1.
Academia
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Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
2.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
3.
Graduate student
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A graduate school is a school that awards advanced academic degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate degree with a high grade point average. The distinction between schools and professional schools is not absolute, as various professional schools offer graduate degrees. Also, some graduate degrees train students for a specific profession, many universities award graduate degrees, a graduate school is not necessarily a separate institution. Those attending graduate schools are called students, or often in British English as postgraduate students and, colloquially, postgraduates. Degrees awarded to students include masters degrees, doctoral degrees. Producing original research is a significant component of graduate studies in the humanities, sciences and this research typically leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. In graduate programs that are oriented towards professional training, the degrees may consist solely of coursework, the term graduate school is primarily North American. Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is common for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate or graduate entry level. Some institutions designate separate graduate versus undergraduate staff and denote other divisions, Graduate degrees in Brazil are called postgraduate degrees, and can be taken only after an undergraduate education has been concluded. Lato sensu graduate degrees, degrees that represent a specialization in a certain area, sometimes it can be used to describe a specialization level between a masters degree and a MBA. However, since there are no norms to regulate this, both names are used indiscriminately most of the time, stricto sensu graduate degrees, degrees for those who wish to pursue an academic career. Usually serves as qualification for those seeking a differential on the job market. Most doctoral programs in Brazil require a degree, meaning that a Lato Sensu Degree is usually insufficient to start a doctoral program. Doctors / PhD, 3–4 years for completion, usually used as a stepping stone for academic life. In Canada, the Schools and Faculties of Graduate Studies are represented by the Canadian Association of Graduate Studies or Association canadienne pour les études supérieures and its mandate is to promote, advance, and foster excellence in graduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to a conference, the association prepares briefs on issues related to graduate studies including supervision, funding. Admission to a masters program generally requires a degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher. Some schools require samples of the writing as well as a research proposal
4.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
5.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
6.
Academic journal
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An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
7.
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
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The MLA Handbook, formerly the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers is a publication of the Modern Language Association. According to the MLA, the MLA style has been adopted for classroom instruction and used worldwide by scholars, journal publishers. Released in April 2016, the edition of the MLA Handbook is addressed primarily to secondary-school and undergraduate college and university teachers. The MLA Handbook grew out of the initial MLA Style Sheet of 1951, the first five editions, published between 1977 and 1999 were titled the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. The title changed to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers in 2003, additionally, the seventh edition included a website with the full text of the book. Later online additions allowed for citation of e-books and tweets, the eighth editions main changes from the seventh edition are shift our focus from a prescriptive list of formats to an overarching purpose of source documentation. The list below identifies the year of publication of each edition of the MLA Handbook
8.
The MLA Style Manual
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The MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing the third edition of The MLA Style Manual, was first published by the Modern Language Association of America in 1985. According to the MLA book catalog description, since first being published in 1985, the MLA Style Manual has been the guide for graduate students, scholars. Following the advent of the 8th edition of the MLA Handbook in spring 2016, the audience was primarily graduate students, academic scholars, professors, professional writers, and editors. The other publication is the MLA Handbook, whose audience is secondary-school and undergraduate students. The MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, 3rd ed, many journals and presses in these disciplines require that manuscripts be submitted following MLA style. Comparison of reference management software Achtert, Walter S. and Joseph Gibaldi, new York, Modern Language Association,1985. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing
9.
United States 2000 Census
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This was the twenty-second federal census and was at the time the largest civilly administered peacetime effort in the United States. Approximately 16 percent of households received a form of the 2000 census. Full documentation on the 2000 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 2000 census is available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2072. The U. S. resident population includes the number of people in the 50 states. The Bureau also enumerated the residents of the U. S. territory of Puerto Rico, its population was 3,808,610, the 2000 Census was the first time survey options for multiracial Americans were provided. S. Households had access to computers, 42% have Internet access, regionally, the South and West experienced the bulk of the nations population increase,14,790,890 and 10,411,850, respectively. This meant that the center of U. S. population moved to Phelps County. The Northeast grew by 2,785,149, the Midwest by 4,724,144, the results of the census are used to determine how many congressional districts each state is apportioned. Congress defines the formula, in accordance with Title 2 of the U. S. Code, each member of the House represents a population of about 647,000. The populations of the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are excluded from the apportionment population because they do not have voting seats in the U. S, since the first census in 1790, the decennial count has been the basis for the United States representative form of government. Article I, Section II specifies that The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, in 1790, each member of the House represented about 34,000 residents. Since then, the House more than quadrupled in size, today, each member represents about 20 times as many constituents. This recommendation was followed by the Secretary of Commerce, after the census was tabulated, Utah challenged the results in two different ways. Utah was extremely close to gaining a fourth seat, falling 857 people short. The margin was later shortened to 80 people, after the government discovered that it overcounted the population of North Carolina by 2,673 residents. Utah claimed that individuals traveling abroad as religious missionaries should be counted as residents, almost half of all Mormon missionaries, more than 11,000 individuals, were from Utah, only 102 came from North Carolina
10.
The New Criterion
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The New Criterion is a New York-based monthly literary magazine and journal of artistic and cultural criticism, edited by Roger Kimball and James Panero. It has sections for criticism of poetry, theater, art, music, the media and it was founded in 1982 by Hilton Kramer, former art critic for The New York Times, and Samuel Lipman, a pianist and music critic. The name is a reference to The Criterion, a British literary magazine edited by T. S. Eliot from 1922 to 1939 and it evinces an artistic classicism and political conservatism that are rare among other publications of its type. It regularly publishes special pamphlets, or compilations of published material organized into themes, some past examples have been Corrupt Humanitarianism, Religion, Manners, and Morals in the U. S. and Great Britain, and Reflections on Anti-Americanism. The New Criterion has been running The New Criterion Poetry Prize, in 2004, The New Criterion contributors began publishing a blog, known as Dispatch. The New Criterion was founded in 1982 by The New York Times art critic Hilton Kramer, noted contributors to the journal include Mark Steyn, as well as articles by Roger Scruton, David Pryce-Jones, Theodore Dalrymple, Jay Nordlinger, and others. The New Criterion has been reported as influential in the way that conservatives think about culture. The magazine, whose circulation is 6,500, has taken a role in the culture wars. Or, more to the point, to separate the sheep from the pigs in sheeps clothing. ”The publication also hosts a gala honoring recipients of the award. Counterpoints,25 Years of The New Criterion on Culture and the Arts, edited by Roger Kimball and Hilton Kramer, Ivan R. Dee,512 pages. ISBN 1-56663-706-6 ISBN 978-1566637060 Against the Grain, The New Criterion on Art and Intellect at the End of the 20th Century, edited by Hilton Kramer and Roger Kimball, Ivan R. Dee,477 pages. ISBN 1-56663-069-X ISBN 978-1566630696 The New Criterion Reader, The First Five Years, edited by Hilton Kramer, ISBN 0-02-917641-7 ISBN 978-0029176412 Lengthened Shadows, America and Its Institutions in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Roger Kimball and Hilton Kramer, Encounter Books,266 pages. ISBN 1-59403-054-5 ISBN 978-1594030543 The Survival of Culture, Permanent Values in a Virtual Age, edited by Hilton Kramer and Roger Kimball, ISBN 1-56663-257-9, ISBN 978-1-56663-257-7 The Future of the European Past edited by Hilton Kramer and Roger Kimball, Ivan R. Dee,251 pages. ISBN 1-56663-178-5, ISBN 978-1-56663-178-5 Since 2000 the magazine has been awarding its poetry prize to a poet for a manuscript of poems that pay close attention to form
11.
Roger Kimball
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Roger Kimball, an American art critic and social commentator, is the editor and publisher of The New Criterion and the publisher of Encounter Books. Kimball first gained prominence in the early 1990s with the publication of his book Tenured Radicals and he also served on the Board of Visitors of St. Johns College. Kimball was educated at Cheverus High School, a Jesuit institution in South Portland, Maine, and then at Bennington College, after graduating, Kimball attended Yale University, where he earned an M. A. in 1978 and an M. Phil. in 1972 in philosophy. Kimball also blogs at The New Criterions weblog Armavirumque and since the autumn of 2007, some of Kimballs work as a writer is polemical, directed against what he sees as the politicization and dumbing down of Western culture and the arts. Kimball, in the words of the critic Wilfred McClay, has gradually turned The New Criterion into a dedicated to the recovery of the West’s longer cultural heritage. In the process, he has made The New Criterion a voice not only for the seriousness of high modernism, Kimball also writes regularly about art. He has written essays on artists including Delacroix, Vuillard, Robert Motherwell, Frank Stella, recently, some of his essays have called for renewed attention to Classical Realism and other contemporary art movements that champion traditional values and techniques of representational art. Many prominent conservative intellectuals serve as contributors including John R. Bolton, Richard Allen Epstein, Peter Ferrara, John Fund, Victor Davis Hanson, mcCarthy, Betsy McCaughey, Michael Mukasey, Glenn Reynolds, Kevin D. Williamson, and more. Kimball endorsed Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, first published in 1990, Tenured Radicals, How Politics Has Corrupted Our Higher Education was updated in 1998 and again in 2008. The most recent third edition includes a new introduction by Kimball as well as the preface to the 1998 edition, the book critiques the ways in which humanities are taught and studied in American universities. The book takes the stance that modern humanities have become politicized while seeking to subvert the tradition of high culture embodied in the classics of Western art and thought. Kimball maintains that yesterdays radical thinker has become todays tenured professor carrying out ideologically motivated assaults on the intellectual and moral substance of our culture. His acknowledgments include the John M. Olin Foundation and the Institute for Educational Affairs for their generous help in the stages of this project. Experiments Against Reality, The Fate of Culture in the Postmodern Age is a book criticizing the literary and he also laments the state of modern culture, focusing his analysis on the realms of contemporary art and academia. Kimball argues against nihilist, deconstructionist, and anti-enlightenment perspectives prevalent in modern theory, as one review put it, Kimball’s writings offer weapons of resistance to such indoctrination and they set a traditional criterion, the lessons of history, ordinary experience, beauty, reality. The New York Times Book Review calls Kimball a “scathing critic…whose tirades are usually justified”, in 2003s Arts Prospect, The Challenge of Tradition in an Age of Celebrity, Kimball turns a critical eye towards what he sees as modern arts avant-garde assault on tradition. He argues that the most invigorating action in modern art is a quiet affair that takes place out of the limelight. The book has enjoyed positive critical reception from a variety of publications, the book includes an array of case studies of such an impact in chapters that discuss Michael Fried on Gustave Courbet, Anna Chave on Mark Rothko, David M
12.
Boycott
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The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
13.
Ultra vires
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Ultra vires is a Latin phrase meaning beyond the powers. If an act requires legal authority and it is done with such authority, if it is done without such authority, it is ultra vires. Acts that are intra vires may equivalently be termed valid and those that are ultra vires invalid, acts attempted by a corporation that are beyond the scope of its charter are void or voidable. An ultra vires transaction cannot be ratified by shareholders, even if they wish it to be ratified, the doctrine of estoppel usually precluded reliance on the defense of ultra vires where the transaction was fully performed by one party. A fortiori, a transaction which was performed by both parties could not be attacked. If the contract was fully executory, the defense of ultra vires might be raised by either party, if an agent of the corporation committed a tort within the scope of his or her employment, the corporation could not defend on the ground the act was ultra vires. Several modern developments relating to corporate formation have limited the probability that ultra vires acts will occur, except in the case of non-profit corporations, this legal doctrine is obsolescent, within recent years, almost all business corporations are chartered to allow them to transact any lawful business. The Model Business Corporation Act of the United States states that, the doctrine still has some life among non-profit corporations or state-created corporate bodies established for a specific public purpose, such as universities or charities. Under constitutional law, particularly in Canada and the United States, according to Article 15.2 of the Irish constitution, the Oireachtas is the sole lawmaking body in the Republic of Ireland. In UK constitutional law, ultra vires describes patents, ordinances, almost unheard of in modern times, ultra vires acts by the Crown or its servants were previously a major threat to the rule of law. Boddington v British Transport Police is an example of an appeal heard by House of Lords that contested that a bylaw was beyond the powers conferred to it under section 67 of the Transport Act 1962. In administrative law, an act may be judicially reviewable for ultra vires in a narrow or broad sense, narrow ultra vires applies if an administrator did not have the substantive power to make a decision or it was wrought with procedural defects. Broad ultra vires applies if there is an abuse of power or a failure to exercise an administrative discretion or application of powers in irrational. Either doctrine may entitle a claimant to various prerogative writs, equitable remedies or statutory orders if they are satisfied, in the seminal case of Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission, Lord Reid is accredited with formulating the doctrine of ultra vires. However, ultra vires, together with unreasonableness, was mentioned earlier by Lord Russell in the well known case, Kruse v Johnson, regarding challenging by-laws. Anisminic is better known for not depriving courts of their jurisdiction to declare a decision a nullity, further cases such as Bromley LBC v Greater London Council and Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service have sought to refine the doctrine. The Law of Corporation 4th Edition,1996 West Group
14.
The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers
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The MLA Handbook, formerly the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers is a publication of the Modern Language Association. According to the MLA, the MLA style has been adopted for classroom instruction and used worldwide by scholars, journal publishers. Released in April 2016, the edition of the MLA Handbook is addressed primarily to secondary-school and undergraduate college and university teachers. The MLA Handbook grew out of the initial MLA Style Sheet of 1951, the first five editions, published between 1977 and 1999 were titled the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. The title changed to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers in 2003, additionally, the seventh edition included a website with the full text of the book. Later online additions allowed for citation of e-books and tweets, the eighth editions main changes from the seventh edition are shift our focus from a prescriptive list of formats to an overarching purpose of source documentation. The list below identifies the year of publication of each edition of the MLA Handbook
15.
Style guide
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A style guide is a set of standards for the writing and design of documents, either for general use or for a specific publication, organization, or field. A style guide establishes and enforces style to improve communication, to do that, it ensures consistency within a document and across multiple documents and enforces best practice in usage and in language composition, visual composition, orthography and typography. For academic and technical documents, a guide may also enforce the best practice in ethics, pedagogy, Style guides vary widely in scope and size. This variety in scope and length is enabled by the cascading of one style over another, in a way analogous to how styles cascade in web development, a short style guide is often called a style sheet. A comprehensive guide tends to be long and is called a style manual or manual of style. Most house styles, in turn, cascade over an industry-wide or profession-wide style manual that is more comprehensive. This, of course, may be subject to national variety such as the different varieties of American English and British English, some style guides focus on specific topic areas such as graphic design, including typography. Website style guides cover a publications visual and technical aspects along with text, Style guides that cover usage may suggest ways of describing people that avoid racism, sexism, and homophobia. Guides in specific scientific and technical fields cover nomenclature, which specifies names or classifying labels that are preferred because they are clear, standardized, most style guides are revised periodically to accommodate changes in conventions and usage. The frequency of updating and the control are determined by the subject matter. For style manuals in reference work format, new editions typically appear every 1 to 20 years, for example, the AP Stylebook is revised annually, and the Chicago, APA, and ASA manuals are in their 16th, 6th, and 4th editions, respectively. Many house styles and individual project styles change more frequently, especially for new projects, several basic style guides for technical and scientific communication have been defined by international standards organizations. One example is ISO215 Documentation — Presentation of contributions to periodicals, the European Union publishes an Interinstitutional style guide—encompassing 24 languages across the European Union. This manual is obligatory for all those employed by the institutions of the EU who are involved in preparing EU documents, Style Manual, For Authors, Editors and Printers by Snooks & Co for the Department of Finance and Administration. CP Stylebook, Guide to newspaper style in Canada maintained by the Canadian Press, 4th ed. Oxford University Press,2015. Based on Fowlers Modern English Usage, by Henry Watson Fowler, the Kings English, by Henry Watson Fowler and Francis George Fowler. The Complete Plain Words, by Sir Ernest Gowers, Usage and Abusage, by Eric Partridge. The BBC News Style Guide, by the British Broadcasting Corporation, the Economist Style Guide, by The Economist
16.
Frederick C. Crews
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Frederick Campbell Crews is an American essayist and literary critic. He received popular attention for The Pooh Perplex, a book of satirical essays parodying contemporary casebooks, initially a proponent of psychoanalytic literary criticism, Crews later rejected psychoanalysis, becoming a critic of Sigmund Freud and his scientific and ethical standards. Crews was a prominent participant in the Freud wars of the 1980s and 1990s, Crews has also published successful handbooks for college writers, such as The Random House Handbook. Crews was born in suburban Philadelphia in 1933 and my mother was very literary, my father was very scientific. I feel that I got a little something of both sides. ”In high school, Crews was co-captain of the team, and for decades he remained an avid skier, hiker, swimmer. Crews lives in Berkeley with his wife of 57 years, Elizabeth Crews and they have two daughters and four grandchildren. Crews completed his education at Yale University in 1955. He received his Ph. D in Literature from Princeton University in 1958, Crews cited Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Friedrich Nietzsche, Hawthorne, and Freud as his major influences during his time at Princeton. In 1958, Crews joined the UC Berkeley English Department, where he taught for 36 years before retiring as its chair in 1994, Crews was an anti-war activist from 1965 to about 1970 and advocated draft resistance as co-chair of Berkeley’s Faculty Peace Committee. This convinced him that his loyalty should not belong to any theory but rather to empirical standards and these are habits of mind that science shares with good history, good sociology, good political science, good economics, what have you. And I summarize all this in what I call the empirical attitude, and this is an ideal that is not so much individual as social. The rational attitude doesnt really work when applied to ones self. It is something that we owe to each other, though urged by readers to publish a follow-up volume, Crews delayed writing one until after his retirement in 1994, producing Postmodern Pooh in 2001. While The Pooh Perplex parodies earlier trends in literary criticism, Postmodern Pooh parodies later trends in literary theory, in it, Crews extends the satire of the original, covering more recent critical approaches. Such as deconstruction, feminism, queer theory, and recovered memory therapy, in basing the essay authors and their approaches on actual academics. In The Patch Commission, Crews satirized the activities of Presidential Commissions, much of Crewss career has been dedicated to literary criticism. In 1962, Crewss doctoral dissertation from Princeton University was published as E. M. Forster, the collection included an essay, Anaesthetic Criticism, in which Crews disparaged contemporary schools of literary criticism, especially that of Northrop Frye and his followers. In 1986, Crews published The Critics Bear It Away, which was devoted to literary criticism
17.
Noam Chomsky
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Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes described as the father of modern linguistics, Chomsky is also a figure in analytic philosophy. Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, born to middle-class Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. At the age of sixteen he began studies at the University of Pennsylvania, taking courses in linguistics, mathematics, and philosophy. From 1951 to 1955 he was appointed to Harvard Universitys Society of Fellows and he is credited as the creator or co-creator of the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a role in the decline of behaviorism. Associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism, while expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the Linguistics Wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later co-wrote an analysis articulating the propaganda model of media criticism, however, his defense of unconditional freedom of speech—including for Holocaust deniers—generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the early 1980s. Following his retirement from teaching, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the War on Terror. One of the most cited scholars in history, Chomsky has influenced an array of academic fields. Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7,1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and his father was William Zev Chomsky, an Ashkenazi Jew originally from Ukraine who had fled to the United States in 1913. Chomskys mother was the Belarusian-born Elsie Simonofsky, a teacher and activist whom William had met while working at Mikveh Israel, Noam was the Chomsky familys first child. His younger brother, David Eli Chomsky, was five years later. The brothers were close, although David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive, as a Jew, Chomsky faced anti-semitism as a child, particularly from the Irish and German communities living in Philadelphia. He was substantially influenced by his uncle who owned a newspaper stand in New York City, whenever visiting his uncle, Chomsky frequented left-wing and anarchist bookstores in the city, voraciously reading political literature. He later described his discovery of anarchism as an accident, because it allowed him to become critical of other far-left ideologies, namely Stalinism. Chomskys primary education was at Oak Lane Country Day School, an independent Deweyite institution that focused on allowing its pupils to pursue their own interests in a non-competitive atmosphere. It was here, at age 10, that he wrote his first article, on the spread of fascism, from the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics
18.
New York Review of Books
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The New York Review of Books is a semi-monthly magazine with articles on literature, culture, economics, science and current affairs. Published in New York City, it is inspired by the idea that the discussion of important books is a literary activity. Esquire called it the premier literary-intellectual magazine in the English language, in 1970 writer Tom Wolfe described it as the chief theoretical organ of Radical Chic. The Review publishes long-form reviews and essays, often by well-known writers, original poetry, in 1979 the magazine founded the London Review of Books, which soon became independent. In 1990 it founded an Italian edition, la Rivista dei Libri, Robert B. Silvers and Barbara Epstein edited the paper together from its founding in 1963, until her death in 2006. From then until his death in 2017, Silvers was the sole editor, the Review has a book publishing division, established in 1999, called New York Review Books, which publishes classics, collections and childrens books. Since 2010, the journal has hosted a blog written by its contributors. The Review celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2013, and a Martin Scorsese film called The 50 Year Argument documents the history, the New York Review was founded by Robert B. Silvers and Barbara Epstein, together with publisher A. Whitney Ellsworth and writer Elizabeth Hardwick. They were backed and encouraged by Epsteins husband, Jason Epstein, a president at Random House and editor of Vintage Books. In 1959 Hardwick had published an essay, The Decline of Book Reviewing, in Harpers, Jason Epstein knew that book publishers would advertise their books in the new publication, since they had no other outlet for promoting new books. The group turned to the Epsteins friend Silvers, who had been an editor at The Paris Review and was still at Harpers, to edit the publication, and Silvers asked Barbara Epstein to co-edit with him. She was known as the editor at Doubleday of Anne Franks Diary of a Young Girl, among other books, Silvers and Epstein sent books to the writers we knew and admired most. We asked for three words in three weeks in order to show what a book review should be, and practically everyone came through. The first issue of the Review was published on February 1,1963 and it prompted nearly 1,000 letters to the editors asking for the Review to continue. The New Yorker called it surely the best first issue of any magazine ever, after the success of the first issue, the editors assembled a second issue to demonstrate that the Review was not a one-shot affair. The founders then collected investments from a circle of friends and acquaintances, the Review began regular biweekly publication in November 1963. Silvers said of the philosophy, that there was no subject we couldnt deal with. And if there was no book, we would deal with it anyway and we tried hard to avoid books that were simply competent rehearsals of familiar subjects, and we hoped to find books that would establish something fresh, something original
19.
Harper & Row
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Harper is an American publishing house, currently the flagship imprint of global publisher HarperCollins. James Harper and his brother John, printers by training, started their book publishing business J. & J. Harper in 1817 and their two brothers, Joseph Wesley Harper and Fletcher Harper, joined them in the mid-1820s. The company changed its name to Harper & Brothers in 1833, the headquarters of the publishing house were located at 331 Pearl Street, facing Franklin Square in Lower Manhattan. Harper & Brothers began publishing Harpers New Monthly Magazine in 1850, the brothers also published Harpers Weekly, Harpers Bazar, and Harpers Young People. George B. M. Harvey became president of Harpers on Nov.16,1899, Harpers New Monthly Magazine ultimately became Harpers Magazine, which is now published by the Harpers Magazine Foundation. Harpers Weekly was absorbed by The Independent in 1916, which in turn merged with The Outlook in 1928, Harpers Bazar was sold to William Randolph Hearst in 1913 and is now Bazaar, published by the Hearst Corporation. In 1924, Cass Canfield joined Harper & Brothers and held a variety of positions until his death in 1986. In 1925, Eugene F. Saxton joined the company as an editor, in 1935, Edward Aswell moved to Harper & Brothers as an assistant editor of general books and eventually became editor-in-chief. Aswell persuaded Thomas Wolfe to leave Scribners, and, after Wolfes death, edited the posthumous novels The Web and the Rock, You Cant Go Home Again, in 1962 Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company to become Harper & Row. Marshall Pickering was bought by Harper and Row in 1988, marshall Pickering itself was formed in 1981 from two long established Christian publishers. Marshall Morgan and Scott, a London-based predominantly Baptist publishing house, Pickering and Inglis was a long established Glasgow based publisher, publishing largely for the non conformist church in Scotland with many Brethren publications. Rupert Murdochs News Corporation acquired Harper & Row in 1987, the names of these two national publishing houses were combined to create HarperCollins, which has since expanded its international reach with further acquisitions of formerly independent publishers. The Harper imprint began being used in place of HarperCollins in 2007, after the purchase of Harper & Row by News Corporation, HarperCollins launched a new mass market paperback line to complement its existing trade paperback Perennial imprint. It was known as Harper Paperbacks from 1990 to 2000, HarperTorch from 2000 to 2006, the Harper Establishment, or, How a New York Publishing Giant Was Made. The brothers Harper, a publishing partnership and its impact upon the cultural life of America from 1817 to 1853 Eugene Exman, The House of Harper, NY, Harper & Row
20.
Rowman & Littlefield
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Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group is an independent publishing house founded in 1949. Under several imprints, the company offers scholarly books and journals for the academic market, Rowman & Littlefield is the worlds largest publisher in museum studies. The company also owns two book distributing businesses, National Book Network based in Lanham, Maryland, and NBN International based in Plymouth, UK. The current company took shape when University Press of America acquired Rowman & Littlefield in 1988, a publishing phenomenon that begins and ends with Scarecrow Press
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
Diogenes (journal)
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Diogenes is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers four times a year in the field of philosophy and the humanities. The journals editors are Maurice Aymard and Luca Maria Scarantino and it has been in publication since 1953 and is currently published by SAGE Publications on behalf of the International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies, with the support of UNESCO. Diogenes aims to offer an outlet for scientific information and intellectual synthesis. The journal publishes work from all fields of philosophical, humanistic, diogenes is transdisciplinary in scope, publishing pieces by scholars across a range of disciplines
23.
La Salle University
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La Salle University is a private, co-educational, Roman Catholic university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Named for St. Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, the university was founded in 1863 by the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, the university offers traditional, online, and hybrid courses and programs. The university is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church through the Archdiocese of Philadelphia, La Salle College was founded in March 1863 as an all-male college by Brother Teliow and Archbishop James Wood of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia. It was first located at St. Michaels Parish on N. 2nd Street in the Olde Kensington section of Philadelphia, La Salle soon moved to the building vacated by St. Josephs College at 1234 Filbert Street in Center City, Philadelphia. Due to space constraints, in 1930 La Salle moved to its current campus at the intersection of 20th Street, the new location had a suburban feel with ample land, but was linked to the city by trolleys and the newly constructed Broad Street Subway. The 1930s proved to be a decade for La Salle. The main academic building on campus, College Hall was unable to be finished due to a lack of funds, the colleges closing was prevented by a 75th Anniversary Fund Drive in 1938, spearheaded by Philadelphia businessman John McCarthy. Funds raised from this also enabled La Salle to purchase a tract of land to the east of 19th Street. Several new buildings were constructed in the 1940s and 1950s, including a new library, student union, and it was also during this time that the first student residence halls were constructed at La Salle, mostly on land purchased from the former Belfield Country Club. Additional student housing was provided by purchasing or renting local homes, such as the known as The Mansion, on David. During the 1960s, the school section moved out due to the lack of space after many years of sharing the same campus with the College. La Salle admitted women to its classes in 1970, becoming a fully co-educational institution. A year later, La Salle opened Olney Hall, its academic building. It was also during this era, in 1984, that La Salle was granted University status, in 2007, La Salle acquired the former Germantown Hospital, now West Campus, and constructed The Shoppes at La Salle shopping center across the street in 2008. The construction of the Shoppes at La Salle and addition of The Fresh Grocer ended a decades-long food desert in Germantown, in October 2015, La Salle inaugurated its first lay person and first woman president, Dr. Colleen Hanycz, former president of Brescia University College. In 2015, Hanycz led consolidation and prioritization efforts, ultimately firing a dozen prominent staff members and administrators. The university even cut six undergraduate majors, which were mostly in the language department. However, just a year after her arrival, the stated that it would decrease tuition by 29 percent
24.
Inside Higher Ed
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Inside Higher Ed is a daily online publication focused on college and university topics, based in Washington, D. C. It was founded in 2004 by Kathlene Collins, formerly a business manager for The Chronicle of Higher Education, typical daily content includes several news stories, announcements of newly hired college and university administrators and faculty, and brief items called Quick Takes. Scott McLemee writes the weekly Intellectual Affairs column, the Views section features columns from faculty and administration contributors. The website also hosts several blogs on topics, including Confessions of a Community College Dean. The business founders expected that most of Inside Higher Eds revenue would come from employment advertising and services for employment recruiters
25.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
26.
Algemeiner Journal
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The Algemeiner Journal is a New York-based newspaper, covering American and international Jewish and Israel-related news. The Algemeiners Advisory Board was chaired by Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, in 1972, Gershon Jacobson founded the Yiddish-language Der Algemeiner Journal, after consultation with the Lubavitcher Rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson. He served as editor and publisher from its inception until his death in 2005, the inaugural issue was published by Der Algemeiner Journal Corporation on February 23,1972. The ten-page paper was priced at 25 cents, Der Algemeiner Journal aimed to fill the gap created by the 1971 closing of the daily Yiddish paper Der Tog Morgen Zhurnal, for whom Jacobson had written and served as its city editor. Although Jacobson himself was an Lubavitcher Chasid, according to the New York Times, at its peak, The Algemeiner’s circulation neared 100,000 copies. In May 2005, after Gershon Jacobsons passing, his son, Simon Jacobson. He then founded the Gershon Jacobson Jewish Continuity Foundation, a Jewish media organization with the mission to serve as a voice for Jews, in 2008, The Algemeiner Journal was reconceived as an English publication, dropping the Yiddish Der in its title for The. That year, Dovid Efune became the Editor-In-Chief of The Algemeiner, in 2011, the GJCF launched the website Algemeiner. com. The site has grown rapidly since, and now boasts a roster of over 600 bloggers, the Algemeiners print edition is published weekly every Friday, except for the weeks of Passover and Sukkot. The papers circulation is between 18,000 and 23,000 and it is sold at newsstands internationally and is available for subscription. It can also be viewed as an ePaper on Algemeiner. com, the vast majority of The Algemeiner readership and content is online. The Philadelphia Inquirer has called the Algemeiner a major Jewish newspaper, editor Dovid Efune makes frequent TV appearances on channels including CNBC, Fox News, CBS, Real News and others to address topics relating to Israel and the Jewish community. Publisher Simon Jacobson has said the attempts to provide a Jewish perspective on current events to people of all backgrounds. This was seen as an attempt to gain the Jewish vote by grouping Dinkins with the controversial Rev. Jackson, Kushner strongly denied the allegations, declaring himself proud to be Jewish and calling Wiesenfelds portrayal of him a grotesque caricature. Wiesenfeld responded with an op-ed on Algemeiner. com, defending his stance, past CUNY honorees Barbara Ehrenreich and Michael Cunningham asked to return their honorary degrees in protest of CUNYs treatment of Kushner. The CUNY board ultimately reversed its decision, awarding Kushner the honorary degree, since 2006, in conjunction with the Gershon Jacobson Foundation, The Algemeiner hosts an annual lecture series featuring a politician, Jewish leader or scholar. In 2011, Connecticut Senator Joseph Lieberman spoke on politics and religion, beginning in 2010, The Algemeiner has put out an annual list of the top non-Jews having a positive influence in shaping the Jewish future. Media mogul Rupert Murdoch was named first in 2010, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper in 2011, Mitt Romney in 2012, as a prelude to the 2012 Republican primaries, The Algemeiner ranked the partys eight candidates in order of how good they would be for Israel
27.
HathiTrust
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HathiTrust was founded in October 2008 by the thirteen universities of the Committee on Institutional Cooperation and the University of California. The partnership includes over 60 research libraries across the United States, Canada, and Europe, costs are shared by the participating libraries and library consortia. The repository is administered by Indiana University and the University of Michigan, the Executive Director of HathiTrust is Mike Furlough. In October 2015, HathiTrust comprised over 13.7 million volumes, HathiTrust provides a number of discovery and access services, notably, full-text search across the entire repository. In 2016 over 6.17 million users located in the United States, in September 2011, the Authors Guild sued HathiTrust, alleging massive copyright violation. A federal court ruled against the Authors Guild in October 2012, Hathi, pronounced hah-tee, is the Hindi word for elephant, an animal famed for its long-term memory. Hathi is also the name of an elephant in Rudyard Kiplings The Second Jungle Book, an Elephant Backs Up Googles Library. HathiTrust, A Research Library at Web Scale, matthew Miller, Gilok Choi, and Lindsay Chell. Comparison of three digital library interfaces, open library, Google books, and Hathi Trust, in Proceedings of the 12th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, pp. 367–368. Official website HathiTrust adds new members, goes global Major Library Partners Launch HathiTrust Shared Digital Repository
28.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
29.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
30.
BIBSYS
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BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply
31.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
