1.
Skin
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Skin is the soft outer tissue covering vertebrates. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton have different developmental origin, structure, the adjective cutaneous means of the skin. In mammals, the skin is an organ of the system made up of multiple layers of ectodermal tissue. Skin of a different nature exists in amphibians, reptiles, all mammals have some hair on their skin, even marine mammals like whales, dolphins, and porpoises which appear to be hairless. The skin interfaces with the environment and is the first line of defense from external factors, for example, the skin plays a key role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, severely damaged skin may heal by forming scar tissue. This is sometimes discoloured and depigmented, the thickness of skin also varies from location to location on an organism. The skin on the palms and the soles of the feet is 4 mm thick, the speed and quality of wound healing in skin is promoted by the reception of estrogen. Primarily, fur augments the insulation the skin provides but can serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. On some animals, the skin is hard and thick. Reptiles and fish have hard scales on their skin for protection. Amphibian skin is not a barrier, especially regarding the passage of chemicals via skin and is often subject to osmosis. For example, a sitting in an anesthetic solution would be sedated quickly. Amphibian skin plays key roles in everyday survival and their ability to exploit a range of habitats. Keratinocytes are the cells, constituting 95% of the epidermis, while Merkel cells, melanocytes. Keratinocytes from the stratum corneum are eventually shed from the surface, the epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries extending to the upper layers of the dermis. The epidermis and dermis are separated by a sheet of fibers called the basement membrane. The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress
2.
Epidermis
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The epidermis is the outer of the two layers that make up the skin, the inner layer being the dermis. It provides a barrier to infection from pathogens and regulates the amount of water released from the body into the atmosphere through transepidermal water loss. The outermost part of the epidermis is composed of stratified layers of flattened cells, the epidermis has no blood supply and is nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air. It is 95% keratinocytes but also contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, rete ridges are epidermal thickenings that extend downward between dermal papillae. Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole, the epidermis is composed of 4 or 5 layers depending on the region of skin being considered. Those layers in descending order are, cornified layer Composed of 10 to 30 layers of polyhedral, anucleated corneocytes, with the palms, most of the barrier functions of the epidermis localize to this layer. Clear/translucent layer The skin found in the palms and soles is known as thick skin because it has 5 epidermal layers instead of 4, granular layer Keratinocytes lose their nuclei and their cytoplasm appears granular. Lipids, contained into those keratinocytes within lamellar bodies, are released into the space through exocytosis to form a lipid barrier. Those polar lipids are then converted into non-polar lipids and arranged parallel to the cell surface, for example glycosphingolipids become ceramides and phospholipids become free fatty acids. Langerhans cells, immunologically active cells, are located in the middle of this layer, Composed mainly of proliferating and non-proliferating keratinocytes, attached to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. Melanocytes are present, connected to numerous keratinocytes in this and other strata through dendrites, Merkel cells are also found in the stratum basale with large numbers in touch-sensitive sites such as the fingertips and lips. They are closely associated with cutaneous nerves and seem to be involved in light touch sensation, the term Malpighian layer is usually defined as both the stratum basale and stratum spinosum. The epidermis is separated from the dermis, its underlying tissue, the stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale. Differentiated keratinocytes secrete keratin proteins which contribute to the formation of a matrix and is an integral part of the skin barrier function. The entire epidermis is replaced by new growth over a period of about 48 days. Calcium concentration in the stratum corneum is very low in part because those relatively dry cells are not able to dissolve the ions and this calcium gradient parallels keratinocyte differentiation and as such is considered a key regulator in the formation of the epidermal layers. Elevation of extracellular calcium concentrations induces an increase in intracellular free calcium concentrations, moreover, it has been suggested that an extracellular calcium-sensing receptor also contributes to the rise in intracellular calcium concentration. Epidermal organogenesis, the formation of the epidermis, begins in the covering the embryo after neurulation
3.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
4.
Lipid
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In biology, lipids comprise a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two types of biochemical subunits or building-blocks, ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides, lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives, as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way, the word lipid stems etymologically from the Greek lipos. The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids, the carbon chain, typically between four and 24 carbons long, may be saturated or unsaturated, and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen, halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur. If a fatty acid contains a double bond, there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism, cis-double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend, an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain. This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes, most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration, although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils. Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids, derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, that include prostaglandins, leukotrienes, docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems, particularly with respect to sight. Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters, fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters, fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives, fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines. The fatty amides include N-acyl ethanolamines, such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide, glycerolipids are composed of mono-, di-, and tri-substituted glycerols, the best-known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol, called triglycerides. The word triacylglycerol is sometimes used synonymously with triglyceride, in these compounds, the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified, typically by different fatty acids. Because they function as a store, these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues. The hydrolysis of the bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol. Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols, which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage, examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells. Glycerophospholipids, usually referred to as phospholipids, are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism. Neural tissue contains high amounts of glycerophospholipids, and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders. Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine, the major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine
5.
Sterol
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Sterols, also known as steroid alcohols, are a subgroup of the steroids and an important class of organic molecules. They occur naturally in plants, animals, and fungi, with the most familiar type of animal sterol being cholesterol, cholesterol is vital to animal cell membrane structure and function as a precursor to fat-soluble vitamins and steroid hormones. Sterols of plants are called phytosterols and sterols of animals are called zoosterols, the most important zoosterol is cholesterol, notable phytosterols include campesterol, sitosterol, and stigmasterol. Ergosterol is a present in the cell membrane of fungi. Preliminary research has shown that phytosterols may have anticancer effects, Sterols and related compounds play essential roles in the physiology of eukaryotic organisms. For example, cholesterol forms part of the membrane in animals. In humans and other animals, corticosteroids, such as cortisol act as signaling compounds in cellular communication, Sterols are common components of human skin oils. Sterols are a subgroup of steroids with a group at the 3-position of the A-ring. They are amphipathic lipids synthesized from acetyl-coenzyme A via the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, the overall molecule is quite flat. The hydroxyl group on the A ring is polar, the rest of the aliphatic chain is non-polar. Cholesterol Ergosterol Hopanoids Phytosterol Steroids Alberts, Bruce, the Fluidity of a Lipid Bilayer Depends on Its Composition Sterols Cyberlipid. org
6.
Oil
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An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils have a carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable. The general definition of oil includes classes of compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin and they are used for food, fuel, medical purposes, lubrication, and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents. First attested in English 1176, the oil comes from Old French oile, from Latin oleum, which in turn comes from the Greek ἔλαιον, olive oil, oil. The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek
7.
Cosmetics
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Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
8.
Pharmacy
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Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs. It is a profession that links health sciences with chemical sciences and aims to ensure the safe. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the health professionals who optimize use of medication for the benefit of the patients. An establishment in which pharmacy is practiced is called a pharmacy or a chemists, often, collaborative teams from various disciplines work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form, medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology. Pharmacology is sometimes considered as the 4th discipline of pharmacy, although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy and pharmacology receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline, pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists, pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice, pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation. In some cases, the body is also the registering body. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice, the American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology. A Pharmacy Technician in the UK has recently referred to by some as a professional. Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technicians activities by a pharmacist, the majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians, Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council. The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises, in the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under supervision of pharmacists. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, however, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine, Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus was one of several men studying the properties of plants
9.
Cetyl alcohol
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Cetyl alcohol /ˈsiːtəl/, also known as hexadecan-1-ol and palmityl alcohol, is a fatty alcohol with the formula CH315OH. At room temperature, cetyl alcohol takes the form of a white solid or flakes. The name cetyl derives from the oil from which it was first isolated. Cetyl alcohol was discovered in 1817 by the French chemist Michel Chevreul when he heated spermaceti, flakes of cetyl alcohol were left behind on cooling. Modern production is based around the reduction of acid, which is obtained from palm oil. Cetyl alcohol is used in the industry as an opacifier in shampoos, or as an emollient, emulsifier or thickening agent in the manufacture of skin creams. It is also employed as a lubricant for nuts and bolts, people who suffer from eczema can be sensitive to cetyl alcohol, though this may be due to impurities rather than cetyl alcohol itself. However, cetyl alcohol is included in medications used for the treatment of eczema
10.
Cyclomethicone
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A siloxane is a functional group in organosilicon chemistry with the Si–O–Si linkage. The parent siloxanes include the oligomeric and polymeric hydrides with the formulae HnOH, siloxanes also include branched compounds, the defining feature of which is that each pair of silicon centres is separated by one oxygen atom. The siloxane functional group forms the backbone of silicones, the example of which is polydimethylsiloxane. The functional group 3Si is called siloxy, siloxanes generally adopt structures expected for linked tetrahedral centers. The Si–O bond is 1.64 Å and the Si–O–Si angle is rather open at 142. 5°, by way of contrast, the C–O distance in a typical dialkyl ether is much shorter at 1.414 Å with a more acute C–O–C angle of 111°. It can be appreciated that the siloxanes would have low barriers for rotation about the Si–O bonds as a consequence of low steric hindrance and this geometric consideration is the basis of the useful properties of some siloxane-containing materials, such as their low glass transition temperatures. The main route to siloxane functional group is by condensation of two silanols,2 R3Si–OH → R3Si–O–SiR3 + H2O Usually the silanols are generated in situ by hydrolysis of silyl chlorides. The cubic cages are cubane-type clusters, with centers at the corners of a cube oxygen centres spanning each of the twelve edges. Oxidation of organosilicon compounds, including siloxanes, gives silicon dioxide, similar reactions are used industrially to convert cyclic siloxanes to linear polymers. They are used in cosmetic products where eventual complete evaporation of the siloxane carrier fluid is desired. In this way they are useful for products like deodorants and antiperspirants which need to coat the skin, most cyclomethicone is manufactured by Dow Corning. Cyclomethicones have been shown to involve the occurrence of silanols during biodegration in mammals, the word siloxane is derived from the words silicon, oxygen, and alkane. In some cases, siloxane materials are composed of different types of siloxide groups. M-units, 3SiO0.5, D-units, 2SiO, T-units, SiO1.5 Because silicones are used in biomedical and cosmetic applications. The inertness of silicones toward warmblooded animals has demonstrated in a number of tests. With an LD50 in rats of>50 g/kg, they are virtually nontoxic, the cyclomethicones D4 and D5 are bioaccumulative in some aquatic organisms, according to one report. This raises several questions about which factors influence the potential of siloxanes. In the European Union, D4 and D5 have been deemed hazardous as per the REACH regulation, Canada regulates D4 under a pollution prevention plan
11.
Antioxidant
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An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid terminate these chain reactions, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases, industrial antioxidants have diverse uses, such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration. Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, moreover, if they are actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidant are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, polyphenols, which often have antioxidant properties in vitro, are not necessarily antioxidants in vivo due to extensive metabolism. In many polyphenols, the group acts as electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism upon uptake in the body, for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase. Many polyphenols may have non-antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell-to-cell signaling, receptor sensitivity, tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key role in neuronal death in stroke and head injury. It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke, but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage, similarly, the designed antioxidant NXY-059 exhibited efficacy in animal models, but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial. As of November 2014, other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants, common pharmaceuticals with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation. During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10, however, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery, other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans. Nonpolar antioxidants such as major component of oil of cloves—have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, more seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial study of cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene
12.
Grape seed oil
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Grape seed oil is pressed from the seeds of grapes, and is thus an abundant by-product of winemaking. Grape seed oil has a high smoke point of approximately 216 °C. It is widely used in baked goods, pancakes, and waffles and it is sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor. The metabolic energy density of seed oil is typical of vegetable oils, approximately 3,700 kJ per 100 g. A study of 21 grape cultivars showed variation of oil composition, especially for linoleic acid, although grape seeds contain polyphenols, such as proanthocyanidins, grape seed oil contains negligible amounts of these compounds. Grapeseed oil has occasionally been found to contain levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons because of direct contact with combustion gases during the drying process. The following table lists a typical fatty acid composition of grape seed oil, Grape seed oil also contains 0.8 to 1. 5% unsaponifiables rich in phenols and steroids. Grapeseed oil contains small amounts of vitamin E, but safflower oil, cottonseed oil, grapeseed oil is high in polyunsaturates and low in saturated fat
13.
Polydimethylsiloxane
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Polydimethylsiloxane belongs to a group of polymeric organosilicon compounds that are commonly referred to as silicones. PDMS is the most widely used silicon-based organic polymer, and is known for its unusual rheological properties. PDMS is optically clear, and, in general, inert, non-toxic and it is also called dimethicone and is one of several types of silicone oil. Its applications range from contact lenses and medical devices to elastomers, it is present in shampoos, food, caulking, lubricants. The chemical formula for PDMS is CH3nSi3, where n is the number of repeating monomer units. Industrial synthesis can begin from dimethyldichlorosilane and water by the net reaction. For medical and domestic applications, a process was developed in which the atoms in the silane precursor were replaced with acetate groups. In this case, the polymerization produces acetic acid, which is chemically aggressive than HCl. As a side-effect, the process is also much slower in this case. The acetate is used in applications, such as silicone caulk. Hydrolysis of Si2Cl2 generates a polymer that is terminated with silanol groups, under ideal conditions, each molecule of such a compound becomes a branch point. This can be used to produce hard silicone resins, in a similar manner, precursors with three methyl groups can be used to limit molecular weight, since each such molecule has only one reactive site and so forms the end of a siloxane chain. Well-defined PDMS with a low polydispersity index and high homogeneity is produced by controlled anionic ring-opening polymerization of hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane, using this methodology it is possible to synthesize linear block copolymers, heteroarm star-shaped block copolymers and many other macromolecular architectures. The polymer is manufactured in multiple viscosities, ranging from a thin pourable liquid, PDMS molecules have quite flexible polymer backbones due to their siloxane linkages, which are analogous to the ether linkages used to impart rubberiness to polyurethanes. Such flexible chains become loosely entangled when molecular weight is high, PDMS is viscoelastic, meaning that at long flow times, it acts like a viscous liquid, similar to honey. However, at short times, it acts like an elastic solid. In other words, if some PDMS is left on an overnight, it will flow to cover the surface. However, if the same PDMS is rolled into a sphere and thrown onto the same surface, although the viscoelastic properties of PDMS can be intuitively observed using the simple experiment described above, they can be more accurately measured using dynamic mechanical analysis
14.
Skin fissure
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A cutaneous condition is any medical condition that affects the integumentary system—the organ system that encloses the body and includes skin, hair, nails, and related muscle and glands. The major function of system is as a barrier against the external environment. Conditions of the integumentary system constitute a broad spectrum of diseases, also known as dermatoses. While only a number of skin diseases account for most visits to the physician. Classification of these conditions often presents many challenges, since underlying causes. Therefore, most current textbooks present a classification based on location, morphology, cause, the diagnosis of many conditions often also requires a skin biopsy which yields histologic information that can be correlated with the clinical presentation and any laboratory data. The skin weighs an average of 4 kg, covers an area of 2 m2, the two main types of human skin are glabrous skin, the nonhairy skin on the palms and soles, and hair-bearing skin. Within the latter type, hairs in structures called pilosebaceous units have a hair follicle, sebaceous gland, in the embryo, the epidermis, hair, and glands are from the ectoderm, which is chemically influenced by the underlying mesoderm that forms the dermis and subcutaneous tissues. The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata, the corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum. Nourishment is provided to these layers via diffusion from the dermis, the epidermis contains four cell types, keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the component, constituting roughly 95% of the epidermis. The dermis is the layer of skin between the epidermis and subcutaneous tissue, and comprises two sections, the dermis and the reticular dermis. The superficial papillary dermis interdigitates with the rete ridges of the epidermis. Structural components of the dermis are collagen, elastic fibers, within these components are the pilosebaceous units, arrector pili muscles, and the eccrine and apocrine glands. The dermis contains two vascular networks that run parallel to the skin surface—one superficial and one deep plexus—which are connected by vertical communicating vessels. The function of blood vessels within the dermis is fourfold, to supply nutrition, to temperature, to modulate inflammation. The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat between the dermis and underlying fascia and this tissue may be further divided into two components, the actual fatty layer, or panniculus adiposus, and a deeper vestigial layer of muscle, the panniculus carnosus. The main cellular component of tissue is the adipocyte, or fat cell
15.
Petroleum jelly
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Its folkloric medicinal value as a cure-all has since been limited by better scientific understanding of appropriate and inappropriate uses. It is recognized by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration as an approved over-the-counter skin protectant, the raw material for petroleum jelly was discovered in 1859 in Titusville, Pennsylvania, United States, on some of the countrys first oil rigs. Workers disliked the material forming on rigs because it caused them to malfunction. Chesebrough took the unrefined black rod wax, as the drillers called it, back to his laboratory to refine it, chesebrough discovered that by distilling the lighter, thinner oil products from the rod wax, he could create a light-colored gel. Chesebrough patented the process of making petroleum jelly by U. S, the process involved vacuum distillation of the crude material followed by filtration of the still residue through bone char. He opened his first factory in 1870 in Brooklyn using the name Vaseline, Petroleum jelly is a mixture of hydrocarbons, having a melting point usually within a few degrees of human body temperature, approximately 37 °C. It is flammable only when heated to liquid, then the fumes will light, not the liquid itself, so a wick material like leaves, bark and it is colorless, or of a pale yellow color, translucent, and devoid of taste and smell when pure. It does not oxidize on exposure to the air and is not readily acted on by chemical reagents and it is soluble in dichloromethane, chloroform, benzene, diethyl ether, carbon disulfide and oil of turpentine. Depending on the application of petroleum jelly, it may be USP. This pertains to the processing and handling of the petroleum jelly so it is suitable for medicinal and personal care applications, because they feel similar when applied to human skin, there is a common misconception that petroleum jelly and glycerol are physically similar. Petroleum jelly is a hydrophobic hydrocarbon and insoluble in water. Glycerol is an alcohol that is hydrophilic, by continuously absorbing moisture from the air. This feeling of wetness is similar to the feeling of greasiness produced by petroleum jelly, most uses of petroleum jelly exploit its lubricating and coating properties. Vaseline brand First Aid Petroleum Jelly, or carbolated petroleum jelly containing phenol to give the jelly additional antibacterial effect, has been discontinued. During World War II, a variety of jelly called red veterinary petrolatum. Acting as a sunscreen, it provides protection against ultraviolet rays, the American Academy of Dermatology recommends keeping skin injuries moist with petroleum jelly to reduce scarring. A verified medicinal use is to protect and prevent moisture loss of the skin of a patient in the initial period following laser skin resurfacing. However, petroleum jelly is used extensively by otolaryngologists—ear, nose, and throat surgeons—for nasal moisture and epistaxis treatment, large studies have assessed petroleum jelly applied to the nose for short durations to have no significant side effects
16.
Alpha hydroxy acid
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α-Hydroxy acids, or alpha hydroxy acids, are a class of chemical compounds that consist of a carboxylic acid substituted with a hydroxyl group on the adjacent carbon. They may be naturally occurring or synthetic. AHAs are well known for their use in the cosmetics industry and they are often found in products that aid in the reduction of wrinkles as well as to soften strong, defining lines and improve the overall look and feel of the skin. They are also used as chemical peels available in an office, beauty and health spas and home kits. Effective results through continuous treatment have resulted in AHAs being a successful & developmental method of curbing harsh ageing effects in the skin & cosmeceutical industry, understanding skin structure and cutaneous aging is helpful to a discussion of the topical action of AHAs. Human skin has two components, the avascular epidermis and the underlying vascular dermis. Cutaneous aging, while having epidermal concomitants, seems to involve primarily the dermis and is caused by intrinsic and extrinsic aging factors, AHAs are a group of organic carboxylic compounds. AHAs most commonly used in applications are typically derived from food products including glycolic acid, lactic acid, malic acid, citric acid. For any topical compound to be effective, including AHA, it must penetrate into the skin where it can act on living cells, bioavailability is an important factor in a compounds ability to penetrate the top layer of the skin. AHAs have an effect on keratinization, which is clinically detectable by the formation of a new stratum corneum. It appears that AHAs modulate this formation through diminished cellular cohesion between corneocytes at the lowest levels of the stratum corneum, AHAs with greater bioavailability appear to have deeper dermal effects. α-Hydroxy acids are useful building blocks in organic synthesis, for example, α-hydroxy acids are generally useful as precursors in the preparation aldehydes via oxidative cleavage. Compounds of this class are used on the industrial-scale and include glycolic acid, lactic acid, citric acid, in low concentrations, 5-10%, as is found in many over-the-counter products, glycolic acid reduces cell adhesion in the top layer of the skin. This action promotes exfoliation of the outermost layer of the accounting for smoother texture following regular use of topical glycolic acid. This relatively low concentration of GA lends itself to use as a monotherapy or a part of a broader skin care management for such conditions as acne, photo-damage. Care needs to be taken to avoid irritation as this may result in worsening of melasma or other pigmentary problems, newer formulations combine glycolic acid with an amino acid such as arginine and form a time-release system that reduces the risk of irritation without affecting glycolic acid efficacy. The use of an anti-irritant like allantoin is also helpful, because of its safety, glycolic acid at the concentrations below 10% can be used daily by most people except those with very sensitive skin. In higher concentrations, between 10 and 50%, its benefits are more pronounced but are limited to temporary skin smoothing without much long lasting results
17.
Wrinkle
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A wrinkle, also known as a rhytide, is a fold, ridge or crease in the skin or on fabric. Skin wrinkles typically appear as a result of aging such as glycation, habitual sleeping positions, loss of body mass, or temporarily. Age wrinkling in the skin is promoted by habitual facial expressions, aging, sun damage, smoking, poor hydration, development of facial wrinkles is a kind of fibrosis of the skin. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory suggests that wrinkles develop from incorrect repairs of injured elastic fibers, repeated extensions and compressions of the skin cause repeated injuries of extracellular fibers in derma. During the repairing process, some of the elastic fibers. When an elastic fiber is broken in a state, it may be replaced by a “long” collagen fiber. Accumulation of “long” collagen fibers makes part of the skin looser and stiffer, and as a consequence, when a “long” collagen is broken in a compressed state, it may be replaced by a “short” collagen fiber. The “shorter” collagen fibers will restrict the extension of longer fibers, a small fold, namely a permanent wrinkle, then appears. Sleep wrinkles are created and reinforced when the face is compressed against a pillow or bed surface in side or stomach sleeping positions during sleep and they appear in predictable locations due to the underlying superficial musculoaponeurotic system, and are usually distinct from wrinkles of facial expression. As with wrinkles of facial expression, sleep wrinkles can deepen and become permanent over time, the wrinkles that occur in skin after prolonged exposure to water are sometimes referred to as pruney fingers or water aging. This is a skin condition where the skin on the palms of the hand or feet becomes wrinkly. This wrinkling response may have imparted an evolutionary benefit by providing improved traction in wet conditions, however, a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips. Furthermore, the same study didnt find any connection between fingertip wrinkling and touch sensation, usually the tips of the fingers and toes are the first to wrinkle because of a thicker layer of keratin and an absence of hairs which secrete the protective oil called sebum. This suggested that the system plays an essential role in wrinkling. Recent research shows that wrinkling is related to vasoconstriction, water probably initiates the wrinkling process by altering the balance of electrolytes in the skin as it diffuses into the hands and soles via their many sweat ducts. This could alter the stability of the membranes of the neurons that synapse on the many blood vessels underneath skin. Increased neuronal firing causes blood vessels to constrict, decreasing the amount of fluid underneath the skin and this decrease in fluid would cause a decrease in tension, causing the skin to become wrinkly. This insight resulted in bedside tests for nerve damage and vasoconstriction, wrinkling is often scored with immersion of the hands for 30 minutes in water or EMLA cream with measurements steps of 5 minutes, and counting the number of visible wrinkles in time
18.
Chamomile
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Chamomile or camomile is the common name for several daisy-like plants of the family Asteraceae that are commonly used to make herb infusions to serve various medicinal purposes. Popular uses of chamomile preparations include treating hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, gastrointestinal disorders, camomile tea is also used to treat skin conditions such as eczema, chickenpox and psoriasis. The word chamomile derives, via French and Latin, from Greek χαμαίμηλον, i. e. earth apple, from χαμαί on the ground and μῆλον apple. The more common British spelling camomile, is the one in English, while the spelling chamomile corresponds to the Latin. The spelling camomile more accurately corresponds to the more immediate derivation from French, a number of other species common names include the word chamomile. This does not mean they are used in the manner as the species used in the herbal tea known as chamomile. There are two types of chamomile that are used to produce the infusion, German chamomile and Roman chamomile. Chamomile tea is said to be a digestive relaxant, German Chamomile has been used for treatment of inflammation associated with hemorrhoids when topically applied. There is level B evidence that German chamomile possesses anti-anxiety properties and could be used to treat stress, major chemical compounds present within chamomile include apigenin and alpha-bisabolol. Anticoagulant effect – Coumarin compounds in chamomile such as herniarin and umbelliferone may have blood-thinning properties, however, the mechanism is not well understood. Antispasmodic/antidiarrheal effects – Bisabolol and flavonoids have demonstrated antispasmodic effects in animal experiments, in human studies, chamomile tea in combination with other herbs was shown to be effective in treating colic in children. Flavonoids and coumarins are considered smooth muscle relaxants, cNS/sensory effects - Chemical compounds present within chamomile bind to GABA receptors, modulate monoamine neurotransmission, and have neuroendocrine effects. Apigenin was found to interact with agents and antihypertensive agents in animal research. Other interactions include those against sedative agents, antibiotic agents, remarkable symptoms are exacerbation of effects of these agents that are used in combination with chamomile. Chamomile consists of several ingredients including coumarin, glycoside, heniarin, flavonoid, farnesol, nerolidol, however, until more information is available, it is not recommended to use these substances concurrently. People who are allergic to ragweed may also be allergic to chamomile, however, there is still some debate as to whether people with reported allergies to chamomile were actually exposed to chamomile and not a plant of similar appearance. Chamomile is frequently added to skin cosmetics to serve as an emollient, Chamomile is also often used to enhance the color of blonde hair. The chamomile plant is known to be susceptible to fungi, insects
19.
Aloe
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Aloe, also written Aloë, is a genus containing over 500 species of flowering succulent plants. The most widely known species is Aloe vera, or true aloe, other species, such as Aloe ferox, also are cultivated or harvested from the wild for similar applications. The APG IV system places the genus in the family Asphodelaceae, in the past, it has been assigned to the family Aloaceae or to a broadly circumscribed family Liliaceae. The plant Agave americana, which is sometimes called American aloe, belongs to the Asparagaceae, the genus is native to tropical and southern Africa, Madagascar, Jordan, the Arabian Peninsula, and various islands in the Indian Ocean. A few species have become naturalized in other regions. Most Aloe species have a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves, Aloe flowers are tubular, frequently yellow, orange, pink, or red, and are borne, densely clustered and pendant, at the apex of simple or branched, leafless stems. Many species of Aloe appear to be stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level and they vary in color from grey to bright-green and are sometimes striped or mottled. Some aloes native to South Africa are tree-like, the APG IV system places the genus in the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Asphodeloideae. In the past it has also assigned to the families Liliaceae and Aloeaceae, as well as the family Asphodelaceae sensu stricto. The circumscription of the genus has varied widely, many genera, such as Lomatophyllum, have been brought into synonymy. Species at one time placed in Aloe, such as Agave americana, have moved to other genera. Over 500 species are accepted in the genus Aloe, plus even more synonyms and unresolved species, subspecies, varieties, Aloe species are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants both in gardens and in pots. Many aloe species are highly decorative and are valued by collectors of succulents, Aloe vera is used both internally and externally on humans, and is claimed to have some medicinal effects, which have been supported by scientific and medical research. They can also be made into types of special soaps, historical use of various aloe species is well documented. Documentation of the effectiveness is available, although relatively limited. Of the 500+ species, only a few were used traditionally as herbal medicines, also included are A. perryi and A. ferox. The Ancient Greeks and Romans used Aloe vera to treat wounds, in the Middle Ages, the yellowish liquid found inside the leaves was favored as a purgative. Unprocessed aloe that contains aloin is generally used as a laxative, some species, particularly Aloe vera, are used in alternative medicine and first aid
20.
Allergen
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An allergen is a type of antigen that produces an abnormally vigorous immune response in which the immune system fights off a perceived threat that would otherwise be harmless to the body. In technical terms, an allergen is a capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals through Immunoglobulin E responses. Most humans mount significant Immunoglobulin E responses only as a defense against parasitic infections, however, some individuals may respond to many common environmental antigens. This hereditary predisposition is called atopy, in atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE production, leading to type I hypersensitivity. Sensitivities vary widely from one person to another, a very broad range of substances can be allergens to sensitive individuals. Allergens can be found in a variety of sources, such as dust mite excretion, pollen, Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such as peanuts, nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of serious allergies in many people. Officially, the United States Food and Drug Administration does recognize eight foods as being common for reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population. These include peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives, see the FDA website for complete details. Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US, and also recognizes sesame seeds, the European Union additionally recognizes celery. Various trees and wood products such as paper, cardboard, MDF etc. can also cause mild to severe allergy symptoms through touch or inhalation of sawdust such as asthma, other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of a reaction is called anaphylaxis. This depends on the kind of tree or grass, for instance, some trees such as oak, elm, and maple pollinate in the spring, while grasses such as Bermuda, timothy and orchard pollinate in the summer. Grass allergy is generally linked to hay fever because their symptoms, symptoms include rhinitis, which causes sneezing and a runny nose, as well as allergic conjunctivitis, which includes watering and itchy eyes. Also an initial tickle on the roof of the mouth or in the back of the throat may be experienced, also, depending on the season, the symptoms may be more severe and people may experience coughing, wheezing, and irritability. A few people even become depressed, lose their appetite, or have problems sleeping, moreover, since the sinuses may also become congested, some people experience headaches. The immune system also has influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and these allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include, No fever, mucous secretions are runny and clear
21.
Aroma compound
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An aroma-compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance, or flavor, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. A chemical-compound has a smell or odor when it is volatile to be transported to the olfactory system in the upper-part of the nose. Generally molecules meeting this specification have molecular weights of <300, flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be occurring, and fragrances tend to be synthetic. Aroma-compounds can be found in food, wine, spices, floral scent, perfumes, fragrance oils, for example, many form biochemically during the ripening of fruits and other crops. In wines, most form as byproducts of fermentation, an odorizer may add an odorant to a dangerous odorless substance, like propane, natural gas, or hydrogen, as a safety measure. Note, Carvone, depending on its chirality, offers two different smells, furaneol 1-Hexanol cis-3-Hexen-1-ol Menthol High concentrations of aldehydes tend to be very pungent and overwhelming, but low concentrations can evoke a wide range of aromas. Acetaldehyde Hexanal cis-3-Hexenal Furfural Hexyl cinnamaldehyde Isovaleraldehyde – nutty, fruity, cocoa-like Anisic aldehyde – floral, sweet and it is a crucial component of chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, raspberry, apricot, and others. Its smell is so potent it can be detected several hundred meters downwind mere seconds after a container is opened, butane-1-thiol, commonly called normal-butyl mercaptan is a chemical-intermediate. Olfactory-receptors are cell-membrane receptors on the surface of neurons in the olfactory system that detect air-borne. In mammals, olfactory-receptors are expressed on the surface of the epithelium in the nasal cavity. In 2005–06, fragrance-mix was the third-most-prevalent allergen in patch tests, Fragrance was voted Allergen of the Year in 2007 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. The composition of fragrances is usually not disclosed in the label of products, hiding the actual chemicals of the formula, the EPA, however, does not conduct independent-safety testing but relies on data provided by the manufacturer. In 2010 the International Fragrance Association published a list of 3,059 chemicals used in 2011 based on a voluntary-survey of its members and it was estimated to represent about 90% of the worlds production-volume of fragrances
22.
Dye
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A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. Both dyes and pigments are colored because they absorb some wavelengths of light more than others, in contrast to dyes, pigments are insoluble and have no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with a salt to produce a lake pigment. The majority of natural dyes are from plant sources, roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood, fungi, textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period. Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials, scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia, across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been carried out for over 5,000 years. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, by far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale. The discovery of synthetic dyes late in the 19th century ended the large-scale market for natural dyes. These dyes are made from synthetic resources such as petroleum by-products, the first human-made organic aniline dye, mauveine, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856, the result of a failed attempt at the total synthesis of quinine. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. These may be natural or synthetic, other than pigmentation, they have a range of applications including organic dye lasers, optical media and camera sensors. This is the basic classification Dyes are classified according to their solubility, acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber, acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors fall in this category, basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber, basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper
23.
Irritation
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Irritation, in biology and physiology, is a state of inflammation or painful reaction to allergy or cell-lining damage. A stimulus or agent which induces the state of irritation is an irritant, irritants are typically thought of as chemical agents but mechanical, thermal, and radiative stimuli can also be irritants. Irritation also has non-clinical usages referring to physical or psychological pain or discomfort. Irritation can also be induced by some allergic response due to exposure of some allergens for example contact dermatitis, irritation of mucousal membranes, mucosal membrane is most common site of irritation because it contains secretory glands that release mucous which attracts the allergens due to its sticky nature. Chronic irritation is a term signifying that afflictive health conditions have been present for a while. There are many disorders that can cause irritation, the majority involves the skin, vagina, eyes. In higher organisms, a response may be the cause of irritation. It is a form of stress, but conversely, if one is stressed by unrelated matters, mild imperfections can cause more irritation than usual, one is irritable, see also sensitivity. In more basic organisms, the status of pain is the perception of the being stimulated and it is not proven that oysters can feel pain, but it is known that they react to irritants. When an irritating object becomes trapped within a shell, it deposits layers of calcium carbonate, slowly increasing in size. This is purely a defense mechanism, to trap a potentially threatening irritant such as a parasite inside its shell, or an attack from outside, the oyster creates a pearl sac to seal off the irritation. It has also observed that an amoeba avoids being prodded with a pin. Irritation is apparently the only universal sense shared by even single-celled creatures and it is postulated that most such beings also feel pain, but this is a projection – empathy. Modern office work with use of equipment has raised concerns about possible adverse health effects. Since the 1970s, reports have linked mucosal, skin, emission of various particulate and volatile substances has been suggested as specific causes. These symptoms have been related to Sick Building Syndrome, which involves symptoms such as irritation to the eyes, skin, the eye is also a source of chronic irritation. Disorders like Sjögrens syndrome, where one does not make tears, the condition is difficult to treat and is lifelong. Besides artificial tears, there is a drug called Restasis which may help, blepharitis is dryness and itching on the upper eyelids
24.
Cream
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Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
25.
Topical medication
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A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body, as opposed to systemically. Most often this means application to surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes including creams, foams, gels, lotions. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin, as a route of administration, the topical route is contrasted with the enteral route, the intravenous route, and others. A topical effect, in the sense, may refer to a local, rather than systemic. However, many topically administered drugs have effects, because they reach the circulation after being absorbed by the tissues. Topical medications differ from other types of drugs because mishandling them can lead to certain complications in a patient or administrator of the drug. Some hydrophobic chemicals, such as hormones, can be absorbed into the body after being applied to the skin in the form of a cream, gel. Transdermal patches have become a means of administering some drugs for birth control, hormone replacement therapy. One example of an antibiotic that may be applied topically is chloramphenicol, a medications potency often is changed with its base. For example, some topical steroids will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment, as a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base. The manufacturer of each product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the active ingredients, one manufacturers cream might be more acidic than the next. For example, a formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different clinical outcomes, no comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids. Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand, however, in a simple base like an ointment, much less variation between manufacturers is common. In dermatology, the base of a medication is often as important as the medication itself. It is extremely important to receive a medication in the correct base, a pharmacist should not substitute an ointment for a cream, or vice versa, as the potency of the medication can change. As a result, what the manufacturers marketing department chooses to list on the label of a medication might be completely different from what the form would normally be called
26.
Ceramide
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Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules. A ceramide is composed of sphingosine and a fatty acid, ceramides are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of cells, since they are component lipids that make up sphingomyelin, one of the major lipids in the lipid bilayer. The word ceramide comes from the Latin cera and amide, ceramide is a component of vernix caseosa, the waxy or cheese-like white substance found coating the skin of newborn human infants. There are three pathways of ceramide generation. The sphingomyelinase pathway uses an enzyme to break down sphingomyelin in the cell membrane, the de novo pathway creates ceramide from less complex molecules. Ceramide generation can occur through breakdown of complex sphingolipids that are ultimately broken down into sphingosine. This latter pathway is termed the Salvage pathway, hydrolysis of sphingomyelin is catalyzed by the enzyme sphingomyelinase. De novo synthesis of ceramide begins with the condensation of palmitate and this reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme serine palmitoyl transferase and is the rate-limiting step of the pathway. In turn, 3-keto-dihydrosphingosine is reduced to dihydrosphingosine, which is followed by acylation by the enzyme ceramide synthase to produce dihydroceramide. The final reaction to produce ceramide is catalyzed by dihydroceramide desaturase, de novo synthesis of ceramide occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum. Ceramide is subsequently transported to the Golgi apparatus by either vesicular trafficking or the transfer protein CERT. Once in the Golgi apparatus, ceramide can be metabolized to other sphingolipids, such as sphingomyelin. Constitutive degradation of sphingolipids and glycosphingolipids takes place in the acidic subcellular compartments, the late endosomes, ceramide can be further hydrolyzed by acid ceramidase to form sphingosine and a free fatty acid, both of which are able to leave the lysosome, unlike ceramide. The long-chain sphingoid bases released from the lysosome may then re-enter pathways for synthesis of ceramide and/or sphingosine-1-phosphate, the salvage pathway re-utilizes long-chain sphingoid bases to form ceramide through the action of ceramide synthase. Thus, ceramide synthase family members probably trap free sphingosine released from the lysosome at the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum or in endoplasmic reticulum-associated membranes, one of the most studied roles of ceramide pertains to its function as a proapoptotic molecule. Apoptosis, or Type I programmed cell death, is essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and is an important physiological response to many forms of cellular stress. Ceramide accumulation has been found following treatment of cells with a number of agents including ionizing radiation, UV light, TNF-alpha. This suggests a role for ceramide in the responses of all these agents
27.
Stratum corneum
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The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis, consisting of dead cells. This layer is composed of 15–20 layers of flattened cells with no nuclei and these corneocytes are embedded in a lipid matrix composed of ceramides, cholesterol, and fatty acids. The stratum corneum functions to form a barrier to protect underlying tissue from infection, dehydration, chemicals, desquamation, the process of cell shedding from the surface of the stratum corneum, balances proliferating keratinocytes that form in the stratum basale. These cells migrate through the epidermis towards the surface in a journey takes approximately fourteen days. This complex surrounds cells in the stratum corneum and contributes to the barrier function. Corneodesmosomes facilitate cellular adhesion by linking adjacent cells within this epidermal layer and these complexes are degraded by proteases, eventually permitting cells to be shed at the surface. Desquamation and formation of the envelope are both required for the maintenance of skin homeostasis. A failure to regulate these processes leads to the development of skin disorders. Cells of the stratum corneum contain a network of keratin. These cells can absorb water, further aiding in hydration. In addition, this layer is responsible for the back or stretchy properties of skin. A weak glutenous protein bond pulls the back to its natural shape. The thickness of the stratum corneum varies throughout the body, the mechanical stress of heavy structural strain causes this SL phase in these regions which require additional protection in order to grasp objects, resist abrasion or impact, and avoid injury. In general, the stratum corneum contains 15 to 20 layers of dead cells, the stratum corneum has a thickness between 10 and 40 μm. In reptiles, the stratum corneum is permanent, and is replaced only during times of rapid growth and this is conferred by the presence of beta-keratin, which provides a much more rigid skin layer. In the human forearm, about 1300 cells per cm2 per hour are shed, stratum corneum protects the internal structures of the body from external injury and bacterial invasion. An inability to maintain the skin barrier function due to the dysregulation of epidermal components can lead to skin disorders. For example, a failure to modulate the activity of kallikreins via the disruption of the protease inhibitor LEKTI causes the debilitating disorder Netherton syndrome
28.
Laboratory
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A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
29.
Mitotic inhibitor
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A mitotic inhibitor is a drug that inhibits mitosis, or cell division. These drugs disrupt microtubules, which are structures that pull the cell apart when it divides, mitotic inhibitors are used in cancer treatment, because cancer cells are able to grow and eventually spread through the body through continuous mitotic division. Thus, cancer cells are sensitive to inhibition of mitosis than normal cells. Mitotic inhibitors are used in cytogenetics, where they stop cell division at a stage where chromosomes can be easily examined. Mitotic inhibitors are derived from substances such as plant alkaloids. Microtubules are long, ropelike proteins that extend through the cell, microtubules are long polymers made of smaller units of the protein tubulin. Microtubules are created during normal cell functions by assembling tubulin components, one of the important functions of microtubules is to move and separate chromosomes and other components of the cell for cell division. Mitotic inhibitors interfere with the assembly and disassembly of tubulin into microtubule polymers and this interrupts cell division, usually during the mitosis phase of the cell cycle when two sets of fully formed chromosomes are supposed to separate into daughter cells. Examples of mitotic inhibitors used in the treatment of cancer include paclitaxel, docetaxel, vinblastine, vincristine. Colchicine and griseofulvin are mitotic inhibitors used in the treatment of gout and toenail fungus, cytogenetics, the study of chromosomal material by analysis of G-Banded chromosomes, uses mitotic inhibitors extensively. In order to prepare a slide for cytogenetic study, an inhibitor is added to the cells being studied. This stops the cells during mitosis, while the chromosomes are still visible, once the cells are centrifuged and placed in a hypotonic solution, they swell, spreading the chromosomes. After preparation, the chromosomes of the cells can be viewed under a microscope to have the banding patterns of the chromosomes examined and this experiment is crucial to many forms of cancer research. Taxanes are complex terpenes produced by the plants of the genus Taxus, originally derived from the Pacific yew tree, they are now synthesized artificially. Their principal mechanism is the disruption of the microtubule function by stabilizing microtubule formation. Microtubules are essential to mitotic reproduction, so through the inactivation of the function of a cell. Paclitaxel—used to treat cancer, ovarian cancer, breast cancer. Docetaxel—used to treat breast, ovarian, and non-small cell lung cancer, vinca alkaloids are amines produced by the hallucinogenic plant Catharanthus roseus
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Mitosis
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In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other. The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and these stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense, the result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells, producing three or more daughter cells instead of normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis. Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis or cause mutations, certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations. Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission. Most animal cells undergo a change, known as mitotic cell rounding. Most human cells are produced by cell division. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis, german zoologist Otto Bütschli might have claimed the discovery of the process presently known as mitosis, a term coined by Walther Flemming in 1882. Mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells in 1873, the term is derived from the Greek word μίτος mitos warp thread. The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cells genome into two daughter cells, the genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be identical to the parent cell. This occurs during the S phase of interphase, chromosome duplication results in two identical sister chromatids bound together by cohesin proteins at the centromere. When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible, in some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears, microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister chromatids at this point are called daughter chromosomes, as the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase
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Antimicrobial
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An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms or stop their growth. Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against, for example, antibiotics are used against bacteria and antifungals are used against fungi. They can also be classified according to their function, agents that kill microbes are called microbicidal, while those that merely inhibit their growth are called biostatic. The use of medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy. The main classes of agents are disinfectants, which kill a wide range of microbes on non-living surfaces to prevent the spread of illness, antiseptics. The term antibiotic originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms but is now applied to synthetic antimicrobials, such as the sulphonamides. The term also used to be restricted to antibacterials, but its context has broadened to include all antimicrobials, antibacterial agents can be further subdivided into bactericidal agents, which kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents, which slow down or stall bacterial growth. In response, further advancements in technologies have resulted in solutions that can go beyond simply inhibiting microbial growth. Instead, certain types of media have been developed to kill microbes on contact. Use of substances with antimicrobial properties is known to have been common practice for at least 2000 years, ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used specific molds and plant extracts to treat infection. More recently, microbiologists such as Louis Pasteur and Jules Francois Joubert observed antagonism between some bacteria and discussed the merits of controlling these interactions in medicine, in 1928, Alexander Fleming became the first to discover a natural antimicrobial fungus known as Penicillium rubens. The substance extracted from the fungus he named penicillin and in 1942 it was used to treat a Streptococcus infection. Penicillin also proved successful in the treatment of other infectious diseases such as gonorrhea, strep throat and pneumonia. Many antimicrobial agents exist, for use against a range of infectious diseases. Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections, the toxicity to humans and other animals from antibacterials is generally considered low. However, prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease the number of gut flora, after prolonged antibacterial use consumption of probiotics and reasonable eating can help to replace destroyed gut flora. Stool transplants may be considered for patients who are having difficulty recovering from prolonged antibiotic treatment, the discovery, development and clinical use of antibacterials during the 20th century has substantially reduced mortality from bacterial infections. However, since 1980 the introduction of new agents for clinical use has declined
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Mineral oil
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A mineral oil or paraffin oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum. The name mineral oil by itself is imprecise, having used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other names, similarly imprecise, include oil, liquid paraffin, paraffinum liquidum. Baby oil is a mineral oil. Most often, mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and this type of mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil composed mainly of alkanes and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm3, mineral oil is a substance of relatively low value, and it is produced in very large quantities. Mineral oil is available in light and heavy grades, and can often be found in drug stores. Some of the imprecision in the definition of the names reflects usage by buyers and sellers who did not know, and usually did not need to care about, the precise chemical makeup. Prior to the late 19th century, the science to determine such makeup was unavailable in any case. A similar lexical situation occurred with the white metal. Mineral oil, sold widely and cheaply in the USA, is not sold as such in Britain, instead British pharmacologists use the terms Paraffinum perliquidum for light mineral oil and Paraffinum liquidum or Paraffinum subliquidum for somewhat thicker varieties. The term Paraffinum Liquidum is often seen on the ingredient lists of baby oil, British aromatherapists commonly use the term white mineral oil. The FSA did not identify any specific safety concerns due to inks. People can be exposed to oil mist in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the limit for mineral oil mist exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure. At levels of 2500 mg/m3, mineral oil mist is immediately dangerous to life, mineral oil of special purity is often used as an overlay covering microdrops of culture medium in petri dishes, during the culture of oocytes and embryos in IVF and related procedures. Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a laxative for pets
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Sodium dodecyl sulfate
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Sodium dodecyl sulfate, synonymously sodium lauryl sulfate, is a synthetic organic compound with the formula CH311SO4Na. It is a surfactant used in many cleaning and hygiene products. The sodium salt is of a class of organics. It consists of a 12-carbon tail attached to a group, i. e. it is the sodium salt of dodecyl hydrogen sulfate. Its hydrocarbon tail combined with a polar headgroup give the compound amphiphilic properties, SDS is in the family of organosulfate compounds, and has the formula, CH311SO4Na, that is, it is the sodium salt of a 12-carbon alcohol that has been esterified to sulfuric acid. An alternative description is that it is a group with a pendant. As a result of its tail, and its anionic head group, it has amphiphilic properties that allow it to form micelles. The critical micelle concentration in water at 25 °C is 8.2 mM. The micelle ionization fraction is around 0.3, SDS is synthesized by treating lauryl alcohol with sulfur trioxide gas, oleum, or chlorosulfuric acid to produce hydrogen lauryl sulfate. The resulting product is then neutralized through the addition of sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate, lauryl alcohol can be used in pure form or may be derived from either coconut or palm kernel oil by hydrolysis, followed by hydrogenation. When produced from these sources, commercial samples of these SDS products are not pure SDS. For instance, SDS is a component, along with other chain-length amphiphiles, when produced from coconut oil, SDS is available commercially in powder, pellet, and other forms, as well as in aqueous solutions of varying concentrations. SDS is mainly used in detergents for laundry with many cleaning applications and it is used as an emulsifying agent and whipping aid. SLS is reported to temporarily diminish perception of sweetness, the electrostatic repulsion that is created by SDS binding forces proteins into a rod-like shape, thereby eliminating differences in shape as a factor for electrophoretic separation in gels. SDS is used in a technique for preparing brain tissues for study by optical microscopy. Along with sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate and Triton X-100, aqueous solutions of SDS are popular for dispersing or suspending nanotubes, in products intended for prolonged contact with skin, concentrations should not exceed 1%. Like all detergent surfactants, sodium lauryl sulfate removes oils from the skin and it has been shown to irritate the skin of the face, with prolonged and constant exposure in young adults. SDS may worsen skin problems in individuals with chronic skin hypersensitivity, in animal studies SDS appears to cause skin and eye irritation
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Johnson & Johnson
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Johnson & Johnson is an American multinational medical devices, pharmaceutical and consumer packaged goods manufacturer founded in 1886. Its common stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, Johnson & Johnson is headquartered in New Brunswick, New Jersey, directly adjacent to the campus of Rutgers University, the consumer division being located in Skillman, New Jersey. The corporation includes some 250 subsidiary companies with operations in 60 countries, Johnson & Johnson had worldwide sales of $70.1 billion during calendar year 2015. Johnson & Johnsons brands include numerous household names of medications and first aid supplies, Johnson & Johnson operates over 250 companies in what is termed the Johnson & Johnson family of companies. The company operates in three divisions, Consumer Healthcare, Medical Devices and Pharmaceuticals. The company produced its first products in 1886 and incorporated in 1887, Robert Wood Johnson served as the first president of the company. He worked to improve sanitation practices in the century, and lent his name to a hospital in New Brunswick. Upon his death in 1910, he was succeeded in the presidency by his brother James Wood Johnson until 1932, Robert Wood Johnsons granddaughter, Mary Lea Johnson Richards, was the first baby to appear on a Johnson & Johnson baby powder label. His great-grandson, Jamie Johnson, made a documentary called Born Rich about the experience of growing up as the heir to one of the worlds greatest fortunes, McNeil Consumer Healthcare was founded on March 16,1879 by 23-year-old Robert McNeil. In 1904, one of McNeils sons, Robert Lincoln McNeil, became part of the company, the company focused on direct marketing of prescription drugs to hospitals, pharmacists, and doctors. Development of acetaminophen began under the leadership of Robert L. McNeil, in 1959, Johnson & Johnson acquired McNeil Laboratories and a year later the company was able to sell Tylenol for the first time ever, without a prescription. In 1977, two companies were created, McNeil medicals products and McNeil Consumer Products Company. The focus of McNeil medicals products is to market prescription drugs, in 1993 McNeil medicals products merged with the Ortho Pharmaceutical to form Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical. In 2001 McNeil Consumer Healthcare changed its name to McNeil Consumer & Specialty medicals products, however, it was later changed to McNeil Consumer Healthcare. The company markets over-the-counter and prescription medicals products including complete lines of Tylenol and Motrin IB products for adults, in 1933, Swiss chemist Bernhard Joos set up a small research laboratory in Schaffhausen, Switzerland. This set the basis for the founding of Chemische Industrie-Labor AG on 12 May 1936, in 1959, Cilag joined the Johnson & Johnson family of companies. In the early nineties the marketing organizations of Cilag and Janssen Pharmaceutica were joined to form Janssen-Cilag, the non-marketing activities of both companies still operate under their original name. Cilag continues to have operations under the Cilag name in Switzerland, ranging from research and development through manufacturing, in August 2014 Cilag acquired Covagen a biopharmaceutical company which specialises in the development of multi-specific protein based therapeutics
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Lotion
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A lotion is a low-viscosity topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin. By contrast, creams and gels have higher viscosity, Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, cotton wool, or gauze. While lotion may be used as a delivery system, many lotions, especially hand lotions and body lotions are meant instead to simply smooth, moisturize. These may be used in anti-aging lotions, which can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases, the Food and Drug Administration voiced concern about lotions not classified as drugs that advertise anti-aging or anti-wrinkle properties. Dermatologists can prescribe lotions to treat or prevent skin diseases and it is not unusual for the same drug ingredient to be formulated into a lotion, cream and ointment. Creams are the most convenient of the three but are inappropriate for application to regions of hairy skin such as the scalp, while a lotion is less viscous, non-comedogenic lotions are recommended for use on acne prone skin. A2006 study found that application of hospital grade lotion after hand washing significantly reduced skin roughness and dryness, care must be taken not to use consumer lotions in a hospital environment, as the perfumes and allergens may be a danger to those who are immunodeficient. Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions using a substance such as cetearyl alcohol to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin lotion, cream or gel emulsion are the aqueous and oily phases. A wide variety of ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins. Since thickness and consistency are key factors in lotions and creams, manufacturing lotions and creams can be completed in two cycles, Emollients and lubricants are dispersed in oil with blending and thickening agents. Perfume, color and preservatives are dispersed in the water cycle, active ingredients are broken up in both cycles depending on the raw materials involved and the desired properties of the lotion or cream. A typical oil-in-water manufacturing process might go like this, Step 1, Step 3, Prepare the water phase containing emulsifiers and stabilizers. Step 4, Mix the oil and water to form an emulsion and it can make all the difference in manufacturing time and costs. Conventional agitators can present a number of problems including agglomerates and longer processing times, on the other hand, high shear in-line mixers can produce quality lotions and creams without many of the complications encountered with conventional mixers. Sonolation is also a process that is growing in popularity, there is currently no regulation over use of the term hypoallergenic, and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to a reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with. A2015 study funded by the California Breast Cancer Research Program found that parabens, cold cream Moisturizer Barrier cream Lotions during the early 19th century
36.
Mayo Clinic
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Mayo Clinic is a nonprofit medical practice and medical research group based in Rochester, Minnesota. It employs more than 4,500 physicians and scientists and 57,100 allied health staff, the practice specializes in treating difficult cases through tertiary care. It spends over $660 million a year on research, William Worrall Mayo settled his family in Rochester in 1864 and opened a medical practice that evolved under his sons into Mayo Clinic. It has been on the list of 100 Best Companies to Work For published by Fortune magazine for thirteen consecutive years and it continued to achieve this ranking through 2015. In addition to their hospital in Rochester, the Mayo Clinic has major campuses in Arizona. The Mayo Clinic Health System also operates affiliated facilities throughout Minnesota, Wisconsin, in 1863, William Worrall Mayo came to Rochester, Minnesota as part of his appointment as an examining surgeon for the military draft board during the American Civil War. The city was to his liking, and his wife and children joined him in early 1864, William Worrall Mayo opened his medical practice after the war, and served in several leadership roles in the community. Mayos sons, William James Mayo and Charles Horace Mayo grew up in Rochester, William graduated in 1883 and joined his fathers practice, with Charles joining after he completed his training in 1888. On August 21,1883, a tornado struck Rochester, causing at least 37 deaths in the area, one-third of the town was destroyed, but the Mayo family escaped serious harm. Mother Alfred Moes and the Sisters of Saint Francis were called in to act as nurses despite having been trained as teachers, on September 30,1889, Saint Marys Hospital was opened by the Sisters. Mayo,70 years old, was one of the physicians at the hospital. His two sons began seeing patients and performing surgeries at the hospital when they returned from school in the 1880s. In 1892, W. W. Mayo asked Augustus Stinchfield, after Stinchfield agreed, W. W. Mayo retired at the age of 73 and the practice continued to grow. The founders of Mayo Clinic are the Mayo brothers Will and Charlie, Stinchfield, Graham, Henry Plummer, Millet, Judd and these early founders and partners shared in the profits of the private group practice, while other staff hired by the partners were salaried. W. W. Mayo died in 1911 and in 1919 the remaining founders, with the exception of Graham, created the Mayo Properties Association, the founders gave the Clinic properties and furnishings to this newly formed association. The integrated practice model developed primarily by Plummer, created a foundation for what would grow into the Mayo Clinic, as the private practice grew, it required additional space. In 1914, the planned, designed and built a new clinic building. This was groundbreaking work, and the first building designed to facilitate the integrated group medical practice. The air exchange rate for the building was three minutes, one intriguing innovation was the Rookwood fountain in the main lobby that was designed to clean and humidify air from the outside
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PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
. PMID 27293248.
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