1.
Computer program
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A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function, and typically executes the programs instructions in a processing unit. A computer program is written by a computer programmer in a programming language. From the program in its form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer can directly execute. Alternatively, a program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter. A part of a program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of programs, libraries and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as software or system software. The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer, in 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be weaved and repeated by arranging the cards, in 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquards loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine. The names of the components of the device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled, the device would have had a store—memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the store would then have then transferred to the mill. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards—one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables, however, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British governments money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together. During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea, the memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine and this note is recognized by some historians as the worlds first written computer program. In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine and it is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm
2.
Smartphone
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A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use. Smartphones can access the Internet and can run a variety of third-party software components and they typically have a color display with a graphical user interface that covers more than 76% of the front surface. In 1999, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late 2000s. Most of those produced from 2012 onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide. Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early 2013, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in 1909 and Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971 and patented in 1974, and were offered for sale beginning in 1993. Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in 1994. The term smart phone appeared in print as early as 1995, in the mid-late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS or Windows CE/Pocket PC. These operating systems would later evolve into mobile operating systems, in March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo 700LX, a modified HP 200LX palmtop PC that supported a Nokia 2110 phone with ROM-based software to support it. It had a 640×200 resolution CGA compatible four-shade gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to place and receive calls and it was also 100% DOS5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands of existing software titles, including early versions of Windows. In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator, a cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110 with an integrated PDA based on the PEN/GEOS3.0 operating system from Geoworks. The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above. The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone. In June 1999 Qualcomm released the pdQ Smartphone, a CDMA digital PCS Smartphone with an integrated Palm PDA, subsequent landmark devices included, The Ericsson R380 by Ericsson Mobile Communications. The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. The Kyocera 6035 introduced by Palm, Inc, combining a PDA with a mobile phone, it operated on the Verizon network, and supported limited Web browsing
3.
Tablet computer
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Tablets often come equipped with sensors, including digital cameras, a microphone, and an accelerometer so images on screens are always displayed upright. The touchscreen display uses the recognition of finger or stylus gestures to replace the mouse, trackpad, tablets are typically larger than smartphones or personal digital assistants with screens 7 inches or larger, measured diagonally. However much of a tablets functionality resembles that of a modern smartphone, tablets can be classified according to the presence and physical appearance of keyboards. Slates and booklets do not have a keyboard, and usually accept text. Hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s do have physical keyboards, yet they also make use of virtual keyboards. Some 2-in-1s have processors and operating systems like a full laptop, most tablets can use separate keyboards connected using Bluetooth. The format was conceptualized in the century and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In April 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity, thereafter in the 2010s, tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and became a large product category used for both personal and workplace applications. The tablet computer and its operating system began with the development of pen computing. Throughout the 20th century devices with these characteristics have been imagined and created whether as blueprints, prototypes, a device more powerful than todays tablets appeared briefly in Jerry Pournelle and Larry Nivens The Mote in Gods Eye. Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the audience was children. In 1992, Atari showed developers the Stylus, later renamed ST-Pad, the ST-Pad was based on the TOS/GEM Atari ST Platform and prototyped early handwriting recognition. Shiraz Shivjis company Momentus demonstrated in the time a failed x86 MS-DOS based Pen Computer with its own GUI. In 1994, the European Union initiated the NewsPad project, inspired by Clarke, Acorn Computers developed and delivered an ARM-based touch screen tablet computer for this program, branding it the NewsPad, the project ended in 1997. During the November 2000 COMDEX, Microsoft used the term Tablet PC to describe a prototype handheld device they were demonstrating, all three products were based on extended versions of the MS-DOS operating system. In 1992, IBM announced and shipped to developers the 2521 ThinkPad, also based on PenPoint was AT&Ts EO Personal Communicator from 1993, which ran on AT&Ts own hardware, including their own AT&T Hobbit CPU. Apple Computer launched the Apple Newton personal digital assistant in 1993 and it utilised Apples own new Newton OS, initially running on hardware manufactured by Motorola and incorporating an ARM CPU, that Apple had specifically co-developed with Acorn Computers. The operating system and platform design were later licensed to Sharp and Digital Ocean, in 1996, Palm, Inc. released the first of the Palm OS based PalmPilot touch and stylus based PDA, the touch based devices initially incorporating a Motorola Dragonball CPU
4.
Smartwatch
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A smartwatch is a computerized wristwatch with functionality that goes beyond timekeeping. While early models can perform tasks, such as calculations, translations. Many run mobile apps, using an operating system. Some smartwatches function as media players, with FM radio and playback of digital audio. Some models, also called watch phones, feature full mobile phone capability, while internal hardware varies, most have an electronic visual display, either backlit LCD or OLED. Some use transflective or electronic paper, to less power. Most have a battery and many have a touchscreen. Peripheral devices may include digital cameras, thermometers, accelerometers, altimeters, barometers, compasses, GPS receivers, tiny speakers, software may include digital maps, schedulers and personal organizers, calculators, and various kinds of watch faces. The watch may communicate with devices such as sensors, wireless headsets. Like other computers, a smartwatch may collect information from internal or external sensors and it may control, or retrieve data from and it may support wireless technologies like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS. For many purposes, a wristwatch computer serves as a front end for a system such as a smartphone. Smartwatches are advancing, especially their design, battery capacity, many smartwatch models manufactured in the 2010s are completely functional as standalone products. Some serve as sport watches, the GPS tracking unit being used to record historical data, for example, after a workout, data can be uploaded onto a computer or online to create a log of activities for analysis or sharing. Some watches can serve as full GPS watches, displaying maps and current coordinates, users can mark their current location and then edit the entrys name and coordinates, which enables navigation to those new coordinates. As companies add competitive products into the market, media space is becoming a commodity on smart watches. With Apple, Sony, Samsung, and Motorola introducing their smart watch models and this is a dense market of tech consumers who possess buying power, which has attracted many advertisers. It is expected for mobile advertising on wearable devices to increase heavily by 2017 as advanced hypertargeting modules are introduced to the devices. In order for an advertisement to be effective on a smart watch, sport watch functionality often includes activity tracker features as seen in GPS watches made for training, diving, and outdoor sports
5.
Application software
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An application program is a computer program designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an aeronautical flight simulator. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively and this contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer. Applications may be bundled with the computer and its software or published separately. Apps built for mobile platforms are called mobile apps, in information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from a system, a utility. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, some application packages focus on a single task, such as word processing, others, called integrated software include several applications. User-written software tailors systems to meet the specific needs. User-written software includes templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics. Even email filters are a kind of user software, users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, the above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an app, see Application Portfolio Management, the word application, once used as an adjective, is not restricted to the of or pertaining to application software meaning. Sometimes a new and popular application arises which only runs on one platform and this is called a killer application or killer app. There are many different ways to divide up different types of application software, web apps have indeed greatly increased in popularity for some uses, but the advantages of applications make them unlikely to disappear soon, if ever. Furthermore, the two can be complementary, and even integrated, Application software can also be seen as being either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal applications are more popular and widespread, because they are general purpose, vertical applications are niche products, designed for a particular type of industry or business, or department within an organization. Integrated suites of software will try to handle every aspect possible of, for example, manufacturing or banking systems, or accounting
6.
Desktop computer
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A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements. The most common configuration has a case that houses the power supply, motherboard, disk storage, a keyboard and mouse for input, and a monitor, and, often. The case may be oriented horizontally or vertically and placed either underneath, beside, an all-in-one desktop computer typically combines the case and monitor in one unit. Early computers took up the space of a whole room, minicomputers generally fit into one or a few refrigerator-sized racks. The very first programmable calculator/computer was marketed in the half of the 1960s. More desktop models were introduced in 1971, leading to a model programmable in BASIC in 1972 and this one used a smaller version of a minicomputer design based on read-only memory and had small one-line LED alphanumeric displays. They could draw computer graphics with a plotter, over the course of the 1990s, desktop cases gradually became less common than the more-accessible tower cases that may be located on the floor under or beside a desk rather than on a desk. Not only do these tower cases had more room for expansion, Desktop cases, particularly the compact form factors, remain popular for corporate computing environments and kiosks. Some computer cases can be positioned either horizontally or upright. While desktops have long been the most common configuration for PCs, notably, while desktops were mainly produced in the United States, laptops had long been produced by contract manufacturers based in Asia, such as Foxconn. This shift led to the closure of the many desktop assembly plants in the United States by 2010, battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. However, laptops have become popular, both for business and personal use. Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006, in 2008, it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million. The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, the change in sales of form factors is due to the desktop iMac moving from affordable to upscale and subsequent releases are considered premium all-in-ones. The decades of development means that most people already own desktop computers that meet their needs and have no need of buying a new one merely to keep pace with advancing technology. Recently, some analysts have suggested that Windows 8 has actually hurt sales of PCs in 2012, the post-PC trend has seen a decline in the sales of desktop and laptop PCs. The decline has been attributed to increased power and applications of computing devices, namely smartphones. Among PC form factors, desktops remain a staple in the market but have lost popularity among home buyers
7.
Web application
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In computing, a web application or web app is a client–server software application in which the client runs in a web browser. Common web applications include webmail, online sales, online auctions, wikis, instant messaging services. The general distinction between a dynamic web page of any kind and a web application is unclear, Web sites most likely to be referred to as web applications are those which have similar functionality to a desktop software application, or to a mobile app. HTML5 introduced explicit language support for making applications that are loaded as web pages, single-page applications are more application-like because they reject the more typical web paradigm of moving between distinct pages with different URLs. Single-page frameworks like Sencha Touch and AngularJS might be used to speed development of such a web app for a mobile platform, recently, frameworks like React Native, Flutter and Xamarin allow the development of native apps for all platforms using languages other than each standard native language. Hybrid apps embed a mobile web site inside a native app, possibly using a hybrid framework like Apache Cordova and this allows development using web technologies while also retaining certain advantages of native apps. In earlier computing models like client–server, the load for the application was shared between code on the server and code installed on each client locally. In other words, an application had its own pre-compiled client program which served as its interface and had to be separately installed on each users personal computer. In contrast, web applications use web documents written in a format such as HTML and JavaScript. Client web software updates may happen each time the web page is visited, during the session, the web browser interprets and displays the pages, and acts as the universal client for any web application. However, every significant change to the web page required a trip back to the server to refresh the entire page. In 1995 Netscape introduced a client-side scripting language called JavaScript allowing programmers to add some elements to the user interface that ran on the client side. In 1996, Macromedia introduced Flash, a vector animation player that could be added to browsers as a plug-in to embed animations on the web pages and it allowed the use of a scripting language to program interactions on the client side with no need to communicate with the server. In 1999, the web application concept was introduced in the Java language in the Servlet Specification version 2.2, in 2005, the term Ajax was coined, and applications like Gmail started to make their client sides more and more interactive. A web page script is able to contact the server for storing/retrieving data without downloading a web page. In 2011, HTML5 was finalized, which provides graphic and multimedia capabilities without the need of client side plug-ins, HTML5 also enriched the semantic content of documents. The APIs and document object model are no longer afterthoughts, but are fundamental parts of the HTML5 specification, webGL API paved the way for advanced 3D graphics based on HTML5 canvas and JavaScript language. These have significant importance in creating truly platform and browser independent rich web applications, many services have worked to combine all of these into a more familiar interface that adopts the appearance of an operating system
8.
Mobile web browser
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A mobile browser is a web browser designed for use on a mobile device such as a mobile phone or PDA. Mobile browsers are optimized so as to display Web content most effectively for small screens on portable devices, Mobile browser software must be small and efficient to accommodate the low memory capacity and low-bandwidth of wireless handheld devices. Typically they were stripped-down web browsers, but some more modern mobile browsers can handle more recent technologies like CSS2.1, JavaScript, websites designed for access from these browsers are referred to as wireless portals or collectively as the Mobile Web. They may automatically create mobile versions of page, for example this one. The mobile browser usually connects via cellular network, or increasingly via Wireless LAN, using standard HTTP over TCP/IP and displays web pages written in HTML, XHTML Mobile Profile, WML and HDML are stripped-down formats suitable for transmission across limited bandwidth, and wireless data connection called WAP. In Japan, DoCoMo defined the i-mode service based on i-mode HTML, which is an extension of Compact HTML, WAP2.0 specifies XHTML Mobile Profile plus WAP CSS, subsets of the W3Cs standard XHTML and CSS with minor mobile extensions. Newer mobile browsers are full-featured Web browsers capable of HTML, CSS, ECMAScript, as well as technologies such as WML, i-mode HTML. To accommodate small screens, they use Post-WIMP interfaces, the first mobile browser for a PDA was PocketWeb for the Apple Newton created at TecO in 1994, followed by the first commercial product NetHopper released in August 1996. The so-called microbrowser technologies such as WAP, NTTDocomos i-mode platform, the first deployment of a mobile browser on a mobile phone was probably in 1997 when Unwired Planet put their UP. Browser on AT&T handsets to give users access to HDML content. A British company, STNC Ltd. developed a browser in 1997 that was intended to present the entire device UI. The demonstration platform for mobile browser had 1 MIPS total processing power. This was a core platform, running the GSM stack on the same processor as the application stack. In 1999 STNC was acquired by Microsoft and HitchHiker became Microsoft Mobile Explorer 2.0, HitchHiker is believed to be the first mobile browser with a unified rendering model, handling HTML and WAP along with ECMAScript, WMLScript, POP3 and IMAP mail in a single client. Although it was not used, it was possible to combine HTML, Mobile Explorer 2.0 was available on the Benefon Q, Sony CMD-Z5, CMD-J5, CMD-MZ5, CMD-J6, CMD-Z7, CMD-J7 and CMD-J70. With the addition of a kernel and a driver model. One such device was the Amstrad e-m@iler and e-m@iler 2 and this code formed the basis for MME3. Multiple companies offered browsers for the Palm OS platform, the first HTML browser for Palm OS1.0 was HandWeb by Smartcode software, released in 1997. HandWeb included its own TCP/IP stack, and Smartcode was acquired by Palm in 1999, Mobile browsers for the Palm OS platform multiplied after the release of Palm OS2.0, which included a TCP/IP stack
9.
David Pogue
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David Welch Pogue is an American technology writer and TV science presenter. He is a technology columnist for Yahoo Tech, a tech correspondent for CBS News Sunday Morning, a columnist for Scientific American. He is also the host of NOVA ScienceNow on PBS and was the host of the NOVA specials Making Stuff in 2011, Pogue has written or co-written seven books in the For Dummies series. On October 21,2013, Pogue announced he would be leaving The New York Times after 13 years in order to join Yahoo, where he would create a new consumer-technology Web site. At the 2014 Consumer Electronics Show, Pogue joined Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer onstage during her speech to throw the on switch for that new site. Pogue was born in Shaker Heights, Ohio, the son of Richard Welch Pogue, an attorney and former managing partner at Jones, Day, Reavis & Pogue and he is a grandson of aviation attorney L. Welch Pogue and Mary Ellen Edgerton. He is also a nephew of Harold Eugene Edgerton, a professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Pogue graduated from Yale University in 1985 summa cum laude, earning a degree in music. He spent ten years working in New York, for a time in the office of Music Theatre International and also intermittently as a conductor, Pogue wrote for Macworld magazine from 1988-2000. His back-page column was called The Desktop Critic, Pogue got his start writing books when Macworld-owner IDG asked him to write Macs for Dummies to follow on the success of the first. for Dummies book, DOS for Dummies, written by Dan Gookin. Starting November 2000, Pogue served as the personal-tech columnist The New York Times, his column, State of the Art and he also writes From the Desk of David Pogue, a tech-related opinion column that is sent to readers by e-mail. He also maintained a blog at nytimes. com called Pogues Posts, in 2007, the Discovery HD and Science channels aired his six-episode series, Its All Geek to Me, a how-to show about consumer technology. He hosted a four-part PBS NOVA miniseries about materials science called Making Stuff and it was followed by a two-hour special about the periodic table, Hunting the Elements, which aired April 4,2012. He hosted a series, Making More Stuff, on PBS NOVA on four consecutive Wednesdays starting October 16,2013. He also writes and hosts several segments each year for CBS News Sunday Morning, Pogue is a frequent speaker at educational and government conferences, addressing such topics as disruptive technology, social media, digital photography, and why products fail. In 2008, he performed at the EG conference, also in Monterey, talking about cellphones, the tricks they can be made to do, in his columns and blog posts in The New York Times, Pogue launched several high-profile consumer advocacy initiatives. His campaigns have caused corporations to change practices and marketing claims that Pogue said were unfair or misleading, in July 2009, Pogue launched Take Back the Beep. The campaign was designed to raise awareness about American cellphone carriers’ mandatory 15-second voice mail instructions
10.
American Dialect Society
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The Society publishes the academic journal, American Speech. Cassidy was appointed Chief Editor in 1963, the first volume of the Dictionary of American Regional English, covering the letters A-C, was published in 1985. The other major project of the Society is the Linguistic Atlas of the United States, the Society has never had more than a few hundred active members. With so few scholars advancing the enterprise, the developments in the field came slowly and its activities include a mailing list, which deals chiefly with American English but also carries some discussion of other issues of linguistic interest. Since 1991, the American Dialect Society has designated one or more words or terms to be the word of the year, the New York Times stated that the American Dialect Society probably started the word-of-the-year ritual. However, the Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache has announced a word of the year since 1977, in addition, the ADS has chosen its Word of the 1990s, Word of the 20th Century, and Word of the Past Millennium. The society also selects words in categories that vary from year to year, such as most original or most unnecessary. A number of words chosen by the ADS are also on the lists of Merriam-Websters Words of the Year, American English Language planning Language Report from Oxford University Press Lists of Merriam-Websters Words of the Year Neologism Word formation Lerer, Seth. Inventing English, A Portable History of the Language, New York, New York, Columbia University Press. The American Language, An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States, predicting New Words, The Secrets of Their Success. Why wardrobe malfunction wasnt the word of the year
11.
Web browser
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A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier that may be a web page, image, hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, the most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Safari, Opera and Firefox. The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the Webs continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus, the first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau, andreesens browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use, Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industrys first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market, Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996, it has never achieved widespread use and it is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendos Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model, as of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apples Safari had its first beta release in January 2003, as of April 2011, the most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chromes take-up has increased year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, in December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chromes user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chromes usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined, by April 2014, Chromes usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer was deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the web browser. The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time, the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. In addition to being freeware, Netscape Navigator and Opera were also sold commercially, Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system, and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac, in this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through lock-in to Microsofts browser
12.
Email client
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In Internet, an email client, email reader or more formally mail user agent is a computer program in the category of groupware environments used to access and manage a users email. Client is meant to be a role, for example, a web application which provides message management, composition, and reception functions may internally act as an email client, as a whole, it is commonly referred to as webmail. Likewise, email client may be referred to a piece of hardware or software whose primary or most visible role is to work as an email client. Like most client programs, a client is only active when a user runs it. The most common arrangement is for a user to make an arrangement with a remote Mail Transfer Agent server for the receipt. The MTA, using a mail delivery agent, adds email messages to a clients storage as they arrive. The remote mail storage is referred to as the users mailbox, the default setting on many Unix systems is for the mail server to store formatted messages in mbox, within the users HOME directory. Of course, users of the system can log-in and run a mail client on the computer that hosts their mailboxes, in which case. A users mailbox can be accessed in two dedicated ways, the Post Office Protocol allows the user to download messages one at a time and only deletes them from the server after they have been successfully saved on local storage. It is possible to leave messages on the server to another client to access them. However, there is no provision for flagging a specific message as seen, answered, or forwarded, alternatively, the Internet Message Access Protocol allows users to keep messages on the server, flagging them as appropriate. IMAP provides folders and sub-folders, which can be shared among different users with different access rights. Typically, the Sent, Drafts, and Trash folders are created by default, IMAP features an idle extension for real time updates, providing faster notification than polling, where long lasting connections are feasible. See also the remote messages section below, in addition, the mailbox storage can be accessed directly by programs running on the server or via shared disks. Direct access can be efficient but is less portable as it depends on the mailbox format, it is used by some email clients. Email clients usually contain user interfaces to display and edit text, some applications permit the use of a program-external editor. The email clients will perform formatting according to RFC5322 for headers and body, to better assist the user with destination fields, many clients maintain one or more address books and/or are able to connect to an LDAP directory server. For originator fields, clients may support different identities, client settings require the users real name and email address for each users identity, and possibly a list of LDAP servers
13.
App store
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An app store is a type of digital distribution platform for computer software, often in a mobile context. Apps provide a set of functions which, by definition. Apps are designed to run on devices, and are written for a specific operating system. Complex software designed for use on a computer, for example. Such a mobile app may offer similar, if limited, functionality compared to the software running on the computer. Apps optimize the appearance of displayed data, taking into consideration the device screen size, App stores typically take the form of an online store, where users can browse through these different app categories, view information about each app, and acquire the app. The selected app is offered as a download, after which the app installs. Some app stores may include a system to automatically remove an installed program from devices under certain conditions. Many app stores are curated by their owners, requiring that submissions of prospective apps go through an approval process and these apps are inspected for compliance with certain guidelines, including the requirement that a commission be collected on each sale of a paid app. With the ease of use apps offer, and their presence on most mobile devices, app stores rose to prominence at the beginning of the 21st century with their adoption by iOS and Android. Similar systems for the distribution of written for other operating systems have also been available for some time, through package management systems. The Electronic AppWrapper was the first commercial electronic software distribution catalog to collectively manage encryption and provide digital rights for apps, while a Senior Editor at NeXTWORLD Magazine, Simson Garfinkel, rated The Electronic AppWrapper 4 3/4 Cubes, in his formal review. Notable package managers in Unix-like operating systems have included pkgsrc, Debians APT, YUM, some package managers have graphical front-end software which can be used to browse available packages and perform operations, such as Synaptic. In 1996, the SUSE Linux distribution has YaST as frontend for its own app repository, mandriva Linux has urpmi with GUI frontend called Rpmdrake. Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux has YUM in 2003 as a successor of YUP, in 1997, BeDepot a third-party app store and package manager for BeOS was launched, which operated until 2001. It was eventually acquired by Be Inc, palmix sold apps for the three major PDA platforms of the time, the Palm OS based Palm Pilots, Windows CE based devices, and Psion Epoc handhelds. In December 2001, Sprint PCS launched the Sprint PCS Ringers & More Wireless Download Service for their then-new 3G wireless network and this allowed subscribers to the Sprint PCS mobile phone network to download ringtones, wallpaper, J2ME applications and later full music tracks to certain phones. The user interface worked through a web browser on the computer
14.
Mobile operating system
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A mobile operating system is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, or other mobile devices. This distinction is becoming blurred in some operating systems that are hybrids made for both uses. So-called mobile operating systems, or even only smartphones running them, Mobile operating systems, are now, as of late 2016, the most used kind, with traditional desktop OS, now a minority used kind, see usage share of operating systems. However, variations occur in popularity by regions, while desktop-minority also applies on some days in e. g. the US and UK. By the end of 2016, over 430 million smartphones were sold with 81.7 percent running Android,17.9 percent running iOS,0.3 percent running Windows Mobile and the other OSes cover 0.1 percent. Research has shown that these systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device. Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development of mobile phones and smartphones,1994 – The first smartphone, the IBM Simon, has a touchscreen, email, and PDA features. 1996 Palm Pilot 1000 personal digital assistant is introduced with the Palm OS mobile operating system, first Windows CE Handheld PC devices are introduced. 1999 – Nokia S40 Platform is introduced officially along with the Nokia 7110,2000 – Symbian becomes the first modern mobile OS on a smartphone with the launch of the Ericsson R380. 2001 – The Kyocera 6035 is the first smartphone with Palm OS.2002 Microsofts first Windows CE smartphones are introduced,2005 – Nokia introduces Maemo OS on the first Internet tablet N770. 2007 Apple iPhone with iOS is introduced as an iPhone, mobile phone and Internet communicator. Open Handset Alliance formed by Google, HTC, Sony, Dell, Intel, Motorola, Samsung, LG,2009 – Palm introduces webOS with the Palm Pre. By 2012, webOS devices were discontinued, Samsung announces the Bada OS with the introduction of the Samsung S8500. November – Windows Phone OS phones are released but are not compatible with the prior Windows Mobile OS, July – MeeGo, a mobile Linux distribution, combining Maemo and Moblin, is introduced with the Nokia N9, a collaboration of Nokia, Intel, and Linux Foundation. September – Samsung, Intel, and the Linux Foundation announced that their efforts will shift from Bada, MeeGo to Tizen during 2011 and 2012. October – The Mer project was announced, based on a core for building products, composed of Linux, HTML5, QML, and JavaScript. July – Mozilla announced that the formerly named Boot to Gecko was now Firefox OS and had several handset OEMs on board. September – Apple releases iOS6, January – BlackBerry releases their new operating system for smartphones, BlackBerry 10
15.
App Store (iOS)
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App Store is a digital distribution platform, developed and maintained by Apple Inc. for mobile apps on its iOS operating system. The store allows users to browse and download apps developed with Apples iOS software development kit, App Store was opened on July 10,2008, with an initial 500 applications available. As of January 2017, the store features over 2.2 million apps, major changes introduced in the following months include ads in search results, a new app subscription model, and the ability for developers to respond to customer reviews. The iPhone App Store opened on July 10,2008, on July 11, the iPhone 3G was released and came pre-loaded with support for App Store. After the success of Apples App Store and the launch of services by its competitors. However, Apple applied for a U. S. trademark on the term App Store in 2008, which was tentatively approved in early 2011. In June 2011, U. S. District Judge Phyllis Hamilton, in July, Apple was denied preliminary injunction against Amazons Appstore by a federal judge. The term app has become a buzzword, in January 2011. App has been used as shorthand for application since at least the mid-1990s, in February 2011, Apple announced its new subscription-based service, which was to allow publishers the freedom to set the length and price of subscriptions. Previously, new magazine or news releases were sold on a per-release basis, the new service enabled publishers to sell content directly through their apps, allowing users to receive new content over specified periods of time. In February 2013, Apple informed developers that they could begin using appstore. com for links to their apps, in September 2015, it was discovered that hundreds of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a malicious version of the Xcode development software. The issues prompted Apple to remove infected apps from the store, a security firm later published lists of infected apps, including a China-only version of Angry Birds 2, CamCard, Lifesmart, TinyDeal. com, and WeChat. On September 1,2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately.7 billion vs. approximately $1.5 billion by American users. Apples senior vice president of worldwide marketing Phil Schiller tweeted in December 2016 that November marked the record of highest monthly App Store sales, in January 2017, reports surfaced that documentation for a new beta for the then-upcoming release of iOS10. The functionality was enabled on March 27,2017 when iOS10.3 was released to users. Developers are also forbidden from manipulating or incentivizing feedback, the Software Development Kit for iPhone OS was announced at the iPhone Software Roadmap event on March 6,2008. The SDK allows developers running Mac OS X10.5.4 or higher on an Intel Mac to create applications using Xcode that will run on the iPhone, iPod Touch. A beta version was released after the event and a version was released in July 2008 alongside the iPhone 3G
16.
Google Play
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Google Play is a digital distribution service, including a digital media store, the Google Play Store, operated and developed by Google. Google Play also serves as a digital media store, offering music, magazines, books, movies and it previously offered Google hardware devices for purchase until the introduction of a separate online hardware retailer, Google Store, on March 11,2015. Applications are available through Google Play either free of charge or at a cost and they can be downloaded directly to an Android device through the Play Store mobile app, or by deploying the application to a device from the Google Play website. Applications exploiting hardware capabilities of a device can be targeted to users of devices with specific hardware components, the Google Play store had over 50 billion app downloads in 2013 and has reached over 2.7 million apps published in 2017. Google Play was launched on March 6,2012, bringing together the Android Market, Google Music, and the Google eBookstore under one brand, marking a shift in Googles digital distribution strategy. The services operating under the Google Play banner are, Google Play Books, Google Play Games, Google Play Movies & TV, Google Play Music, as of February 2017, Google Play features over 2.7 million Android applications. Developers in over 150 locations can distribute apps on Google Play, to distribute apps, developers have to pay a one-time $25 registration fee for a Google Play Developer Console account. App developers can control which countries an app is distributed to, Developers receive 70% of the application price, while the remaining 30% goes to the distribution partner and operating fees. Developers can set up sales, with the original price striked out, Google Play allows developers to release early versions of apps to a select group of users, as alpha or beta tests. Developers can also release apps through staged rollouts, in which your update reaches only a percentage of your users, users can pre-order select apps to have the items delivered as soon as they are available. Some network carriers offer billing for Google Play purchases, allowing users to opt for charges in the phone bill rather than on credit cards. Users can request refunds within 48 hours if something you bought isnt working, isnt what you expected, was bought by accident, Apps meeting specific usability requirements can qualify as an Android Wear app. Google Play Games is a gaming service for Android that features real-time multiplayer gaming capabilities, cloud saves, social and public leaderboards. The service was introduced at the Google I/O2013 Developer Conference, Google Play Music is a music and podcast streaming service and online music locker. It features over 40 million songs, and gives users free cloud storage of up to 50,000 songs, as of January 2017, Google Play Music is available in 62 countries. Google Play Books is a digital distribution service. Google Play offers over five million ebooks available for purchase, as of January 2017, Google Play Books is available in 75 countries. Google Play Movies & TV is a video on demand service offering movies and television shows available for purchase or rental, Google Play Newsstand is a news aggregator and digital newsstand service offering subscriptions to digital magazines and topical news feeds
17.
Windows Phone Store
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The Windows Phone Store was launched along with Windows Phone 7 in October 2010 in some countries. It was reported on 4 October 2010 that the Windows Phone SDK was downloaded over half a million times, at the end of February 2013, the Marketplace had more than 130,000 apps available. With the rollout of Mango the online web Marketplace was unveiled by Microsoft, it offers features like silent. In August 2012, Microsoft rebranded the Windows Phone Marketplace to Windows Phone Store, the change was seen on Windows Phone devices and on the Windows Phone website, the Marketplace section was changed to Apps+Games. In 2015, Microsoft announced that Windows Phone Store would be phased out, as part of this process, the Windows Phone Store website was moved to a site that also contained the PC Store merging the store effectively. Windows Phone Store had support for credit card purchases, operator billing, the Store also features a try-before-you-buy option, where the user has an option to download a trial or demo for a commercial app. Other features are said to be similar to Windows Phone Stores predecessor, the Windows Phone Store had 61 categories split up into 16 main categories and 25 sub-categories. Apps can only be placed in one category, Windows Phone Store also featured downloads for 3D games that will have integrated Xbox Live connectivity and features. The ability to download a XAP file to a computer is also present, developers had to pay an annual subscription fee of $99 to become an App Hub member and submit apps to the Windows Phone Store. There was a limit on the number of submissions for paid apps. There was a limit of 100 free submissions for free apps, thereafter, developers could also choose to work with OEMs to deploy their apps, this allow apps to be preinstalled on Windows Phone devices or be exclusive to that specific OEMs products. This process was used by Microsoft Mobile for apps specific to Lumia devices, OEM exclusive apps are deployed and available to end-users in a separate channel available only on OEM-specific hardware. Most Windows Phone OEMs have a category, such as Lumia Collection, Samsung Zone, HTC Apps, a user can download games and apps from the Windows Phone Store, if an Xbox live account is enabled, the store can be accessed remotely from the phone itself. Microsoft has lined up a range of popular games to be available from the launch of Windows Phone 7. Also at Gamescom, Microsoft unveiled more than 50 premium Windows Phone 7 games, the Windows Phone Store has grown swiftly since its launch and by February 2012, it had outgrown Blackberry App World with 70,000 apps available. In June 2012, after 20 months, Windows Phone Marketplace has reached 100,000 apps, the growth to achieve 100,000 apps is faster than Android with 24 months, but slower than iOS with 16 months. The number ramped up to 150,000 in December 2012, the Windows Phone contained more than 300,000 apps in August 2014. Apps in the Windows Phone Store are subjected to a content policy, which exists to guide app developers, examples of restricted or banned content include pornography, promotion of violence, discrimination, hate, or the usage of drugs, alcohol and tobacco
18.
BlackBerry World
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BlackBerry World is an application distribution service and application by BlackBerry Limited for a majority of BlackBerry devices. The service provides BlackBerry users with an environment to browse, download, the service went live on April 1,2009. Of the three major app stores of different operating systems, it has the largest revenue per app at $9,166.67 compared to $6,480.00 and $1,200.00 by the Apple App Store and Google Play, respectively. On 21 January 2013, BlackBerry announced that it rebranded the BlackBerry App World to simpler BlackBerry World as part of the release of the BlackBerry 10 operating system, the BlackBerry Priv, the newest BlackBerry phone which runs Android, uses the Google Play Store. In 2003, RIM launched the Mobile Data Service to enable customers to access Java-based third-party enterprise applications using the secure real-time push-based BlackBerry infrastructure, later on October 21,2008, RIM announced at the BlackBerry Developer Conference that the company would open an application store for their devices. It was also announced that the store was scheduled to be open in March 2009, on January 19,2009, RIM began accepting submissions of applications from developers. On March 4,2009, RIM officially named the store BlackBerry App World and it was also confirmed that the service would not initially be available for desktops, and only a web-based catalog would be accessible from non-BlackBerry devices. On April 1,2009, at CTIAs trade show, RIM announced that App World had gone live, at the BlackBerry sponsored Wireless Symposium, it was announced that an average of one million apps were being downloaded each day. On August 19,2010, BlackBerry App World 2.0 was released and this new version introduced BlackBerry ID - a single sign, account system that can be used on both the BlackBerry client and the BlackBerry App World desktop storefront. In addition to BlackBerry ID, BlackBerry App World 2.0 also introduced direct credit card billing, on December 3,2010, Research in Motion announced that daily downloads were two million apps per day. On February 2,2011, BlackBerry App World 2.1 was released and this version introduced in-app purchases of digital goods, allowing for add-ons to be purchased within applications. On January 21,2013, BlackBerry rebranded the BlackBerry App World to simpler the BlackBerry World, on June 18,2014, BlackBerry announced an official relationship with Amazon, which includes access to Amazon Appstore in BlackBerry 10.3. At the beginning of 2011,16,000 apps were available on BlackBerry App World, a year later, the app store passed 60,000 apps and a month later 70,000 apps. At BlackBerry Jam in September 2012, RIM announced that App World had more than 105,000 apps, in May 2013, at the Blackberry Live Conference, BlackBerry announced that over 120,000 apps for BlackBerry 10 where available to download from BlackBerry World. Application verification is done for BlackBerry World apps about content and quality before is agreed to launch, about 85 percent of the verification is done in Denpasar, Bali. RIM announced that the store would initially be available in the United States, United Kingdom, as of March 2013 - BlackBerry World is available in 170 markets and supports 23 currencies and 33 languages. List of countries where BlackBerry World is available, applications are both free and paid from $0.99 to $599.99 USD in the U. S. The registration and app submission fees charged to developers are currently $0, the service is available in English, French, Italian, German, Spanish, and Brazilian Portuguese
19.
Cydia
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Cydia /sɪˈdi. ə/ is a package manager mobile app for iOS that enables a user to find and install software packages on jailbroken iPhones, iPads and iPods. It also refers to digital distribution platform for software on iOS accessed through Cydia software, most of the software packages available through Cydia are free but some require purchasing. Cydia is developed by Jay Freeman and his company, SaurikIT, the name Cydia is an allusion to the Cydia Genus Of Moths, notably the Codling Moth, which is the proverbial worm in the apple. Cydia is an App Store for jailbroken users, Cydia provides a graphical user interface to jailbroken users using Advanced Packaging Tool repositories to install software unavailable on the App Store. Cydia is based on APT, ported to iOS as part of Jay Freemans Telesphoreo project, software packages are downloaded directly to the iOS device. Apps are installed in the location as Apples own applications. Jailbroken devices can still buy and download apps normally from the official App Store. Most Jailbreaking tools install Cydia automatically, while provide a choice to the user. Some of the packages available through Cydia are standard applications, while most packages are extensions and modifications for the iOS interface, some apps available on Cydia are also emulators able to run images of games for old game consoles, albeit without those consoles responsive controllers. Cydia enables users to find and install open source packages as well as modifications for jailbroken iPhones. These modifications are based on a framework called Cydia Substrate, which makes it easy to install. UNIX command line tools are available on Cydia as well, including bash, coreutils, after installing those packages the device is essentially turned to a full-fledged UNIX workstation, although without many development tools. In March 2009, the now-defunct blog TUAW announced that the Cydia store had opened for sales, the announcement also mentioned that Amazon payments was the only option available, but that PayPal would be added in the future, which it was. Cydia stopped accepting Amazon Payments in 2015, leaving PayPal as the payment option. Cydia caches the digital signatures called SHSH blobs used by Apple to verify restores of iOS, cydias storage mechanism enables users to downgrade a device to a prior version of iOS by means of a replay attack. This means, for example, that a person with a jailbroken device who upgrades to a version of iOS can choose to downgrade back to a jailbreakable version. IOS5.0 and later versions of iOS implement an addition to the SHSH system, a number in the APTicket, making it more difficult to perform a replay attack. Freeman first released Cydia in February 2008 as an alternative to Installer. app on iPhone OS1.1
20.
GetJar
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GetJar is an independent mobile phone app store founded in Lithuania in 2004, with offices in Vilnius, Lithuania and San Mateo, California. The company was founded by Ilja Laurs in 2004, who is currently its Executive Chairman, accel Partners and Tiger Global Management are among the investors. GetJar was started by developers for developers in 2004 as an app beta testing platform, the platform started making free apps available in early 2005. In February 2014, GetJar was acquired by Sungy Mobile, Sungy is based in China and is said to have paid over $5 million in cash and the then market value of $35 million in Sungy stocks. GetJar allows software developers to upload their applications for free through a developer portal, in June 2010, about 300,000 software developers added apps to GetJar resulting in over one billion downloads. In July 2011, GetJar had over two billion downloads, list of digital distribution platforms for mobile devices Official website Android markets at DMOZ
21.
F-Droid
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F-Droid is a software repository for Android applications, similar to the Google Play store. The main repository, hosted by the project, contains only apps which are free software, applications can be browsed and installed from the F-Droid website or client app without the need to register for an account. Anti-features such as advertising, user tracking, or dependence on non-free software are flagged in app descriptions, the website also offers the source code of applications it hosts as well as the software running the F-Droid server, allowing anyone to set up their own app repository. F-Droid was founded by Ciaran Gultnieks in 2010, the client was forked from Aptoides source code. The project is now run by the English non-profit F-Droid Limited, replicant, a fully free software Android operating system, uses F-Droid as its default and recommended app store. The Guardian Project, a suite of free and secure Android applications, in 2012 Free Software Foundation Europe featured F-Droid in their Free Your Android. Campaign to raise awareness of the privacy and security risks of proprietary software, F-Droid was chosen as part of the GNU Projects GNU a Day initiative during their 30th anniversary to encourage more use of free software. The F-Droid repository contains a number of more than 2,300 apps. WordPress-based web front end to a repository, F-Droid builds apps from publicly available and freely licensed source code. The project is run entirely by volunteers and has no formal app review process, new apps are contributed by user submissions or the developers themselves. The only requirement is that they be free of proprietary software, to install the F-Droid client the user has to allow installation from Unknown sources in Android settings and retrieve the APK from the official site. Installation is not available through the Google Play store due to the clause of the Google Play Developer Distribution Agreement. The client was designed to be resilient against surveillance, censorship, to promote anonymity it supports HTTP proxies and repos hosted on Tor hidden services. Client devices can function as impromptu app stores distributing downloaded apps to other devices over local Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, the F-Droid client app will automatically offer updates for installed F-Droid apps. The main F-Droid repository uses its own keys to sign packages, F-Droid has received criticism for distributing out-of-date versions of official applications and for its approach to application signing. F-Droid removed the application from the repository at the request of Marlinspike, Marlinspike has also been critical of F-Droids approach to application signing in the main repository. List of mobile software distribution platforms List of free and open-source Android applications The Guardian Project Amadeo, the great Ars experiment—free and open source software on a smartphone. Official website F-Droid Android package at the F-Droid repository
22.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick
23.
ITunes
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ITunes is a media player, media library, online radio broadcaster, and mobile device management application developed by Apple Inc. It is used to play, download, and organize digital downloads of music and video on personal computers running the macOS, the iTunes Store is also available on the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch. Application software for the iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch can be downloaded from the App Store. ITunes 12.5 is the most recent major version of iTunes, available for Mac OS X v10.9.5 or later and Windows 7 or later, it was released on September 13,2016. ITunes 12.2 added Apple Music to the application, along with the Beats 1 radio station, soundJam MP, developed by Bill Kincaid and released by Casady & Greene in 1998, was renamed iTunes when Apple purchased it in 2000. Jeff Robbin, Kincaid, and Dave Heller moved to Apple as part of the acquisition and they simplified SoundJams user interface, added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support. On January 9,2001, iTunes 1.0 was released at Macworld San Francisco, originally a Mac OS 9-only application, iTunes began to support Mac OS X when version 2.0 was released nine months later, which also added support for the original iPod. Version 3 dropped Mac OS9 support but added smart playlists, in April 2003, version 4.0 introduced the iTunes Store, in October, version 4.1 added support for Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP. Introduced at Macworld 2005 with the new iPod Shuffle, Version 4.7, Version 7.0 introduced gapless playback and Cover Flow in September 2006. In March 2007, iTunes 7.1 added support for Windows Vista, iTunes lacked support for 64-bit versions of Windows until the 7.6 update on January 16,2008. ITunes is supported under any 64-bit version of Windows Vista, although the iTunes executable is still 32-bit, the 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are not supported by Apple, but a workaround has been devised for both operating systems. Version 8.0 added Genius playlists, grid view, iTunes 9 added Homeshare, enabling automatic updating of purchased items across other computers on the same subnet and offers a new iTunes Store UI. Genius Mixes were added, as well as improved app synchronization abilities and it also adds iTunes LPs to the store, which provides additional media with an album. Apple added iTunes Extras as well to the store, which adds content usually reserved for films on DVD, both iTunes LPs and Extras use web-standards HTML, JavaScript and CSS. iTunes acts as a front end for Apples QuickTime media framework. Officially, it is required in order to manage the data of an iPod, iPhone, or iPad. In addition, users are able to add PDF files to their library, the PDFs can be synchronized with and read on several devices except the regular iPod. iTunes 8.0 saw the removal of several options in the Preferences window. For example, iTunes once gave users the option to display arrows beside the selected songs title, artist, album and these arrows are no longer removable, except through the direct editing of a preferences file. ITunes keeps track of songs by creating a library, allowing users to access
24.
Android application package
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Android Package Kit is the package file format used by the Android operating system for distribution and installation of mobile apps and middleware. APK files are analogous to software packages such as APPX in Microsoft Windows or Deb packages in Debian-based operating systems like Ubuntu. To make an APK file, a program for Android is first compiled, an APK file contains all of that programs code, resources, assets, certificates, and manifest file. As is the case with many file formats, APK files can have any name needed, provided that the name ends in. apk. APK files are a type of file, specifically in zip format packages based on the JAR file format. The MIME type associated with APK files is application/vnd. android. package-archive, APK files can be installed on Android powered devices just like installing software on PC. When a user downloads and installs an Android application from either a source, or from some other site. By default, the ability to install from unofficial sites or directly from a desktop or file manager is disabled for security reasons on most Android devices, users can enable it by changing the setting Unknown sources in the Settings menu. An APK file is an archive that contains the following files and directories, META-INF directory, MANIFEST. MF. Assets, a directory containing applications assets, which can be retrieved by AssetManager, androidManifest. xml, An additional Android manifest file, describing the name, version, access rights, referenced library files for the application. This file may be in Android binary XML that can be converted into human-readable plaintext XML with tools such as AXMLPrinter2, android-apktool, or Androguard. Classes. dex, The classes compiled in the dex file format understandable by the Dalvik virtual machine resources. arsc, Android Runtime Android software development Dalvik. ipa
25.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
26.
Website
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website for a company. Websites are typically dedicated to a topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language. They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors, Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which may optionally employ encryption to provide security and privacy for the user. The users application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. Hyperlinking between web pages conveys to the reader the site structure and guides the navigation of the site, Some websites require user registration or subscription to access content. As of 2016 end users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers, smartphones, the World Wide Web was created in 1990 by the British CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as text files without formatting. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including computers, laptops, PDAs. A website is hosted on a system known as a web server. These terms can refer to the software that runs on these systems which retrieves
27.
ComScore
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ComScore is an American global media measurement and analytics company providing marketing data and analytics to many of the worlds largest enterprises, media and advertising agencies, and publishers. ComScore Networks was founded in July 1999 in Reston, Virginia, the problem was that the traditional methods in which companies were tracking online behavior would not work in tracking commerce, because of the lower incidence of buying online. Normal panels in tracking visitation would be around 20-30K and, with less than 2-3% of the buying online. They decided to build a large panel using more aggressive recruiting methodology and managing for the error by using advanced statistical methods. Years and tens of millions of dollars went into finding the best ways to measure online buying and other behaviors, in 2000, comScore bought certain assets and the customer agreements of PC Data of Reston, Virginia, which was founded by Ann Stephens in 1991. PC Data was among the earliest Web measurement firms, but increasing competitive challenges put PC Datas future in doubt, the acquisition of PC Datas large customer base helped accelerate the growth of comScores syndicated measurement service. By 2001, Media Metrix had built a market share lead but had been unable to create a financial structure. NetRatings, its closest competitor, was armed with strong capital reserves and announced its intention to acquire, however, after several months, the FTC announced its intention to block the acquisition and accordingly, NetRatings canceled the transaction. ComScore was subsequently able to acquire Media Metrix in a deal announced in June 2002, Media Metrix originated as PC Meter, a business unit of market research company NPD Group and began publishing statistics in January 1996. In July 1997, it changed its name to Media Metrix, in October 1998, Media Metrix merged with its nearest rival, Relevant Knowledge. The company went public as NASDAQ, MMXI in May 1999, in June 2000, the company acquired Jupiter Communications for $414 million in stock and changed its name to Jupiter Media Metrix. In the aftermath of the bubble collapse and associated downturn in internet marketing spending. On March 30,2007, comScore announced its intent to sell shares in a public offering. In May 2008, comScore announced its acquisition of M, Metrics, the transaction involved a cash payment of $44.3 million and the issue of approximately 50,000 options to purchase shares of comScore common stock to certain M, Metrics unvested option holders. ComScore announced in October 2009 the acquisition of Certifica, a provider of real-time web measurement, based in Santiago, Chile, Certifica has offices throughout Latin America, including Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Colombia and Peru. The acquisition enhanced comScore’s presence in the rapidly developing Latin American market, in February 2010, comScore announced it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire the ARSgroup in an all-cash acquisition. Announced on September 1,2010, the acquisition helps comScore accelerate its expansion strategy. On February 11,2014, comScore announced the appointment of Serge Matta as chief executive officer, in February 2015 comScore US entered into a partnership with Kantar owned by WPP with an equity stake purchase
28.
Gartner
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Gartner, Inc. is an American research and advisory firm providing information technology related insight for IT and other business leaders located across the world. Its headquarters are in Stamford, Connecticut, United States and it was known as Gartner Group, Inc until 2000, when it was then changed to Gartner. Research provided by Gartner targets CIOs, senior IT, marketing, Gartner clients include large corporations, government agencies, technology companies and the investment community. The company consists of Research, Executive Programs, Consulting and Events, founded in 1979, Gartner has over 8,100 employees, including 1,280 in research, located in 85 countries. Gartner uses hype cycles and Magic Quadrants for visualization of its market analysis results, the company was founded in 1979 by Gideon Gartner. The company went public again in 1993, in 2000 the name was simplified to Gartner. Gene Hall has been the CEO of the company since August 2004 and it has also acquired a number of direct competitors, including NewScience in the late 1990s, Meta Group in 2005 and AMR Research and Burton Group in early 2010. In March 2014 Gartner announced that it had acquired the privately held company Software Advice for an undisclosed amount, in July 2015, Gartner acquired Nubera, the business app discovery network that owns properties like GetApp, AppStorm, AppAppeal or CloudWork. Terms of the deal were not disclosed, in September 2015 it acquired the privately held company Capterra. In June 2016 Gartner announced that it had acquired the privately held company SCM World, headquartered in London, on January 5,2017 Gartner announced it had reached an agreement to acquire CEB, Inc. in a cash and stock deal worth about US$2.6 billion. Gartner has had controversy in forecasts. In 2009, Gartner predicted the PC market would experience the sharpest unit decline in history, the Actual Shipment Decline starts the year 2010. and biggest PC market decline in 2016 SoundView Technology Group, formerly Gartner Securities Corp
29.
Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
30.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
31.
Integrated development environment
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An integrated development environment is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of a code editor, build automation tools. Most modern IDEs have intelligent code completion, some IDEs, such as NetBeans and Eclipse, contain a compiler, interpreter, or both, others, such as SharpDevelop and Lazarus, do not. The boundary between an integrated development environment and other parts of the software development environment is not well-defined. Sometimes a version control system, or various tools to simplify the construction of a Graphical User Interface, are integrated, many modern IDEs also have a class browser, an object browser, and a class hierarchy diagram, for use in object-oriented software development. Integrated development environments are designed to maximize programmer productivity by providing tight-knit components with similar user interfaces, IDEs present a single program in which all development is done. This program typically provides many features for authoring, modifying, compiling, deploying and debugging software and this contrasts with software development using unrelated tools, such as vi, GCC or make. One aim of the IDE is to reduce the necessary to piece together multiple development utilities. Reducing that setup time can increase productivity, in cases where learning to use the IDE is faster than manually integrating all of the individual tools. Tighter integration of all development tasks has the potential to improve overall productivity beyond just helping with setup tasks, for example, code can be continuously parsed while it is being edited, providing instant feedback when syntax errors are introduced. That can speed learning a new programming language and its associated libraries, some IDEs are dedicated to a specific programming language, allowing a feature set that most closely matches the programming paradigms of the language. However, there are many multiple-language IDEs, while most modern IDEs are graphical, text-based IDEs such as Turbo Pascal were in popular use before the widespread availability of windowing systems like Microsoft Windows and the X Window System. They commonly use function keys or hotkeys to execute frequently used commands or macros, IDEs initially became possible when developing via a console or terminal. Early systems could not support one, since programs were prepared using flowcharts, dartmouth BASIC was the first language to be created with an IDE. Its IDE was command-based, and therefore did not look much like the menu-driven, however it integrated editing, file management, compilation, debugging and execution in a manner consistent with a modern IDE. Maestro I is a product from Softlab Munich and was the worlds first integrated development environment for software, Maestro I was installed for 22,000 programmers worldwide. Until 1989,6,000 installations existed in the Federal Republic of Germany, Maestro was arguably the world leader in this field during the 1970s and 1980s. Today one of the last Maestro I can be found in the Museum of Information Technology at Arlington, one of the first IDEs with a plug-in concept was Softbench
32.
Emulator
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In computing, an emulator is hardware or software that enables one computer system to behave like another computer system. An emulator typically enables the host system to run software or use peripheral devices designed for the guest system, emulation refers to the ability of a computer program in an electronic device to emulate another program or device. Many printers, for example, are designed to emulate Hewlett-Packard LaserJet printers because so much software is written for HP printers. If a non-HP printer emulates an HP printer, any software written for a real HP printer will also run in the non-HP printer emulation and produce equivalent printing. Since at least the 1990s until today, some video game enthusiasts use emulators to play 1980s arcade games using the original 1980s programming code, a hardware emulator is an emulator which takes the form of a hardware device. In a theoretical sense, the Church-Turing thesis implies that any operating environment can be emulated within any other environment. However, in practice, it can be difficult, particularly when the exact behavior of the system to be emulated is not documented and has to be deduced through reverse engineering. Emulation is a strategy in digital preservation to combat obsolescence, emulation addresses the original hardware and software environment of the digital object, and recreates it on a current machine. The emulator allows the user to have access to any kind of application or operating system on a current platform and he further states that this should not only apply to out of date systems, but also be upwardly mobile to future unknown systems. Potentially better graphics quality than original hardware, potentially additional features original hardware didnt have. Emulators maintain the look, feel, and behavior of the digital object. Despite the original cost of developing an emulator, it may prove to be the more cost efficient solution over time, many emulators have already been developed and released under GNU General Public License through the open source environment, allowing for wide scale collaboration. Emulators allow software exclusive to one system to be used on another, for example, a PlayStation 2 exclusive video game could be played on a PC using an emulator. This is especially useful when the system is difficult to obtain. Copyright laws are not yet in effect to address saving the documentation and these protections make it more difficult to design emulators, since they must be accurate enough to avoid triggering the protections, whose effects may not be obvious. Emulators require better hardware than the system has. Because of its use of digital formats, new media art relies heavily on emulation as a preservation strategy. The paradox is that the emulation and the emulator have to be made to work on future computers, emulation techniques are commonly used during the design and development of new systems
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User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
34.
Middleware
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Middleware is computer software that provides services to software applications beyond those available from the operating system. It can be described as software glue, middleware makes it easier for software developers to implement communication and input/output, so they can focus on the specific purpose of their application. The term is most commonly used for software that enables communication, an IETF workshop in 2000 defined middleware as those services found above the transport layer set of services but below the application environment. In this more specific sense middleware can be described as the dash in client-server, middleware includes web servers, application servers, content management systems, and similar tools that support application development and delivery. ObjectWeb defines middleware as, The software layer that lies between the system and applications on each side of a distributed computing system in a network. Services that can be regarded as middleware include enterprise application integration, data integration, message oriented middleware, object request brokers, database access services are often characterised as middleware. Some of them are language specific implementations and support heterogeneous features, examples of database-oriented middleware include ODBC, JDBC and transaction processing monitors. Distributed computing system middleware can loosely be divided into two categories—those that provide services and those that perform in machine-time. This latter middleware is somewhat standardized through the Service Availability Forum and is used in complex, embedded systems within telecom, defense. The term middleware is used in contexts as well. Middleware is sometimes used in a sense to a software driver. The mer software distribution is a middleware, it lacks the Linux kernel, mer is targeted at hardware vendors mobile-oriented operating systems. The Android operating system uses the Linux kernel at its core, in addition, Android provides a middleware layer including libraries that provide services such as data storage, screen display, multimedia, and web browsing. Because the middleware libraries are compiled to machine language, services execute quickly, middleware libraries also implement device-specific functions, so applications and the application framework need not concern themselves with variations between various Android devices. Androids middleware layer also contains the Dalvik virtual machine and its core Java application libraries, game engine software such as Gamebryo and Renderware are sometimes described as middleware, because they provide many services to simplify game development. In simulation technology, middleware is used in the context of the high level architecture that applies to many distributed simulations. It is a layer of software that lies between the code and the run-time infrastructure. Wireless networking developers can use middleware to meet the associated with a wireless sensor network
35.
Service-oriented architecture
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A service-oriented architecture is a style of software design where services are provided to the other components by application components, through a communication protocol over a network. The basic principles of service oriented architecture are independent of vendors, products, a service is a discrete unit of functionality that can be accessed remotely and acted upon and updated independently, such as retrieving a credit card statement online. A service has four properties according to one of many definitions of SOA and it is a black box for its consumers. It may consist of other underlying services, different services can be used in conjunction to provide the functionality of a large software application. So far, the definition could be a definition of modular programming in the 1970s and it is enabled by technologies and standards that make it easier for components to communicate and cooperate over a network, especially an IP network. In SOA, services use protocols which describe how they pass and this metadata describes both the functional characteristics of the service and quality-of-service characteristics. Service-oriented architecture aims to allow users to combine large chunks of functionality to form applications which are purely from existing services. A service presents an interface to the requester that abstracts away the underlying complexity acting as a black box. Further users can access these independent services without any knowledge of their internal implementation. The related buzzword service-orientation promotes loose coupling between services, SOA separates functions into distinct units, or services, which developers make accessible over a network in order to allow users to combine and reuse them in the production of applications. These services and their corresponding consumers communicate with each other by passing data in a well-defined, shared format, a manifesto was published for service-oriented architecture in October,2009. This came up with six core values which are listed as follows, strategic goals are given more importance than project-specific benefits. Intrinsic inter-operability is given more importance than custom integration, shared services are given more importance than specific-purpose implementations. Flexibility is given more importance than optimization, evolutionary refinement is given more importance than pursuit of initial perfection. There are no industry standards relating to the composition of a service-oriented architecture. Service reference autonomy The relationship between services is minimized to the level that they are aware of their existence. Service location transparency Services can be called from anywhere within the network that it is located no matter where it is present, Service longevity Services should be designed to be long lived. Where possible services should avoid forcing consumers to change if they do not require new features, Service abstraction The services act as black boxes, that is their inner logic is hidden from the consumers
36.
Amazon Echo
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Amazon Echo is a smart speaker developed by Amazon. com. The device consists of a 9.25 inch tall cylinder speaker with a microphone array. The device connects to the voice-controlled intelligent personal assistant service Alexa and this wake word can be changed by the user to Amazon, Echo or Computer. The device is capable of interaction, music playback, making to-do lists, setting alarms, streaming podcasts, playing audiobooks. It can also control several smart devices using itself as a home automation hub, Amazon had been developing Echo inside its Lab126 offices in Silicon Valley and Cambridge, Massachusetts since at least 2010 in confirmed reports. The device was part of Amazon’s first attempts to expand its device portfolio beyond the Kindle e-reader, the Echo was prominently featured in Amazons first-ever Super Bowl ad in 2016. Echo was initially limited to Amazon Prime members or by invitation, press speculated that it would make its Canadian debut in mid-to-late 2016, after Amazon posted job listings for developers for Alexa and co-hosted a hackathon in Toronto. The Echo became available in the United Kingdom on 28 September 2016, additionally, the Alexa voice service is available to be added to other devices and other companies devices and services are encouraged to connect to it. In the default mode the device continuously listens to all speech, monitoring for the word to be spoken. The device also comes with a manually and voice-activated remote control which can be used in lieu of the wake word, Echos microphones can be manually disabled by pressing a mute button to turn off the audio processing circuit. Echo requires an internet connection in order to work. Echos voice recognition capability is based on Amazon Web Services and the voice platform Amazon acquired from Yap, Evi, Echo performs well with a good Internet connection which minimizes processing time due to minimal communication round trips, streamable responses and geo-distributed service endpoints. While the app is free, an Amazon account is required, Echo offers weather from AccuWeather and news from a variety of sources, including local radio stations, NPR, and ESPN from TuneIn. Echo can play music from the owners Amazon Music accounts and has support for the Pandora and Spotify streaming music services and has support for IFTTT. Echo can also play music from streaming services such as Apple Music, Echo maintains voice-controlled alarms, timers, shopping and to-do lists and can access Wikipedia articles. Echo will respond to questions about items in your Google calendar. It also integrates with Yonomi, Philips Hue, Belkin Wemo, SmartThings, Insteon, additionally, integration with the Echo is in the works for Countertop by Orange Chef, Sonos, Scout Alarm, Garageio, Toymail, MARA, and Mojio. It does not appear to be capable of playing music streamed from a local UPnP/DLNA media server, Echo also has access to skills built with the Alexa Skills Kit
37.
Chatbot
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A chatbot is a computer program which conducts a conversation via auditory or textual methods. Such programs are designed to convincingly simulate how a human would behave as a conversational partner. Chatterbots are typically used in systems for various practical purposes including customer service or information acquisition. The term ChatterBot was originally coined by Michael Mauldin in 1994 to describe these conversational programs, in 1950, Alan Turings famous article Computing Machinery and Intelligence was published, which proposed what is now called the Turing test as a criterion of intelligence. However Weizenbaum himself did not claim that ELIZA was genuinely intelligent, machines are made to behave in wondrous ways, often sufficient to dazzle even the most experienced observer. But once a program is unmasked, once its inner workings are explained. Its magic crumbles away, it revealed as a mere collection of procedures. The observer says to himself I could have written that, with that thought he moves the program in question from the shelf marked intelligent, to that reserved for curios. The object of this paper is to cause just such a re-evaluation of the program about to be explained, few programs ever needed it more. Thus an illusion of understanding is generated, even though the processing involved has been merely superficial and this sort of usage holds the prospect of moving chatbot technology from Weizenbaums shelf. Reserved for curios to that marked genuinely useful computational methods, the classic historic early chatbots are ELIZA and PARRY. More recent notable programs include A. L. I. C. E, while ELIZA and PARRY were used exclusively to simulate typed conversation, many chatbots now include functional features such as games and web searching abilities. In 1984, a book called The Policemans Beard is Half Constructed was published, one pertinent field of AI research is natural language processing. Usually, weak AI fields employ specialized software or programming languages created specifically for the narrow function required. Utilises a markup language called AIML, which is specific to its function as a conversational agent, and has since been adopted by various other developers of, so called, Alicebots. Nevertheless, A. L. I. C. E. is still based on pattern matching techniques without any reasoning capabilities. This is not strong AI, which would require sapience and logical reasoning abilities, jabberwacky learns new responses and context based on real-time user interactions, rather than being driven from a static database. Still, there is no general purpose conversational artificial intelligence
38.
Android (operating system)
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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
39.
IOS
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IOS is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware. It is the system that presently powers many of the companys mobile devices, including the iPhone, iPad. It is the second most popular operating system globally after Android. IPad tablets are also the second most popular, by sales, originally unveiled in 2007 for the iPhone, iOS has been extended to support other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch and the iPad. As of January 2017, Apples App Store contains more than 2.2 million iOS applications,1 million of which are native for iPads and these mobile apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times. The iOS user interface is based upon direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures, interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Internal accelerometers are used by applications to respond to shaking the device or rotating it in three dimensions. Apple has been praised for incorporating thorough accessibility functions into iOS, enabling users with vision. Major versions of iOS are released annually, the current version, iOS10, was released on September 13,2016. In iOS, there are four layers, the Core OS, Core Services, Media. In 2005, when Steve Jobs began planning the iPhone, he had a choice to either shrink the Mac, forstall was also responsible for creating a software development kit for programmers to build iPhone apps, as well as an App Store within iTunes. The operating system was unveiled with the iPhone at the Macworld Conference & Expo on January 9,2007, and released in June of that year. At the time of its unveiling in January, Steve Jobs claimed, iPhone runs OS X and runs applications, but at the time of the iPhones release. Initially, third-party native applications were not supported, Steve Jobs reasoning was that developers could build web applications through the Safari web browser that would behave like native apps on the iPhone. In October 2007, Apple announced that a native Software Development Kit was under development, on March 6,2008, Apple held a press event, announcing the iPhone SDK. The iOS App Store was opened on July 10,2008 with an initial 500 applications available.2 million in January 2017, as of March 2016,1 million apps are natively compatible with the iPad tablet computer. These apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times, App intelligence firm Sensor Tower has estimated that the App Store will reach 5 million apps by the year 2020. On September 5,2007, Apple released the iPod Touch, Apple also sold more than one million iPhones during the 2007 holiday season
40.
Microsoft Store (digital)
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Windows Store is an app store for Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012. It is the means of distributing Universal Windows Platform apps. Both free and paid apps can be distributed through Windows Store, Windows Store was first made available with the Windows 8 Consumer Preview on February 29,2012. Later in 2015, Windows Phone Store, Xbox Video and Xbox Music stores were merged into Windows Store, as with other similar platforms, such as the Mac App Store and Google Play, Windows Store is curated and apps must be certified for compatibility and content. With all app sales, Microsoft takes 30% of the sale price, prior to January 1,2015, the cut was reduced to 20% after the developers profits reached $25,000. Games, Entertainment, Books and Reference, and Education are the largest categories by number of apps, Microsoft previously maintained a similar digital distribution system for software known as Windows Marketplace, which allowed customers to purchase software online and download it to their computer. Product keys and licenses were tracked by the platform, allowing users to retrieve their purchases when switching computers, Windows Marketplace was discontinued in November 2008. Microsoft first announced a distribution service for Windows at its presentation during the Build developer conference on September 13,2011. For consumers, Windows Store is intended to be the way to obtain Metro-style apps. While announced alongside the Developer Preview release of Windows 8, Windows Store itself did not become available until the Consumer Preview, an updated version of Windows Store was introduced in Windows 8.1. Its home page was remodeled to display apps in focused categories with expanded details, Windows Store serves as a unified storefront for Windows 10 on all platforms, offering apps, Groove Music soundtracks, Microsoft Movies & TV videos, themes, and ebooks purchases. Web apps and desktop software can be packaged for distribution on Windows Store, desktop software distributed through Windows Store will be packaged using the App-V system to allow sandboxing. Windows Store is available in Windows Server 2012 but is not installed by default, Windows Store is the primary means of distributing Windows Store apps to users. Although sideloading apps from outside the store is supported, out-of-box sideloading support on Windows 8 is only available for Windows 8 Enterprise computers that have joined a Windows domain. Sideloading on Windows RT and Windows 8 Pro devices, and Windows 8 Enterprise computers without a domain affiliation, Windows 10 removes this requirement, allowing users to enable the installation of universal apps from outside of Windows Store using a switch in the developer menu of Settings app. Microsoft takes a 30% cut of app sales until it reaches US$25,000 in revenue, third-party transactions are also allowed, of which Microsoft does not take a cut. Effective January 1,2015, the reduction in cut at $25,000 will be removed, individual developers are able to register for $19 USD and companies for $99 USD. Developers from 120 countries can submit apps to Windows Store, the app now can support any of 109 languages, as long as it supports one of 12 app certification languages
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