile Attack Warning A–235 anti-ballistic missile system Test launch, Function, RU,2011. DON-2N photos, Military legacy of the USSR, English Russia, 2012-12-29
23.
Ground-Based Midcourse Defense
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Ground-Based Midcourse Defense is the United States anti-ballistic missile system for intercepting incoming warheads in space, during the midcourse phase of ballistic trajectory flight. GMD is administered by the U. S, missile Defense Agency, while the operational control and execution is provided by the U. S. Army, and support functions are provided by the U. S. Air Force. The program is projected to cost $40 billion by 2017, the system consists of ground-based interceptor missiles and radar which would intercept incoming warheads in space. Boeing Defense, Space & Security is the contractor of the program, tasked to oversee and integrate systems from other major defense sub-contractors. A third site was planned for a proposed US missile defense complex in Poland, missile Defense Agency awarded Boeing a $397.9 million contract to continue development of the program. In March 2013, the Obama administration announced plans to add 14 interceptors to the current 26 at Fort Greely in response to North Korean threats, the deployment of a second TPY-2 radar to Japan was announced at the same time. In late 2013, there are plans for a proposed Eastern United States missile defense site to house a battery of these missiles. On 30 April 2014, the Government Accountability Office issued a report stating that the system may not be any time soon because its development was flawed. It says the GBI missile is capable of intercepting a simple threat in a limited way, on 12 August 2015, Lt. General David L. Mann characterized GMD as the nations only ground-based defense against limited ICBM attacks. Expenditures on the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense program have been estimated at US$30.7 billion by 2007. In 2013, it is estimated that the program will cost $40.926 billion from inception through FY2017, in 2013–17 spending is to total $4,457. 8M, the flight intercept tests from 2010 to 2013 were not successful. In response the Pentagon is asking for an increase and another test for the fielded program
24.
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
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THAAD was developed to counter Iraqs Scud missile attacks during the Gulf War in 1991. The missile carries no warhead, but relies on the energy of impact to destroy the incoming missile. A kinetic energy hit minimizes the risk of exploding conventional warhead ballistic missiles, originally a US Army program, THAAD has come under the umbrella of the Missile Defense Agency. The Navy has a program, the sea-based Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System. THAAD was originally scheduled for deployment in 2012, but initial deployment took place in May 2008, THAAD has been deployed in the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and South Korea. The THAAD system is being designed, built, and integrated by Lockheed Martin Space Systems acting as prime contractor, key subcontractors include Raytheon, Boeing, Aerojet, Rocketdyne, Honeywell, BAE Systems, Oshkosh Defense, MiltonCAT and the Oliver Capital Consortium. The THAAD missile defense concept was proposed in 1987, with a formal request for proposals submitted to industry in 1991, in September 1992, the US Army selected Martin Marietta as prime contractor for THAAD development. Prior to development of a prototype, the Aero-Optical Effect software code was developed to validate the intended operational profile of Lockheeds proposed design. The first THAAD flight test occurred in April 1995, with all flight tests in the Demonstration-Validation program phase occurring at White Sands Missile Range, the first six intercept attempts missed the target. The first successful intercepts were conducted on 10 June 1999, and 2 August 1999, in June 2000, Lockheed won the Engineering and Manufacturing Development contract to turn the design into a mobile tactical army fire unit. Flight tests of this system resumed with missile characterization and full system tests in 2006 at White Sands Missile Range, the Interceptor was lead through development and initial production by Tory Bruno, who later became CEO of United Launch Alliance. The company performed static fire trials of a modified THAAD booster in 2006, although the kill vehicle would not need redesign, the ground-based launcher would have only five missiles instead of eight. As of early 2015 THAAD-ER is only a concept. If funding for the THAAD-ER begins in 2018, a system could be produced by 2022 to provide a capability against a rudimentary hypersonic threat. Sometimes called Kinetic Kill technology, the THAAD missile destroys missiles by colliding with them, using hit-to-kill technology and this is unlike the Patriot PAC-2 which carried only an explosive warhead detonated using a proximity fuse. Although the actual figures are classified, THAAD missiles have a range of 125 miles. The THAAD missile is manufactured at the Lockheed Martin facility near Troy, the facility performs final integration, assembly and testing of the THAAD missile. The THAAD Radar is an X Band active electronically scanned array Radar developed and built by Raytheon at its Andover and it is the worlds largest ground/air-transportable X-Band radar
25.
S-400 missile system
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The S-400 Triumf, previously known as the S-300PMU-3, is an anti-aircraft weapon system developed in the 1990s by Russias Almaz Central Design Bureau as an upgrade of the S-300 family. It has been in service with the Russian Armed Forces since 2007, the S-400 uses four missiles to fill its performance envelope, the very-long-range 40N6, the long-range 48N6, the medium-range 9M96E2 and the short-range 9M96E. Development of the S-400 system began in the late 1980s, on 12 February 1999 the first, reportedly-successful tests were performed at Kapustin Yar in Astrakhan, and the S-400 was scheduled for deployment by the Russian army in 2001. In 2003, it became apparent that the system was not ready for deployment, in August, two high-ranking military officials expressed concern that the S-400 was being tested with obsolete interceptors from the S-300P system and concluded that it was not ready for deployment. Completion of the project was announced in February 2004, and in April a ballistic missile was intercepted in a test of the upgraded 48N6DM missile. In 2007, the system was approved for service, the 30K6E is an administration system which manages eight divisions. The 55K6E is a command and control centre based on the Ural-532301, the 91N6E is a panoramic radar detection system with protection against jamming which is mounted on an MZKT-7930. The S band system can hit 300 targets, six battalions of 98ZH6E surface-to-air missile systems can hit no more than six targets on their own, with an additional two battalions if they are within a 40-kilometre range. The 92N6E is a radar with a 400-kilometre range which can hit 100 targets. The 5P85TE2 launcher and the 5P85SE2 on a trailer are used for launch, the 48N6E, 48N6E2, 48N6E3, 48N6DM, 9M96E, 9M96E2 and the ultra-long-range 40N6E are authorised by a Russian presidential decree. According to the Russian government, the S-400 utilises an active electronically scanned array, optional elements of the S-400 include the 15I6ME–98ZH6E, with coverage of 30,60 and 90 km beyond the 30K6E coverage. The 96L6E has a 300-kilometre detection range, the 40B6M is housing for the 92N6E or 96L6E radar. The Protivnik-GE is an anti-stealth UHF radar with a 400-kilometre range, the 1RL220BE versions were reportedly were used for jamming. The 400-kilometre -range S-200D Dubna missiles and S-300 P-family radar systems can be used without additional command-and-control centres, S-300 missiles may also be guided. A-50 and A-50U aircraft provide early warning and command-and-control target designation, the Nebo-M system is designed to hunt the F-35 joint-strike fighter. The systems VHF component provides sector search and tracking, with the X-, good placement of the radars relative to the threat axis enables the L- and X-band components to illuminate the incoming target from angles where the target RCS is sub-optimal. The Gamma-C1E SHF mobile radar station has a 300-kilometre detection range, the Nebo VHF mobile radar station and the Resonance-NE radar station have a detection range of 1,200 kilometres and 65 kilometres to a height of 500 metres. All Nebo-family locators are doubled for army air defence, during the 1970s, the long-range mobile UHF 5H87 and SHF 5H69 low-altitude locators were used
26.
Tactical ballistic missile
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A tactical ballistic missile is a ballistic missile designed for short-range battlefield use. Typically, range is less than 300 kilometres, warheads can include conventional high explosive, chemical, biological, or nuclear warheads. Typically tactical nuclear weapons are limited in their total compared to strategic rockets. Tactical ballistic missiles fill the gap between conventional rocket artillery and longer-range short-range ballistic missiles, tactical missiles can carry heavy payloads deep behind enemy lines in comparison to rockets or tube artillery, while having better mobility and less expense than the more strategic theatre missiles. Additionally, due to their mobility, tactical missiles are better suited to responding to developments on the battlefield, for many nations, tactical missiles represent the upper limit of their land-based military equipment. They can provide a weapon for a very economical price. Currently, ballistic missile technology is accessible to nations that may find other military technology beyond easy reach. Ballistic missiles are still difficult to defeat on the battlefield, newer air defense systems have improved ability to intercept tactical missiles, but still can not reliably protect assets against ballistic missile threats. Early large rockets and missiles were propelled by liquid-propellant rocket engines and these were replaced as soon as possible by solid fuel rocket motors. Liquid propellants involve cryogenic or corrosive oxidisers and these must be loaded before launch, delaying the rockets time into action. This delay was a problem for large strategic missiles, but especially so for tactical, missiles, particularly in the Soviet Union, switched to using storable liquid propellants such as IRFNA, inhibited nitric acid. These were still hazardous to handle, but could be stored pre-loaded in the missile and this also allowed the development of single vehicle transporter erector launchers, rather than the previous convoy of carriers, launchers, fuel vehicles and service vehicles. Western missiles adopted solid propellants instead, which were inherently storable, tactical missiles are now almost universally solid-fuelled, except for some satellite states using indigenous developments of the original Scud platform
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Anti-ballistic missiles
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An anti-ballistic missile is a surface-to-air missile designed to counter ballistic missiles. Ballistic missiles are used to deliver nuclear, chemical, biological or conventional warheads in a flight trajectory. There are only two systems in the world that can intercept ICBMs, besides them, many smaller systems exist, that generally cannot intercept intercontinental strategic missiles, even if within range—an incoming ICBM simply moves too fast for these systems. The Russian A-35 anti-ballistic missile system, used for the defense of Moscow, the currently active system is called A-135. The system uses Gorgon and Gazelle missiles with nuclear warheads to intercept incoming ICBMs, the U. S. Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system has reached initial operational capability. Instead of using a charge, it launches a kinetic projectile. The George W. Bush administration accelerated development and deployment of a proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a purpose test and interception facility in Alaska. President Bush referenced the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense, the current GMD system has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a rogue state such as North Korea. Israels Arrow 3 system entered service in 2017. It is designed for interception of ballistic missiles during the spaceflight portion of their trajectory. It may also act as an anti-satellite weapon, during 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to discuss potential future ballistic missile defence programs. In the end, the recommended deployment of early warning. During spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the United States and Poland as well as the Czech Republic were published, the plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the launch site in Poland. The system was announced to be aimed against ICBMs from Iran and this caused harsh comments by Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe security conference during spring 2007 in Munich. Other European ministers commented that any change of strategic weapons should be negotiated on NATO level, as of July 2007, a majority of Poles were opposed to hosting a component of the system in Poland. Project 640 had been the PRCs indigenous effort to develop ABM capability, the Academy of Anti-Ballistic Missile & Anti-Satellite was established from 1969 for the purpose of developing Project 640. The project was to involve at least three elements, including the sensors and guidance/command systems, the Fan Ji missile interceptor
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MIM-104 Patriot
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The MIM-104 Patriot is a surface-to-air missile system, the primary of its kind used by the United States Army and several allied nations. It is manufactured by the U. S. defense contractor Raytheon, the AN/MPQ-53 at the heart of the system is known as the Phased array Tracking Radar to Intercept on Target which is a bacronym for PATRIOT. In addition to roles, Patriot has been given the function of the U. S. Armys anti-ballistic missile system. The system is expected to stay fielded until at least 2040, Patriot uses an advanced aerial interceptor missile and high-performance radar systems. Patriot was developed at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, which had developed the Safeguard ABM system and its component Spartan. The symbol for Patriot is a drawing of a Revolutionary War-era Minuteman, Patriot systems have been sold to Republic of China, Germany, Greece, Israel, Japan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Spain. Poland hosts training rotations of a battery of U. S and this started in the town of Morąg in May 2010 but was later moved further from the Russian border to Toruń and Ustka due to Russian objections. On December 4,2012, NATO authorized the deployment of Patriot missile launchers in Turkey to protect the country from missiles fired in the war in neighboring Syria. The Patriot air defense system achieved its first shootdowns of enemy aircraft in the service of the Israeli Air Defense Command, in 1975, the SAM-D missile successfully engaged a drone at the White Sands Missile Range. During 1976, it was renamed the PATRIOT Air Defense Missile System, the MIM-104 Patriot would combine several new technologies, including the MPQ-53 passive electronically scanned array radar and track-via-missile guidance. Full-scale development of the began in 1976 and it was deployed in 1984. Patriot was used initially as a system, but during 1988. The most recent upgrade, called PAC-3, is a total system redesign, intended from the outset to engage. The Patriot system has four major functions, communications, command and control, radar surveillance. The four functions combine to provide a coordinated, secure, integrated, the Patriot system is modular and highly mobile. A battery-sized element can be installed in less than 1 hour, all components, consisting of the fire control section and launchers, are truck- or trailer-mounted. The radar set and launchers are mounted on M860 semi-trailers, which are towed by Oshkosh M983 HEMTTs, Missile reloading is accomplished using a M985 HEMTT truck with a Hiab crane on the back. This crane is larger than the standard Grove cranes found on regular M977 HEMTT, the truck/crane, called a Guided Missile Transporter, removes spent missile canisters from the launcher and then replaces them with fresh missiles
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S-300 missile system
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The S-300 is a series of initially Soviet and later Russian long range surface-to-air missile systems produced by NPO Almaz, based on the initial S-300P version. The S-300 system was developed to defend against aircraft and cruise missiles for the Soviet Air Defence Forces, subsequent variations were developed to intercept ballistic missiles. The system is automated, though manual observation and operation are also possible. Components may be near the command post, or as distant as 40 km. Each radar provides target designation for the command post. The command post compares the data received from the targeting radars up to 80 km apart, filtering false targets, the central command post features both active and passive target detection modes. The project-managing developer of the S-300 is Almaz-Antey, S-300 uses missiles developed by both MKB Fakel and NPO Novator design bureaus. The S-300 is regarded as one of the most potent anti-aircraft missile systems currently fielded, an evolved version of the S-300 system is the S-400, which entered limited service in 2004. The tests have completed in 1978 and 1983. There are currently three main variations, the S-300P is the original version of the S-300 system which became operational in 1978. In 1987, over 80 of these sites were active, mainly in the area around Moscow, the P suffix stand for PVO-Strany. An S-300PT unit consists of a 36D6 surveillance radar, a 30N6 fire control system, the 5P85-1 vehicle is a semi-trailer truck. Usually a 76N6 low altitude detection radar is also a part of the unit and this system broke substantial new ground, including the use of a passive electronically scanned array radar and multiple engagements on the same Fire-control system. It took over one hour to set up this system for firing. It was originally intended to fit the Track Via Missile guidance system onto this model, However, the TVM system had problems tracking targets below 500 m. Rather than accept the limitation, the Soviets decided that the tracking of low altitude targets was a must and this allowed the minimum engagement altitude to be set at 25 m. Improvements to the S-300P have resulted in several major subversions for both the internal and the export market, the S-300PT-1 and S-300PT-1A are incremental upgrades of the original S300PT system. They introduce the 5V55KD missile and the launch method thereafter employed
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Boeing YAL-1
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The Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser Testbed weapons system was a megawatt-class chemical oxygen iodine laser mounted inside a modified Boeing 747-400F. It is primarily designed as a defense system to destroy tactical ballistic missiles while in boost phase. The aircraft was designated YAL-1A in 2004 by the U. S. Department of Defense, the YAL-1 with a low-power laser was test-fired in flight at an airborne target in 2007. A high-energy laser was used to intercept a test target in January 2010, funding for the program was cut in 2010 and the program was canceled in December 2011. It made its flight on February 14,2012 to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona to be kept in storage at the Boneyard by the 309th Aerospace Maintenance. It was ultimately scrapped in September 2014 after all parts were removed. The Airborne Laser Laboratory was a prototype installed in a Boeing NKC-135A. It shot down missiles in tests conducted in the 1980s. The Airborne Laser program was initiated by the US Air Force in 1996 with the awarding of a product definition risk reduction contract to Boeings ABL team, in 2001, the program was transferred to the MDA and converted to an acquisition program. The development of the system was being accomplished by a team of contractors, Boeing Defense, Space & Security provides the aircraft, the management team and the systems integration processes. Northrop Grumman was supplying the COIL, and Lockheed Martin was supplying the nose turret and these tests fully qualified the system so that it could be integrated into the actual aircraft. Following the completion of the tests, the laboratory was dismantled, Boeing completed initial modifications to a new 747-400F off the production line in 2002, culminating in its first flight on July 18,2002 from Boeings Wichita, Kansas facility. Ground testing of the COIL resulted in its firing in 2004. The YAL-1 was assigned to the 417th Flight Test Squadron Airborne Laser Combined Test Force at Edwards AFB, besides the COIL, the system also includes two kilowatt-class Target Illuminator Lasers for target tracking. On March 15,2007, the YAL-1 successfully fired this laser in flight, the target was an NC-135E Big Crow test aircraft that has been specially modified with a signboard target on its fuselage. The test validated the ability to track an airborne target and measure. The next phase in the test program involved the surrogate high-energy laser, a stand-in for the COIL, the COIL system was installed in the aircraft and undergoing ground testing by July 2008. The ABL program has significant affordability and technology problems and the proposed operational role is highly questionable
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Decoy
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A decoy is usually a person, device, or event meant as a distraction, to conceal what an individual or a group might be looking for. Decoys have been used for centuries most notably in game hunting, the term duck decoy may refer to two distinct devices, both used for hunting wildfowl. One is a long cone-shaped wickerwork tunnel installed on a pond to catch wild ducks. After the ducks settled on the pond, a small, trained dog would herd the birds into the tunnel, the catch was formerly sent to market for food, but now these are only used to catch ducks to be ringed and released, see ornithology. As decoy came more commonly to signify a person or a device than a pond with a cage-trap, the other form of duck decoy, otherwise known as a hunting decoy or wildfowl decoy, is a life-size model of the creature. The hunter places a number about the area as they will encourage wild birds to land nearby. Originally carved from wood, they are now made from plastic, wildfowl decoys are considered a form of folk art. Collecting decoys has become a significant hobby both for art collectors and hunters. The world record was set in September 2007 when a pintail drake and Canada goose, the decoy in war is a low-cost device intended to represent a real item of military equipment. They may be deployed in amongst their real counterparts, to enemy forces into attacking them. Alternatively, large numbers of military decoys, or dummys, may be deployed as an aspect of Military deception and their purpose is to fool the enemy into believing forces in a particular area are much stronger than they really are. One notable example are Quaker Guns, in irregular warfare, improvised explosive devices are commonly used as roadside bombs to target military patrols. Some guerillas also use imitation IEDs to intimidate civilians, to bomb disposal resources. Some terrorist groups use fake bombs during a siege, in order to limit hostage rescue efforts. In biochemistry, there are receptors, decoy substrates and decoy RNA. In addition, digital decoys are used in protein folding simulations, Decoy receptors, or sink receptors, are receptors that bind a ligand, inhibiting it from binding to its normal receptor. These proteins are therefore enzyme inhibitors, examples include K3L produced by vaccinia virus, which prevents the immune system from phosphorylating the substrate eIF-2 by having a similar structure to eIF-2. Thus, the vaccinia virus avoids the immune system, in protein folding simulations, a decoy is a computer-generated protein structure which is designed so to compete with the real structure of the protein
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HQ-9
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The HQ-9 is China’s new generation medium- to long-range, active radar homing surface-to-air missile. Similar to the Russian S-300 and American Patriot systems, the HQ-9 uses a HT-233 PESA radar system, the naval HQ-9 appears to be identical to the land-based variant. Its naval type HHQ-9 is equipped in the PLAN Type 052C Lanzhou class destroyer in VLS launch tubes, the land-based HQ-9 system has an anti-radiation variant, known as the FT-2000 for export. These equipments are usually mounted on Taian trucks, similar to the Russian S-300V, the HQ-9 is a two-stage missile. The first stage has a diameter of 700 mm and the 2nd stage 560 mm, with a mass of almost 2 tons. The missile is armed with a 180 kg warhead, has a speed of Mach 4.2. and has a maximum range of 200 km. The HQ-9s guidance system is composed of inertial guidance plus mid-course uplink, the system first used a missile in a box-like launcher canted at an angle, just like the MIM-104 Patriot. However the missile was very large because of Chinas limited experience with solid-fuel rockets, due to Russian assistance and technology transfers, the missile and launcher are in their present form, a transporter erector launcher with missiles inside a cylindrical container. The missile apparently has a limited anti ballistic missile capability, to reduce the cost, the HQ-9 is designed to be flexible enough to employ a wide range of radars, both the search/surveillance/acquisition radar and the tracking/engagement/fire control radar. Many FCRs of other Chinese SAM can be used for HQ-9, such as FCR used in KS-1 SAM, SJ-212, H-200 & SJ-231 FCRs of latter models of KS-1 SAM are also compatible with HQ-9. To maximize the effectiveness of HQ-9, a dedicated FCR for HQ-9 was developed. This could be due to a transfer of a Patriot missile to China from Israel. The radar can search a 120 degree arc in azimuth and 0-90 degrees in elevation out to 300 km, with a peak power output on 1MW. The radar is credited as being able to track 100 targets and guides up to 6 missiles to 6 targets, or alternatively, to 3 targets with a pair of missile for each target. In comparison to SJ-231 radar used by the latest model of KS-1, HT-233 has a thousand more phase shifter on its antenna array, totaling four thousand, in contrast, both AN/MPQ-53 & 30N6E radars have ten thousand phase shifters on their antenna arrays respectively. HT-233 radar is mounted on Taian TAS550110 x 10 high mobility cross country truck, when deployed as a search radar TH-233 is fielded at brigade level, while FCR radars deployed would be SJ-212, H-200 or SJ-231. HT-233 is credited with a range of 120 km, scanning 360 degrees in azimuth. It can track 100 targets and designate 50 for engagements, several search radars are discovered to be associated with HQ-9, including anti-ballistic radars and anti-stealth radars
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Sprint (missile)
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The Sprint was a two-stage, solid-fuel anti-ballistic missile, armed with a W66 enhanced radiation thermonuclear warhead. As the RV would be travelling at about 5 miles per second, Sprint accelerated at 100 g, reaching a speed of Mach 10 in 5 seconds. Such a high velocity at low altitudes created skin temperatures up to 6200 °F. The high temperature caused a plasma to form around the missile, Sprint was the centerpiece of the Nike-X system, which concentrated on placing bases around large cities to intercept Soviet warheads. As the cost of such a system quickly became untenable as the Soviets added more ICBMs to their fleet, in its place came the Sentinel program which used Sprint as a last-ditch defense against RVs that evaded the much longer-ranged LIM-49 Spartan. Sentinel was itself changed to become the Safeguard program, which was only for a few months from October 1975 to early 1976. Congressional opposition and high costs linked to its economics and efficacy against the then emerging MIRV warheads of the Soviet Union. Some work on an improved Sprint II was carried out in the early 1970s, the conical Sprint was stored in and launched from a silo. To make the launch as quick as possible, the cover was blown off the silo by explosive charges, as the missile cleared the silo, the first stage fired and the missile was tilted toward its target. The first stage was exhausted after only 1.2 seconds, on separation of the spent first stage, it disintegrated due to aerodynamic forces. The second stage fired within 1 –2 seconds of launch, interception at an altitude of one to eighteen miles altitude took at most 15 seconds. The Sprint was controlled by ground-based radio command guidance, which tracked the incoming reentry vehicles with phased-array radar, the Sprint was armed with an enhanced radiation nuclear warhead with a yield reportedly of a few kilotons, though the exact number has not been declassified. The warhead was intended to destroy the incoming reentry vehicle primarily by neutron flux, the first test of the Sprint missile took place at White Sands Missile Range on 17 November 1965. Both were tested at the White Sands Launch Complex 38, the small Thunderbird rocket of 1947 produced an acceleration of 100 G with a polysulfide composite propellant, star-grained cross section solid rocket motor. The first test of the Sprint missile took place at White Sands Missile Range on 17 November 1965, the Air Defense Artillery museum at Fort Sill, Oklahoma has both Safeguard missiles, plus Nike Zeus and HIBEX on exhibit. The White Sands Missile Range Museum has a HIBEX on exhibit, 53T6 Anti-ballistic missile Surface-to-air missile LIM-49 Spartan Nike-Hercules missile Project Nike Safeguard Program Sprint Directory of U. S
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Nuclear explosion
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The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface, air burst, or exo-atmospheric determine how energy is produced as blast. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, when an air burst occurs, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects, as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used. Energy from an explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a material such as air, rock, or water. This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion, kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere, intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough, it is often associated with a mushroom cloud. In a burst at high altitude, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and this would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying there was a possibility in the very early days. Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity, nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years, and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test. The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, the front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding shock wave. At first, this wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball. For air bursts at or near sea-level, 50–60% of the energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons, furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to <1 per cent of air density. The effects of a rain storm during an Operation Castle nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce. Much of the caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects
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Atmosphere of Earth
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The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earths gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention. By volume, dry air contains 78. 09% nitrogen,20. 95% oxygen,0. 93% argon,0. 04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains an amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5. 15×1018 kg, the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1. 57% of Earths radius, is used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km, several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science, early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann. The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earths atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor accounts for roughly 0. 25% of the atmosphere by mass. The remaining gases are often referred to as gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide. Filtered air includes trace amounts of other chemical compounds. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine compounds, sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere, however, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions. In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided into five main layers, excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km where it merges into the solar wind. This layer is composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another, thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind, the exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible
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North American Aerospace Defense Command
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Headquarters for NORAD and the NORAD/United States Northern Command center are located at Peterson Air Force Base in El Paso County, near Colorado Springs, Colorado. The nearby Cheyenne Mountain Complex has the Alternate Command Center, the NORAD commander and deputy commander are, respectively, a United States four-star general or equivalent and a Canadian three-star general or equivalent. CINCNORAD maintains the NORAD headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base near Colorado Springs, with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat. S. Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors, ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and the Canadian Armed Forces, both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace. Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is at CFB Winnipeg, Manitoba and it was established on 22 April 1983. It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace, the Royal Canadian Air Force provides alert assets to NORAD. CANR is divided into two sectors, which are designated as the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector, both Sector Operations Control Centers are co-located at CFB North Bay Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status, in 1996 CANR was renamed 1 Canadian Air Division and moved to CFB Winnipeg. Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Cold Lake, Alberta and 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Bagotville, All squadrons fly the McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP, the Continental NORAD Region is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for the Contiguous United States. CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air Force First Air Force/AFNORTH and its headquarters is located at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. The First Air Force became responsible for the USAF air defense mission on 30 September 1990, AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component of United States Northern Command. 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprises State Air National Guard Fighter Wings assigned an air mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH. The primary weapons systems are the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft and it plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region,1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations, NORAD was recommended by the Joint Canadian-U. S. The 1958 international agreement designated the NORAD commander always be a United States officer, agreed the commands primary purpose would be…early warning and defense for SACs retaliatory forces. The RCAFs 1950 ground observer system, the Long Range Air Raid Warning System, was discontinued and on 31 January 1959, the United States Ground Observer Corps was deactivated
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Distant Early Warning Line
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It was set up to detect incoming Soviet bombers during the Cold War, and provide early warning of any sea-and-land invasion. The DEW Line was the northernmost and most capable of three lines in Canada and Alaska. The Mid-Canada Line was proposed as a solution using a new type of radar. This provided a trip wire warning located roughly at the 55th parallel, giving commanders ample warning time, the MCL proved largely useless in practice, the radar return of flocks of birds overwhelmed signals from aircraft. This would not only provide ample time for the defenses to prepare, the need was considered critical and the construction was given the highest national priorities. The 63-base Line reached operational status in 1957, the MCL was shut down in the early 1960s, and much of the Pinetree line was given over to civilian use. In 1985, as part of the Shamrock Summit, the US, beginning in 1988, most of the original DEW stations were deactivated, while a small number were upgraded with all-new equipment. The official handover from DEW to NWS took place on 15 July 1993, the shortest route for a Russian air attack on North America is through the Arctic, across the North Pole. The original DEW line was designed to detect bombers and was unable to detect intercontinental ballistic missiles, to give warning of this threat, in 1958 a more sophisticated radar system was constructed, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System. The DEW Line was a significant achievement among Cold War initiatives in the Arctic, the DEW Line grew out of a detailed study made by a group of the nations foremost scientists in 1952, the Summer Study Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The line would run roughly along the 69th parallel north, about 200 miles or 300 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle. Before this project was completed, men and women with the knowledge, skills, and experience were drawn from Bell Telephone companies in every state in the US. Much of the responsibility was delegated under close supervision to a vast number of subcontractors, suppliers, the designs of communication and radar detection equipment available at the time were known to be unsuited to the weather and atmospheric conditions to be encountered in the Arctic. Prototypes of several stations were designed and built in Alaska and in a section of Illinois in 1953. With the experimental phase completed successfully, the Air Forces asked the Western Electric Company to proceed as rapidly as possible with the construction of the entire DEW Line and that was in December 1954, before the route to be followed in the eastern section had even been determined. The locations were surveyed out by John Anderson-Thompson, siting crews covered the area – first from the air and then on the ground – to locate by scientific means the best sites for the main, auxiliary, and intermediate stations. These hardy men lived and worked under the most primitive conditions and they covered vast distances by airplanes, snowmobiles, and dog sleds, working in blinding snowstorms with temperatures so low that ordinary thermometers could not measure them. But they completed their part of the job on schedule and set the stage for the army of men
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Greenland
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Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
39.
Pallet
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A pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load which allows handling and storage efficiencies. Goods or shipping containers are placed on a pallet secured with strapping, stretch wrap or shrink wrap. While most pallets are wooden, pallets can also be made of plastic, metal, paper, each material has advantages and disadvantages relative to the others. Containerization for transport has spurred the use of pallets because the shipping containers have the smooth, most pallets can easily carry a load of 1,000 kg. Today, over half a billion pallets are made each year, pallets make it easier to move heavy stacks. Loads with pallets under them can be hauled by forklift trucks of different sizes, or even by hand-pumped, movement is easy on a wide, strong, flat floor, concrete is excellent. The greatest investment needed for economical use is in the construction of commercial or industrial buildings. Passage through doors and buildings must be possible, to help this issue, some later pallet standards are designed to pass through standard doorways. Organizations using standard pallets for loading and unloading can have lower costs for handling and storage. The exceptions are establishments that move small items such as jewelry or large items such as cars, but even they can be improved. For instance, the distributors of costume jewelry normally use pallets in their warehouses and car manufacturers use pallets to move components, the lack of a single international standard for pallets causes substantial continuing expense in international trade. A single standard is difficult because of the variety of needs a standard pallet would have to satisfy, passing doorways, fitting in standard containers. For example, organizations already handling large pallets often see no reason to pay the higher handling cost of using smaller pallets that can fit through doors, due to cost and a need to focus on core business, pallet pooling becomes more and more common. Some pallet suppliers supply users with reusable pallets, sometimes with integral tracking devices, a pallet management company can help supply, clean, repair, and reuse pallets. Pallets should be seen as reusable packaging items as a pallet can potentially be used multiple times over the course its lifetime, in the UK, government legislation relating to the Waste Framework Directive requires the reuse of packaging items above recycling and disposal. Wooden pallets typically consist of three or four stringers that support several deckboards, on top of which goods are placed, in a pallet measurement the first number is the stringer length and the second is the deckboard length. Square or nearly square pallets help a load resist tipping, two-way pallets are designed to be lifted by the deckboards. The standard North American pallet, or GMA pallet, has stringers of 48 inches, four-way pallets, or pallets for heavy loads are best lifted by their more rigid stringers
40.
Project Nike
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Project Nike, was a U. S. Army project, proposed in May 1945 by Bell Laboratories, to develop a line-of-sight anti-aircraft missile system. The project delivered the United States first operational anti-aircraft missile system, a great number of the technologies and rocket systems used for developing the Nike Ajax were re-used for a number of functions, many of which were given the Nike name. The missiles first-stage solid rocket booster became the basis for many types of rocket including the Nike Hercules missile and NASAs Nike Smoke rocket, a much longer-ranged collision-course system was developed by General Electric, named Project Thumper, eventually delivering the BOMARC missile. Bell Labs proposal would have to deal with bombers flying at 500 mph or more, at these speeds, even a supersonic rocket is no longer fast enough to be simply aimed at the target. The missile must lead the target to ensure the target is hit before the missile depletes its fuel and this means that the missile and target cannot be tracked by a single radar, increasing the complexity of the system. By this point, the US had considerable experience with lead-calculating analog computers, starting with the British Kerrison Predictor, for Nike, three radars were used. The acquisition radar searched for a target to be handed over to the Target Tracking Radar for tracking, the Missile Tracking Radar tracked the missile by way of a transponder, as the missiles radar signature alone was not sufficient. The MTR also commanded the missile by way of pulse-position modulation, once the tracking radars were locked the system was able to work automatically following launch, barring any unexpected occurrences. The computer compared the two directions, along with information on the speeds and distances, to calculate the intercept point. The entirety of this system was provided by the Bell Systems electronics firm, the Douglas-built missile was a two-stage missile using a solid fuel booster stage and a liquid fueled second stage. The missile could reach a speed of 1,000 mph. The missile contained an unusual three part payload, with explosive charges at three points down the length of the missile to help ensure a lethal hit. The missiles limited range was seen by critics as a serious flaw, after disputes between the Army and the Air Force, all longer-range systems were assigned to the Air Force during 1948. They merged their own research with Project Thumper, while the Army continued to develop Nike. During 1950 the Army formed the Army Anti-Aircraft Command to operate batteries of anti-aircraft guns, ARAACOM was renamed the US Army Air Defense Command during 1957. It adopted a simpler acronym, ARADCOM, in 1961, the first successful Nike test was during November 1951, intercepting a drone B-17 Flying Fortress. The first type, Nike Ajax, were deployed starting in 1953, the Army initially ordered 1,000 missiles and 60 sets of equipment. They were placed to protect strategic and tactical sites within the US, as a last-line of defense from air attack, they were positioned to protect cities as well as military installations
41.
MIM-14 Nike Hercules
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The Nike Hercules was a surface-to-air missile used by U. S. and NATO armed forces for medium- and high-altitude long-range air defense. It was normally armed with the W31 nuclear warhead, but could also be fitted with a warhead for export use. Its warhead also allowed it to be used in a secondary role. It evolved into a larger missile with two solid fuel stages that provided three times the range of the Ajax. Deployment began in 1958, initially at new bases, but it took over many Ajax bases as well. At its peak it was deployed at over 130 bases in the US alone, Hercules was officially referred to as transportable, but moving a battery was a significant operation and required considerable construction at the firing sites. Over its lifetime, significant effort was put into development of solid state replacements for the vacuum tube-based electronics inherited from the early-1950s Ajax, none of these were adopted, in favor of much more mobile systems like the MIM-23 Hawk. Another potential development was a version of the Hercules for the anti-ballistic missile role. Hercules would prove to be the last operational missile from Bells Nike team, Zeus was never deployed, Hercules remained the US primary heavy SAM until it began to be replaced by the higher performance and considerably more mobile MIM-104 Patriot in the 1980s. Patriots much higher accuracy allowed it to dispense with the nuclear warhead, the last Hercules missiles were deactivated in Europe in 1988, without ever being fired in anger. Like the Germans and British before them, they concluded the only successful defence would be to use guided weapons, as early as 1944 the US Army started exploring anti-aircraft missiles, examining a variety of concepts. That is, whether the missile operated more like an aircraft or a rocket, GAPA moved to the US Air Force when that branch was formed in 1948. In 1946 the USAAF also started two early research projects into anti-missile systems in Project Thumper and Project Wizard, in 1953, Project Nike delivered the worlds first operational anti-aircraft missile system, known simply as Nike. Nike tracked both the target and the missile using separate radars, compared the locations in a computer, to increase range, the missile was normally boosted above the target into thinner air, and then descended on it in a gliding dive. Similar systems quickly emerged from other nations, including the S-75 Dvina from the USSR, even as the Nike was undergoing testing, planners grew concerned about the missiles ability to attack formations of aircraft. Given the low resolution of the tracking radars available at the time, launched against such a formation, the Nike would fly towards the center of the composite return. Given the Nike warheads relatively small radius, if the missile flew into the middle of the formation and exploded. Improving performance against such targets would require much higher resolution radars
42.
Nike Zeus
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It was designed by Bells Nike team, and was initially based on the earlier Nike Hercules anti-aircraft missile. The original Zeus A, given the tri-service identifier XLIM-49, was designed to intercept warheads in the upper atmosphere, during development, the concept changed to protect a much larger area and intercept the warheads at higher altitudes. This required the missile to be enlarged into the totally new design, Zeus B. In several successful tests, the B model proved itself able to intercept warheads, the nature of the strategic threat changed dramatically during the period that Zeus was being developed. Originally expected to only a few dozen ICBMs, a nationwide defense was feasible. In 1957, growing fears of a Soviet sneak attack led it to be repositioned as a way to protect Strategic Air Commands bomber bases, but when the Soviets claimed to be building hundreds of missiles, the US faced the problem of building enough Zeus missiles to match them. The Air Force suggested they close this gap by building more ICBMs of their own instead. Adding to the debate, a number of technical problems emerged that suggested Zeus would have capability against any sort of sophisticated attack. The system was the topic of intense inter-service rivalry throughout its lifetime, when the ABM role was given to the Army in 1958, the United States Air Force began a long series of critiques on Zeus, both within defense circles and in the press. As deployment neared in the early 1960s, the became a major political issue. The question ultimately became whether or not a system with limited effectiveness would be better than nothing at all, the decision whether to proceed with Zeus eventually fell to President John F. Kennedy, who became fascinated by the indecision surrounding the ABM system. In 1963, the United States Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, the Zeus test site built at Kwajalein was briefly used as an anti-satellite weapon. These projects identified the problem being one of detection, the target could approach from anywhere within of hundreds of miles. The task appeared impossible at that time, however, these results also noted that the system might be able to work against longer-ranged missiles. Although these traveled at very high speeds, their higher altitude trajectories made detection simpler, both projects were allowed to continue as research efforts, and were transferred to the US Air Force when that force separated from the Army in 1947. The Air Force faced significant budget constraints and cancelled Thumper in 1949 in order to use its funds to continue their GAPA surface-to-air missile. The next year they merged the Wizard and GAPA projects to develop a new long-range SAM design, ABM research at the Air Force practically, although not officially, ended. By the early 1950s the Army was firmly established in the missile field with their Nike and Nike B missile projects
43.
United States national missile defense
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This is also used to refer to the American nationwide antimissile program the United States has had in development since the 1990s. After the renaming in 2002, the term now refers to the program, not just the ground-based interceptors. This article focuses mainly on system and a brief history of earlier systems which led to it. Other elements yet to be integrated into NMD may include anti-ballistic missiles, or sea-based, space-based, laser, the NMD program is limited in scope and designed to counter a relatively small ICBM attack from a less sophisticated adversary. Unlike the earlier Strategic Defense Initiative program, it is not designed to be a robust shield against a attack from a technically sophisticated adversary. As of 2006, this system is operational with limited capability and it is designed to intercept a small number of nuclear-armed ICBMs in the mid-course phase, using interceptor missiles launched from within the United States in Alaska. Any national ICBM defense by any country, past or present, Sentinel program was a planned national missile defense during the 1960s, but was never deployed. Elements of Sentinel were actually deployed briefly as the Safeguard Program, the Russian A-135 anti-ballistic missile system is currently operational only around the city of Moscow, the national capital, and is far from being national in scope in Russia. Any national missile defense by any country, Israel currently has a national missile defense against short and medium-range missiles using their Arrow missile system. See Missile defense#Trajectory phase for the types of missiles, the advantages. The role of defense against nuclear missiles has been a heated military, but missile defense against a known ballistic missile trajectory has to be rethought in the face of a maneuverable threat. When the United States Air Force was split from the United States Army in 1947, the Army retained the lead role in this area until the success of the Aegis system shifted the focus to the United States Navy in the 21st century. In the 1950s, a series of missiles were developed as part of Project Nike. The latest in the series, Nike-Zeus, offered extremely long-range interception, in the late 1950s, the program investigated the use of Nike-Zeus missiles as interceptors against Soviet ICBMs. A Nike warhead would be detonated at altitudes above the polar regions in the near vicinity of an incoming Soviet missile. The problem of how to identify and track incoming missiles proved intractable, especially in light of easily envisioned countermeasures such as decoys. At the same time, the need for a high-performance anti-aircraft weapon was also eroded by the obvious evolution of the Soviet nuclear force to one based almost entirely on ICBMs. The Nike-Zeus project was canceled in 1961, the Nike-Zeus use of nuclear warheads was necessary given the available missile technology
44.
A-35 anti-ballistic missile system
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The A-35 anti-ballistic missile system was a Soviet military anti-ballistic missile system deployed around Moscow to intercept enemy ballistic missiles targeting the city or its surrounding areas. The A-35 was the only Soviet ABM system allowed under the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, in development since the 1960s and in operation from 1971 until the 1990s, it featured the nuclear-tipped A350 exoatmospheric interceptor missile. The A-35 was supported by the two Dunay radars and the Soviet early warning system and it was followed by the A-135 in the early 1990s. The first Soviet anti-ballistic missile system was System A which was started at Test Range A at Sary Shagan test site in July 1956, the testing of System A began in 1959. System A used the V-1000 missile to intercept enemy missiles, the first launch of the V-1000 was 11 October 1957 and its first successful intercept was 4 March 1961 where it intercepted an R-12 missile launched from Kapustin Yar. System A used the Dunay-2 designed by V Sosulnikov at NII-37 as well as 3 homing radars, the three homing radars were situated in an equilateral triangle with a length of 150 kilometres. It could track missiles from a distance of about 700 kilometres, the V-1000 launch position and the ABM radar were located together. The system used an M-40 computer which could do 40,000 operations per second, the first work on A-35 started in 1959 with the test model, called Aldan. The designer of the system was G. Kisunko of Soviet Experimental Design Bureau OKB-30, a new missile, the A-350, was to be designed by P. Grushin of OKB-2. Unlike the V-1000, the missile was to have a nuclear warhead, the design of the system called for it to be able to intercept several hostile incoming missiles simultaneously with a single warhead. It was also to them outside the atmosphere. A-35 was to have a command centre, eight early warning radars with overlapping sectors. Practical work to install the system started in 1965 but by 1967 only the test version at Sary Shagan was ready, there was an awareness that it had flaws, including an inability to handle MIRVs. In 1967 a Ministry of Defence commission decided that it should not be fully implemented, the eight radars were to be reduced to the two that had been started, the Dunay-3 at Akulovo and the Dunay-3U at Chekhov. In 1971 a version of A-35 was tested with the command centre, one radar. The command centre was located at the site as the Dunay-3 radar. In 1974 a version was tested with the command with its 5E92 computer. Each battle station had two tracking radars, two battle management radars and sixteen A-350 missiles, only four of the eight battle stations were ever completed
45.
Robert McNamara
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Robert Strange McNamara was an American business executive and the eighth Secretary of Defense, serving from 1961 to 1968 under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, during which time he played a role in escalating the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. Following that, he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 to 1981, McNamara was responsible for the institution of systems analysis in public policy, which developed into the discipline known today as policy analysis. McNamara consolidated intelligence and logistics functions of the Pentagon into two centralized agencies, the Defense Intelligence Agency and the Defense Supply Agency. Prior to his service, McNamara was one of the Whiz Kids who helped rebuild Ford Motor Company after World War II. A group of advisors he brought to the Pentagon inherited the Whiz Kids moniker, McNamara remains the longest serving Secretary of Defense, having remained in office over seven years. Robert McNamara was born in San Francisco, California and his father was Robert James McNamara, sales manager of a wholesale shoe company, and his mother was Clara Nell McNamara. His fathers family was Irish and in about 1850, following the Great Irish Famine, had emigrated to the U. S. first to Massachusetts and later to California. He graduated from Piedmont High School in Piedmont in 1933, where he was president of the Rigma Lions boys club, McNamara attended the University of California, Berkeley and graduated in 1937 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics with minors in mathematics and philosophy. He was a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa his sophomore year, and earned a varsity letter in crew. McNamara was also a member of the UC Berkeleys Order of the Golden Bear which was a fellowship of students and he then attended Harvard Business School and earned an MBA in 1939. One major responsibility was the analysis of U. S. bombers efficiency and effectiveness, especially the B-29 forces commanded by Major General Curtis LeMay in India, China, and the Mariana Islands. McNamara established a control unit for XX Bomber Command and devised schedules for B-29s doubling as transports for carrying fuel. He left active duty in 1946 with the rank of lieutenant colonel, in 1946, Charles Tex Thornton, a colonel under whom McNamara had served, put together a group of officers from his AAF Statistical Control operation to go into business together. Thornton had seen an article in Life magazine portraying Ford as being in dire need of reform, henry Ford II, himself a World War II veteran from the Navy, hired the entire group of 10, including McNamara. The Whiz Kids, as came to be known, helped the money-losing company reform its chaotic administration through modern planning, organization. Whiz Kids origins, Because of their youth, combined with asking lots of questions, Ford employees initially and disparagingly, the Quiz Kids rebranded themselves as the Whiz Kids. Starting as manager of planning and financial analysis, he advanced rapidly through a series of management positions
46.
SALT I
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The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II. Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, Finland, in November 1969, SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States Senate chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Soviet legislature also did not ratify it. The agreement expired on December 31,1985 and was not renewed, a successor to START I, New START, was proposed and was eventually ratified in February 2011. SALT I is the name for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement signed on May 26,1972. SALT I also limited land-based ICBMs that were in range from the border of the continental United States to the northwestern border of the continental USSR. In addition to that, SALT I limited the number of SLBM capable submarines that NATO, if the United States or NATO were to increase that number, the USSR could respond with increasing their arsenal by the same amount. The strategic nuclear forces of the Soviet Union and the United States were changing in character in 1968, MIRVs carried multiple nuclear warheads, often with dummies, to confuse ABM systems, making MIRV defense by ABM systems increasingly difficult and expensive. One clause of the treaty required both countries to limit the number of sites protected by a missile system to two each. The Soviet Union had deployed such a system around Moscow in 1966, a modified two-tier Moscow ABM system is still used. The United States built only one ABM site to protect a Minuteman base in North Dakota where the Safeguard Program was deployed, due to the systems expense and limited effectiveness, the Pentagon disbanded Safeguard in 1975. Negotiations lasted from November 17,1969, until May 1972 in a series of meetings beginning in Helsinki, Smith, director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. Subsequent sessions alternated between Vienna and Helsinki, after a long deadlock, the first results of SALT I came in May 1971, when an agreement was reached over ABM systems. A number of agreed statements were also made and this helped improve relations between the United States and the USSR. SALT II was a series of talks between United States and Soviet negotiators from 1972 to 1979 which sought to curtail the manufacture of nuclear weapons. It was a continuation of the SALT I talks and was led by representatives from both countries, SALT II was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories of delivery vehicles on both sides. SALT II helped the United States to discourage the Soviets from arming their third-generation ICBMs of SS-17, SS-19, in the late 1970s the USSRs missile design bureaus had developed experimental versions of these missiles equipped with anywhere from 10 to 38 warheads each. Additionally, the Soviets secretly agreed to reduce Tu-22M production to thirty aircraft per year and it was particularly important for the United States to limit Soviet efforts in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces rearmament area
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