1.
Pierre Mignard
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Pierre Mignard, called Le Romain to distinguish him from his brother Nicolas Mignard, was a French painter. He was born at Troyes, and came of a family of artists, he needs to be distinguished from his nephew Pierre. In 1630 he left the studio of Simon Vouet for Italy, where he spent twenty-two years, having found favor with the king, Louis XIV, Mignard pitted himself against Charles Le Brun and declined to enter the Academy of which Le Brun was the head. Mignard also opposed the authority of the Academy, Mignard spent most of his time painting portraits. Among his models were Turenne, Molière, Bossuet, Maintenon, La Vallière, Sévigné, Montespan, with the death of Le Brun in 1690, the situation changed. Mignard succeeded to all the posts held by his opponent and he died in 1695 at Paris as he was about to begin work on the cupola of the Invalides. His best compositions have been engraved by Audran, Edelinck, Masson, Poilly, there is a good selection of works by Pierre, Nicolas, and Pierre II in Avignon at the Musée Calvet. French Baroque and Classicism List of paintings by Pierre Mignard This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Media related to Pierre Mignard at Wikimedia Commons
Pierre Mignard
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Pierre Mignard, self-portrait.
Pierre Mignard
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La vierge aux raisins, 1640.
Pierre Mignard
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Portrait of
Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth.
2.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
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The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
3.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France in 1789.
Ancien Régime provinces in
1789.
Kingdom of France
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Royal Standarda
Kingdom of France
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Henry IV, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.
Kingdom of France
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Louis XIII, by
Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.
4.
Nicolas Mignard
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Nicolas Mignard was a French painter. He spent most of his life in Avignon and was the older brother of Pierre Mignard. Nicolas Mignard was born in Troyes in 1606, there, he studied painting with a local master. After traveling to Fontainebleau, Mignard came to Avignon in 1632 and he then traveled to Rome with Cardinal Archbishop of Lyon. Mignard came back to Avignon in 1636, after having executed multiple series of etching in Rome, there, he mostly painted for religious institutions. Mignard spent the end of his life in Paris, where he became a portrait painter. Mignard left Paris after a visit of King Louis XIV and his Court in Avignon, King Louis XIV decided to bring Mignard to Paris. Mignard eventually joined the Academie Royale, mignard’s spending most of his life in Avignon made his career somewhat overshadowed by his younger brother Pierre, who was installed in Paris. After his death, paintings by Nicolas Mignard mostly stayed in Avignon or in cities around Avignon. During the French Revolution, as paintings were taken over. His style is typical of the Italianate classicizing aesthetic that dominated seventeenth-century France, Nicolas Mignard died in 1668 in Paris. Nicolas Mignard at Avignon, catalogue of the 1979 Avignon exhibition, by Antoine Schnapper Dallas Museum of Art, A Guide to the Collection,1997 catalogue, p 82
Nicolas Mignard
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Nicolas Mignard, Self-portrait, between 1621 and 1668,
Calvet Museum
Nicolas Mignard
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The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife, 1654,
Dallas Museum of Art
Nicolas Mignard
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Venus and Adonis, c.1650,
Minneapolis Institute of Arts
5.
The Misanthrope
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The Misanthrope, or the Cantankerous Lover is a 17th-century comedy of manners in verse written by Molière. It was first performed on 4 June 1666 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, the play satirizes the hypocrisies of French aristocratic society, but it also engages a more serious tone when pointing out the flaws which all humans possess. It also differs from most of Molières other works by focusing more on character development, the play, though not a commercial success in its time, survives as Molières best known work today. Molière has received criticism for The Misanthrope. The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claimed in his Letter to M. DAlembert on Spectacles that it was Molières best work and he believed that the audience should be supporting Alceste and his views about society rather than disregarding his idealistic notions and belittling him as a character. Alceste The protagonist and misanthrope of the title and he is quick to criticize the flaws of everyone around him, including himself. He cannot help but love Célimène though he loathes her behaviour, Célimène A young woman who is courted by Alceste, Oronte, Acaste, and Clitandre. She is playful and flirtatious, and likes to point out the flaws of everyone she meets behind their backs, Célimène pays much attention to social appearances. Philinte A polite man who cares for Alceste, and recognizes the importance of occasionally veiling ones true opinions in a social context. He is mainly thought of as Alcestes foil, Acaste A young, pompous marquis who believes he is deserving of Célimènes love. Oronte An outgoing, seemingly confident man who also loves Célimène for a time and his insecurity is revealed when he is unable to handle Alcestes criticism of his love sonnet. Arsinoé A highly moralistic older woman who is jealous of the attentions which Alceste pours onto Célimène, Éliante Love interest to Philinte and cousin to Célimène, who initially pines for Alceste. She possesses a good balance between societal conformity and individual expression, Clitandre Another marquis who attempts to woo Célimène and win her love, and enjoys gossiping with her about notable social figures. Du Bois Alcestes farcically blundering manservant, guard A messenger of the Marshals of France who asks Alceste to answer for his criticism of Orontes poetry. Much to the horror of his friends and companions, Alceste rejects la politesse and his refusal to make nice makes him tremendously unpopular and he laments his isolation in a world he sees as superficial and base, saying early in Act I. Mankind has grown so base, / I mean to break with the human race. Despite his convictions, however, Alceste cannot help but love the flighty and vivacious Célimène, though he constantly reprimands her, Célimène refuses to change, charging Alceste with being unfit for society. Despite his sour reputation as the misanthrope, Alceste does have women pining for him, particularly the moralistic Arsinoé, though he acknowledges their superior virtues, his heart still lies with Célimène
The Misanthrope
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Engraving from the 1719 edition
The Misanthrope
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Jonathan Ernsberger as Acaste and Kyle Johnston as Clitandre in UC Irvine's 2011 production of
Robert Cohen 's translation, staged by
Keith Fowler.
6.
The School for Wives
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The School for Wives is a theatrical comedy written by the seventeenth century French playwright Molière and considered by some critics to be one of his finest achievements. It was first staged at the Palais Royal theatre on 26 December 1662 for the brother of the King, the play depicts a character who is so intimidated by femininity that he resolves to marry his young, naïve ward and proceeds to make clumsy advances to this purpose. It raised some outcry from the public, which seems to have recognized Molière as a playwright who would not be afraid to write about controversial issues. A musical adaptation entitled The Amorous Flea was staged off-Broadway in 1964, Arnolphe, the main protagonist, is a man of 42 years who has groomed the young Agnès since the age of 4. Arnolphe supports Agnès living in a nunnery until the age of 17, when he removes her and moves her to one of his abodes, which he keeps under the name of Monsieur de la Souche. His intention is to bring up Agnès in such a manner that she will be too ignorant to be unfaithful to him, to this end, he forbids the nuns who are instructing her from teaching her anything that might lead her astray. Right from the very first scene, Chrysalde warns Arnolphe of his downfall, after Agnès moves into Arnolphes house, Horace arrives on the scene ahead of his father, Arnolphes friend, Oronte. Horace immediately falls in love with Agnès and she with him, not realizing that Arnolphe and Monsieur de la Souche are the same person, Horace unwittingly confides all his activities with Agnès to Arnolphe. Arnolphe then schemes to outmaneuver Horace and ensure that Agnès will marry him, Arnolphe becomes more and more frustrated as the play goes on. When they realize the situation, Arnolphe forbids Agnes from seeing Horace. Horace, in his distress, comes to Arnolphe, asking for his help in rescuing Agnès from Monsieur de la Souche, the final act introduces a powerful irony as Oronte and Enrique arrive on the scene and announce that Horace is to marry Enriques daughter. The daughter turns out to be Agnès, rendering all of Arnolphes scheming useless, the first known Broadway production was performed at the ANTA Playhouse 18 March –3 April 1951. In 1971, a production was performed at the Lyceum Theatre in New York City 16 February –29 May 1971 using the Richard Wilbur translation, the cast included Brian Bedford as Arnolphe, Joan Van Ark as Agnes and David Dukes as Horace. The School for Wives was first performed at the Stratford Festival in 1994, in 1971, Caedmon Records recorded and released on LP a production originally performed at the Lyceum Theatre in New York City using the Richard Wilbur translation and directed by Stephen Porter. The cast included Brian Bedford as Arnolphe, Joan Van Ark as Agnes and this recording has not to date been re-released on CD. In 2009, L. A. Theatre Works recorded a production using the Richard Wilbur translation featuring William Brown as Arnolphe and Judy Greer as Agnes
The School for Wives
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Front page of L'École des femmes —engraving from the 1719 edition
7.
Tartuffe
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Tartuffe, or The Impostor, or The Hypocrite, first performed in 1664, is one of the most famous theatrical comedies by Molière. The characters of Tartuffe, Elmire, and Orgon are considered among the greatest classical theatre roles, while the king had little personal interest in suppressing the play, he did so because, as stated in the official account of the fête. As a result of Molières play, contemporary French and English both use the word tartuffe to designate a hypocrite who ostensibly and exaggeratedly feigns virtue, especially religious virtue, the play is written entirely in 1,962 twelve-syllable lines of rhyming couplets. Orgons family is up in arms because Orgon and his mother have fallen under the influence of Tartuffe, Tartuffe pretends to be pious and to speak with divine authority, and Orgon and his mother no longer take any action without first consulting him. Tartuffes antics do not fool the rest of the family or their friends, Orgon raises the stakes when he announces that he will marry Tartuffe to his daughter Mariane. Mariane, of course, feels very upset at this news, in an effort to show Orgon how awful Tartuffe really is, the family devises a scheme to trap Tartuffe into confessing to Elmire his desire for her. As a pious man and a guest, he should have no feelings for the lady of the house. Tartuffe is at first shocked but recovers very well, un malheureux pécheur tout plein diniquité. Orgon is convinced that Damis was lying and banishes him from the house, Tartuffe even gets Orgon to order that, to teach Damis a lesson, Tartuffe should be around Elmire more than ever. As a gift to Tartuffe and further punishment to Damis and the rest of his family, in a later scene, Elmire takes up the charge again and challenges Orgon to be witness to a meeting between herself and Tartuffe. Orgon, ever easily convinced, decides to hide under a table in the same room and he overhears, of course, Elmire resisting Tartuffes very forward advances. When Tartuffe has incriminated himself beyond all help and is close to violating Elmire, Orgon comes out from under the table. But this wily guest means to stay, and Tartuffe finally shows his hand and it turns out that earlier, before the events of the play, Orgon had admitted to Tartuffe that he had possession of a box of incriminating letters. Tartuffe had taken charge and possession of box, and now tells Orgon that he will be the one to leave. Tartuffe takes his leave and Orgons family tries to figure out what to do. Very soon, Monsieur Loyal shows up with a message from Tartuffe, Dorine makes fun of Monsieur Loyals name, mocking his fake loyalty. Even Madame Pernelle, who had refused to believe any ill about Tartuffe even in the face of her sons actually seeing it, has become convinced by this time of Tartuffes duplicity. Before Orgon can flee, Tartuffe arrives with an officer, the entire family thanks its lucky stars that it has escaped the mortification of both Orgons potential disgrace and their dispossession
Tartuffe
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19th-century costume design
Tartuffe
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Frontispiece and titlepage of "Tartuffe or The Imposter" from a 1739 collected edition of his works in French and English, printed by John Watts. The engraving depicts the amoral Tartuffe being deceitfully seduced by Elmire, the wife of his host, Orgon who hides under a table.
8.
The Miser
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The Miser is a five-act comedy in prose by the French playwright Molière. It was first performed on September 9,1668, in the theatre of the Palais-Royal in Paris, the play was first produced when Molières company was under the protection of Louis XIV himself. It was loosely based on the Latin comedy Aulularia by Plautus, from many incidents and scraps of dialogue are borrowed. The miser of the title is called Harpagon, an adapted from the Latin harpago. He is obsessed with the wealth he has amassed and always ready to save expenses, now a widower, he has a son, Cléante, and a daughter, Élise. Although he is over sixty, he is attempting to arrange a marriage between himself and a young woman, Mariane. She and Cléante are already devoted to other, however, and the son attempts to procure a loan to help her and her sick mother. Élise, Harpagons daughter, is the beloved of Valère, but her hopes to marry her to a wealthy man of his choosing. Meanwhile, Valère has taken a job as steward in Harpagons household so as to be close to Élise, the complications are only resolved at the end by the rather conventional discovery that some of the principal characters are long lost relatives. Satire and farce blend in the plot, as when the misers hoard is stolen. Asked by the police magistrate whom he suspects, Harpagon replies, I wish you to take into custody the whole town and suburbs” and indicates the theatre audience while doing so. The play also makes fun of certain theatrical conventions, such as the spoken aside addressed to the audience, the characters of LAvare, however, generally demand to know who exactly is being spoken to. Harpagon The tyrannical father of Cléante and Élise Harpagon is a sexagenarian bourgeois miser whose love for his cash box exceeds that of his children. He builds his wealth by lending at usurious rate while pinching every penny at home, the sexagenarian is suitor of the young Mariane, whom Cléante also wishes to marry. Cléante Harpagons profligate son, Cléante is also in love with Mariane, intending to run away with her, he attempts to procure an illegal loan to provide Mariane and her ill mother with money, only to discover the lender is his own father. There is mutual resentment between the two not only money but over love when Harpagon tricks his son into revealing his love for Mariane. Élise The daughter of Harpagon, Élise owes her life to Valère and she opposes her fathers plans to wed her to the elderly Anselme, who has agreed to take her without a dowry. Valère Valère has saved Élise from drowning and has come into the employ of Harpagon with intentions to win her, Harpagon mistrusts him and suspects him of wanting to rob him
The Miser
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The miser
The Miser
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Harpagon and La Flèche in a German production of The Miser, 1810
The Miser
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Master Jacques repeatedly relights a candle behind Harpagon's back.
The Miser
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Molière,
Charles-Antoine Coypel, 1730
9.
The Imaginary Invalid
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The Imaginary Invalid is a three-act comédie-ballet by the French playwright Molière with dance sequences and musical interludes by Marc-Antoine Charpentier. It premiered on 10 February 1673 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris and was choreographed by Pierre Beauchamp. The play is known as The Hypochondriac, an alternative translation of the French title. Molière had fallen out with the court composer Jean-Baptiste Lully, with whom he had pioneered the comédie-ballet form a decade earlier. Le malade imaginaire would turn out to be Molières last work and he collapsed during his fourth performance as Argan on 17 February and died soon after. Angélique, daughter of Argan, in love with Cléante, Louison, Argans young daughter, sister of Angélique. Thomas Diafoirus, his son, betrothed to Angelique by her father, the play opens with Argan, a severe hypochondriac, going through the bill from his apothecary item by item. He pays out only half of what is on the bill. That done, he calls for his maid, Toinette, when she fails to appear immediately he shouts and calls her name until she arrives. Toinette is not interested in putting up with Argans temper, so she mocks his rage, eventually he gives up trying to scold her and asks her to call in his daughter, Angelique. Angelique is ready to talk to him, but Argan must leave the room for a short while, while he is out, Angelique takes the opportunity to talk to Toinette. We quickly find out that she has been talking almost non-stop about the qualities of a man named Cléante since she met him at a play six days ago. She expects Cléante to ask her if he can marry her. Argan returns and expects to surprise his daughter when he tells her someone has asked to marry her. He is shocked to find that she not only knows about it, Toinette asks him why, with all his money, Argan would want a doctor for a son-in-law. He replies that since he is ill, he thought it would be a good idea to have a doctor in the family. Then he could have Thomas Diaforious’ services as all the time, not to mention the services of his father. Toinette will not take his hypochondria seriously and tells him that she knows Angelique will never agree to that marriage, more than that, Toinette downright forbids the union to happen
The Imaginary Invalid
–
Konstantin Stanislavski as Argan in the
Moscow Art Theatre production in 1913.
The Imaginary Invalid
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The Imaginary Invalid, drawing by
Honoré Daumier, c. 1857.
The Imaginary Invalid
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The Imaginary Invalid (School theater performance)
10.
The Bourgeois Gentleman
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Subsequent public performances were given at the theatre of the Palais-Royal beginning on 23 November 1670. The music was composed by Jean-Baptiste Lully, the choreography was by Pierre Beauchamp, the sets were by Carlo Vigarani, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme satirizes attempts at social climbing and the bourgeois personality, poking fun both at the vulgar, pretentious middle-class and the vain, snobbish aristocracy. The title is meant as an oxymoron, in Molières France, a gentleman was by definition nobly born, the play takes place at Mr. Jourdains house in Paris. Jourdain is a middle-aged bourgeois whose father grew rich as a cloth merchant, the foolish Jourdain now has one aim in life, which is to rise above this middle-class background and be accepted as an aristocrat. To this end, he orders splendid new clothes and is happy when the tailors boy mockingly addresses him as my Lord. His philosophy lesson becomes a lesson on language in which he is surprised and delighted to learn that he has been speaking prose all his life without knowing it. « Par ma foi. il y a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose sans que jen susse rien, et je vous suis le plus obligé du monde de mavoir appris cela. » Madame Jourdain, his intelligent wife, sees that he is making a fool of himself and urges him to return to his previous middle-class life, a cash-strapped nobleman called Dorante has attached himself to M. Jourdain. He secretly despises Jourdain but flatters his aristocratic dreams, for example, by telling Jourdain that he mentioned his name to the King at Versailles, he can get Jourdain to pay his debts. Jourdains dreams of being upper-class go higher and higher and he dreams of marrying a Marchioness, Dorimene, and having his daughter Lucille marry a nobleman. But Lucille is in love with the middle-class Cléonte, of course, M. Jourdain refuses his permission for Lucille to marry Cléonte. Then Cléonte, with the assistance of his valet Covielle and Mme Jourdain, disguises himself, Jourdain is taken in and is very pleased to have his daughter marry foreign royalty. He is even more delighted when the Turkish prince informs him that, as father of the bride, the play ends with this ridiculous ceremony, including Sabir standing in for Turkish. The original production brought together the finest actors and musicians of the time, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme reflected the then-current trend for les turqueries, all things related to the Ottoman Empire. The first performance of Der Bürger als Edelmann, a German version of the play, took place on 25 October 1912, the whole was directed by Max Reinhardt. The combination of play and opera proved problematic, Hofmannsthal created a revised version of the play, reinstating the turquerie and removing the opera. Strauss provided further incidental music including some arrangements of Lully, meanwhile, the entertainment was provided with a separate operatic prologue and this is the form in which Ariadne is now usually given. George Balanchine choreographed a number of versions, from the 1930s to the 1970s
The Bourgeois Gentleman
–
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme
The Bourgeois Gentleman
–
Frontispiece and titlepage of "Le Bourgeois gentilhomme" from a 1688 edition.
11.
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV
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Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV
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1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
12.
Louvre
–
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property
Louvre
–
the Richelieu wing (2005)
Louvre
–
The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible
Louvre
–
Antonio Canova 's
Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss was commissioned in 1787, donated in 1824.
Louvre
–
The
Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of
Louis XVIII.
13.
Pierre Corneille
–
Pierre Corneille was a French tragedian. He is generally considered one of the three great seventeenth-century French dramatists, along with Molière and Jean Racine and he continued to write well-received tragedies for nearly forty years. Corneille was born in Rouen, Normandy, France, to Marthe Le Pesant and Pierre Corneille and his younger brother, Thomas Corneille, also became a noted playwright. He was given a rigorous Jesuit education at the Collège de Bourbon where acting on the stage was part of the training, at 18 he began to study law but his practical legal endeavors were largely unsuccessful. Corneille’s father secured two magisterial posts for him with the Rouen department of Forests and Rivers, during his time with the department, he wrote his first play. It is unknown exactly when he wrote it, but the play, the actors approved of the work and made it part of their repertoire. The play was a success in Paris and Corneille began writing plays on a regular basis and he moved to Paris in the same year and soon became one of the leading playwrights of the French stage. His early comedies, starting with Mélite, depart from the French farce tradition by reflecting the elevated language, Corneille describes his variety of comedy as une peinture de la conversation des honnêtes gens. His first true tragedy is Médée, produced in 1635, the year 1634 brought more attention to Corneille. He was selected to write verses for the Cardinal Richelieu’s visit to Rouen, the Cardinal took notice of Corneille and selected him to be among Les Cinq Auteurs. The others were Guillaume Colletet, Boisrobert, Jean Rotrou, the five were selected to realize Richelieus vision of a new kind of drama that emphasized virtue. Richelieu would present ideas, which the writers would express in dramatic form, however, the Cardinals demands were too restrictive for Corneille, who attempted to innovate outside the boundaries defined by Richelieu. This led to contention between playwright and employer, after his initial contract ended, Corneille left Les Cinq Auteurs and returned to Rouen. In the years following this break with Richelieu, Corneille produced what is considered his finest play. Le Cid is based on the play Mocedades del Cid by Guillem de Castro, both plays were based on the legend of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, a military figure in Medieval Spain. The original 1637 edition of the play was subtitled a tragicomedy, even though Le Cid was an enormous popular success, it was the subject of a heated argument over the norms of dramatic practice, known as the Querelle du Cid or The Quarrel of Le Cid. Cardinal Richelieus Académie française acknowledged the success, but determined that it was defective, in part because it did not respect the classical unities of time, place. The newly formed Académie was a body that asserted state control over cultural activity, although it usually dealt with efforts to standardize the French language, Richelieu himself ordered an analysis of Le Cid
Pierre Corneille
–
Pierre Corneille
Pierre Corneille
–
Coat of arms of the Corneille family, dating back to 1637
Pierre Corneille
–
Corneille at the Louvre
Pierre Corneille
–
Adrienne Lecouvreur as Cornelia in
The Death of Pompey
14.
Farce
–
In theatre, a farce is a comedy that aims at entertaining the audience through situations that are highly exaggerated, extravagant, and thus improbable. Farce is also characterized by humor, the use of deliberate absurdity or nonsense. Farces have been written for the stage and film, furthermore, a farce is also often set in one particular location, where all events occur. M. C. P. C. David Croft & Jeremy Lloyd, Allo Allo, ken Friedman, Claptrap Andrew Norriss and Richard Fegen, Chance in a Million Miles Tredinnick, Laugh. Alan Ayckbourn, A Small Family Business Miles Tredinnick, It’s Now Or Never, tom Kempinski, Sex Please, Were Italian. Ray Cooney, Funny Money Robin Hawdon, Perfect Wedding Steven Moffat, Coupling Miles Tredinnick, La Farce de maître Pierre Pathelin The Liar Molière, Tartuffe Molière, The Miser Labiche, La Cagnotte and other plays. These plays are performed as comic relief during the long, serious Noh plays, following stage shows of Umer Shareef are extremely popular. Archer Chowder The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack Scooby-Doo, IMDB list of film and television farces Farce films at Allmovie
Farce
–
Petrov-Vodkin's painting of a theatre audience enjoying a farce.
15.
Petit-Bourbon
–
It was constructed in the 14th century, not long after the Capetian Kings of France enlarged the fortress of the Louvre in order to use it as a royal residence. On two 1550 maps it is simply as the Hôtel de Bourbon, but by 1652. The Bourbons took control of France in 1589, at time they also acquired the Louvre. They therefore constructed magnificent town houses in the vicinity of the Louvre, according to Henri Sauval, from 1303 to 1404 the Bourbons purchased houses of more than 300 persons to assemble the site on which their new hotel was built. Over the years they augmented and embellished it such that it one of the most magnificent in the kingdom. Sauval describes the hall and the chapel, as the largest and most sumptuous of their kind in Paris. In 1523 Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, who was Constable of France at the time, when the plot was uncovered, Charles was forced to flee to Italy, and as a result the Hôtel de Bourbon was partly demolished. Salt was strewed upon the ground which it occupied, the ensigns of the offender were effaced. The Great Hall was used for court functions. It was a ballet with scenery and sung recitatives. The Ballet Comique de la Reine, regarded by James R, the French courts first great carousel was held in the Grande Salle in February 1605. The Estates General of 1614 and 1615 and some of the celebrations accompanying the marriage of Louis XIII in 1615 were also held there. Louis XIII selected the subject for the ballet de cour La délivrance de Renaud and it was first performed on 29 January 1617, when the king danced a demon of fire. According to the published by Ballard in 1617, the opening grand concert de musique was performed by sixty-four voices, twenty-eight viols. The dimensions of the hall were ample by Parisian standards,15 meters wide and 35 meters long with an apse adding an additional 13.5 meters at one end, the general public was accommodated in two tiers of balconies on the walls. La finta pazza, an Italian play by Giulio Strozzi mixed with an opera by Francesco Sacrati was given under the auspices of Cardinal Mazarin in December 1645, the production employed elaborate stage scenery with set changes and special effects accomplished via theatre machines designed by Giacomo Torelli. In February 1650, during the Fronde when all things Italian were suspect and this was yet another spectacular play designed by Torelli. The incidental music composed by Dassoucy was intended to cover up the noise of the machinery, mazarins triumph over the Frondeurs and return from exile was celebrated with the Ballet de la Nuit, produced on 23 February 1653 with sets and machinery by Torelli
Petit-Bourbon
–
View of the river facade of the Petit-Bourbon (with the
Louvre on the left) from a 1646 engraving by
Stefano della Bella
Petit-Bourbon
–
Site plan of the Petit-Bourbon
Petit-Bourbon
–
Estates General of 1614 in the Salle du Petit-Bourbon
Petit-Bourbon
–
The
Ballet Comique de la Reine at the Petit-Bourbon, 1581
16.
The Affected Ladies
–
Les Précieuses ridicules is a one-act satire by Molière in prose. It takes aim at the précieuses, the ultra-witty ladies who indulged in lively conversations, word games and, in a word, préciosité. Les Précieuses ridicules is a comedy of manners that brought Molière and his company to the attention of Parisians. The play received its Paris premiere on 18 November 1659 at the Théâtre du Petit-Bourbon and it seems not to have been staged before that in the provinces. It was highly successful and attracted the patronage of Louis XIV to Molière, Les Précieuses ridicules still plays well today. Les précieuses are Magdelon and Cathos, two women from the provinces who have come to Paris in search of love and jeux desprit. Gorgibus, the father of Magdelon and uncle of Cathos, decides they should marry a pair of eminently eligible young men, the men vow to take revenge on les précieuses. On stage comes Mascarille, a man who pretends to be a sophisticated man of the world. Magdelon falls in love with him, next on stage comes another young man, Jodelet, with whom Cathos falls in love. It is revealed that two men, Mascarille and Jodelet, are impostors whose real identities are as the valets of the first two men who were scorned and rejected. As the curtain falls, Gorgibus and les précieuses are ashamed at having fallen for the trick, in the provinces, the young ladies Parisian pretensions merited mockery, while in Paris, their puffed-up provincial naiveté and self-esteem proved laughable. Composer Felice Lattuada and librettist Arturo Rossato wrote a commedia lirica based on the text and it was premiered at Teatro alla Scala, Milan, on February 9,1929. Les Précieuses ridicules, the original French text of the play by Molière, the Pretentious Young Ladies, English translation of Les Précieuses ridicules by Henri Van Laun published in 1880 by R. Worthington, New York
The Affected Ladies
–
MASCARILLE: What do you think of my little goose? Do you find it goes with my outfit? CATHOS: Absolutely. (from Les Précieuses ridicules) Drawing by
Moreau le Jeune.
17.
Pension
–
The terms retirement plan and superannuation tend to refer to a pension granted upon retirement of the individual. Retirement plans may be set up by employers, insurance companies, called retirement plans in the United States, they are commonly known as pension schemes in the United Kingdom and Ireland and superannuation plans in Australia and New Zealand. Retirement pensions are typically in the form of a life annuity. A pension created by an employer for the benefit of an employee is commonly referred to as an occupational or employer pension, labor unions, the government, or other organizations may also fund pensions. Occupational pensions are a form of deferred compensation, usually advantageous to employee, many pensions also contain an additional insurance aspect, since they often will pay benefits to survivors or disabled beneficiaries. Other vehicles may provide a stream of payments. The common use of the pension is to describe the payments a person receives upon retirement. A recipient of a retirement pension is known as a pensioner or retiree, a retirement plan is an arrangement to provide people with an income during retirement when they are no longer earning a steady income from employment. Often retirement plans require both the employer and employee to contribute money to a fund during their employment in order to receive defined benefits upon retirement and it is a tax deferred savings vehicle that allows for the tax-free accumulation of a fund for later use as a retirement income. Funding can be provided in other ways, such as labor unions, government agencies. Pension plans are therefore a form of deferred compensation, a SSAS is a type of employment-based Pension in the UK. Some countries also grant pensions to military veterans, military pensions are overseen by the government, an example of a standing agency is the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Ad hoc committees may also be formed to investigate specific tasks, Commission on Veterans Pensions in 1955–56. In early 2017, the Wall Street Journal reported the percentage of American private-sector workers who have a pension is 13%. Many countries have created funds for their citizens and residents to provide income when they retire, typically this requires payments throughout the citizens working life in order to qualify for benefits later on. A basic state pension is a contribution based benefit, and depends on an individuals contribution history, for examples, see National Insurance in the UK, or Social Security in the United States of America. Many countries have put in place a social pension. These are regular, tax-funded non-contributory cash transfers paid to older people, over 80 countries have social pensions
Pension
–
Financial market participants
18.
Dom Juan
–
Dom Juan or The Feast with the Statue is a French play, a comedy in five acts, written by Molière, and based on the legend of Don Juan. The title of Molière’s play is commonly expressed as Don Juan. Dom Juan is the last part in Molières hypocrisy trilogy, which also includes The School for Wives and it was first performed on 15 February 1665 in the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, with Molière playing the role of Sganarelle. The play was a costly failure, as a result, Molière was ordered to delete a certain number of scenes and lines which, according to his censors, made a mockery of their faith. The play was published in a censored version for the first time in 1682. It was part of an edition, edited by La Grange and Vivot. The parts of Dom Juan that offended the censors were pasted over with strips of paper glued into almost all of the copies and this version was in prose, instead of the also censored version by Thomas Corneille which Corneille had versified. Nearly a century and a later, in 1813, a full. And then in 1847 the play was added to the repertoire of the Comédie-Française, in the twentieth century the play is performed often and has garnered great critical attention and admiration. An uncensored version appeared in Amsterdam in 1683, Molière drew his inspiration from the main character of a work by Tirso de Molina called El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra. However, the characters from the two differ in several aspects. However, his death comes sooner than expected and he finds that his attempts to repent, in both plays the main character is condemned to Hell. The story of this follows the last two days in the life of a young courtier, Dom Juan Tenorio, a libertine, a seducer of women. He is accompanied throughout the play by his valet, Sganarelle, the unrepentant Don Juan will not escape the vengeance of Heaven, and he is ultimately punished. The various settings are all in Sicily, in the garden of the palace, after a few words of appreciation for snuff tobacco, Sganarelle speaks with Gusman, who is the squire to Donna Elvire. Her primary concern is the departure of her new husband. Sganarelle, not without pride, paints for Gusman a terrible portrait of Don Juan as a fickle, cynical, disbeliever, Donna Elvire then enters to challenge him to explain the reasons for his departure. Pierrot then exits to go “wet his whistle”, Dom Juan and Sganarelle appear, and Dom Juan then tells Charlotte he is in love with her and he persuades her to marry him
Dom Juan
–
Title page for Dom Juan ou le Festin de pierre – the censored version – with illustration of the statue at the feast. From posthumous works of Molière, 1682.
19.
Bourgeois
–
A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry
Bourgeois
–
The prototypical bourgeois: Monsieur Jourdain, the protagonist in
Molière 's play
Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670).
Bourgeois
–
The 16th-century German banker
Jakob Fugger and his principal accountant, M. Schwarz, registering an entry to a ledger. The background shows a file cabinet indicating the European cities where the Fugger Banker conducts business. (1517)
Bourgeois
–
Thomas Mann (1875–1955) portrayed the moral, intellectual, and physical decadence of the German upper bourgeoisie in the novel
Buddenbrooks (1926)
20.
Society of Jesus
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Society of Jesus
–
Ignatius of Loyola
Society of Jesus
–
Society of Jesus
Society of Jesus
–
Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Society of Jesus
–
Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
21.
Louis XIII
–
Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII
–
Louis XIII
Louis XIII
–
Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII
–
Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII
–
Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
22.
Bankrupt
–
Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
Bankrupt
–
Notice of closure attached to the door of a Computer Shop outlet the day after its parent company declared "bankruptcy" (strictly, put into administration) in the
United Kingdom
Bankrupt
–
Insolvency
Bankrupt
–
Bankruptcy according to
Salvation Army,
Switzerland.
Bankrupt
–
In 2013, Detroit filed the
largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.
23.
Jeu de paume
–
Jeu de paume is a ball-and-court game that originated in France. It was a precursor of tennis played without racquets, though these were eventually introduced. It is a former Olympic sport, and has the oldest ongoing annual world championship in sport, originally spelled jeu de paulme, it is sometimes called courte paume or real tennis. In the earliest versions of the game, the hit the ball with their hands, as in palla, volleyball. Jeu de paume, or jeu de paulme as it was formerly spelled, in time, gloves replaced bare hands. Even when paddle-like bats, and finally racquets, became standard equipment for the game by the late 17th century and it became known as tennis in English, and later real tennis after the derived game of lawn tennis became the more widely known sport. The term is used in France today to denote the game of tennis on a court in which the ancient or modern game might be played. The indoor version is sometimes called jeu de courte paume or just courte paume to distinguish it from the version, longue paume. Jeu de paume at the 1908 Summer Olympics was a medal event, since 1740, jeu de paume has been the subject of an amateur world championship, held each year in September. It is the oldest active trophy in international sport, real tennis Lawn tennis Various other racquet games may be related to one degree or another. The painter Jacques-Louis Davids famous sketch, le Serment du jeu de paume now hangs in the court of the Palace of Versailles, le Jeu de Paume is a moral ode published in 1791 by André Chénier. In the 1981 film The French Lieutenants Woman, socialite Charles Smithson is seen playing jeu de paume in London, the 2014 Whitney Biennial exhibition featured the premiere of the the stop-motion film Jeu de Paume by Joshua Mosley
Jeu de paume
–
Jeu de paume in the 17th century.
Jeu de paume
–
Late 18th-century illustration of jeu de paume paddle-bats or battoirs, and (in various stages of construction) strung racquets.
Jeu de paume
–
Earliest known picture of Jeu de Paume from a Book of Hours (c. 1300)
Jeu de paume
–
A modernised court in the
Palace of Fontainebleau, Fontainebleau (1991).
24.
Armand, Prince of Conti
–
Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti was a French nobleman, the younger son of Henri, Prince of Condé and brother of le Grand Condé and Anne Geneviève, Duchess of Longueville. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang, the title of Prince of Conti was revived in his favour in 1629. He was destined for the church and studied theology at the university of Bourges, said to be mystic and full of strange ideas, Conti turned slightly mad while in prison. Having a secret passion for his sister the Duchess of Longueville and he tried alchemy and potions for some time and eventually bruised himself with a spatula. He was concerned in the Fronde of 1651, but soon became reconciled with Mazarin, and in 1654 married the cardinals niece, Anne Marie Martinozzi. They had two children, Louis Armand and François Louis and he took command of the army which in 1654 invaded Catalonia, where he captured three towns from the Spanish. He afterwards led the French forces in Italy, but after his defeat before Alessandria in 1657 retired to Languedoc, Conti also wrote Lettres sur la grâce, and Du devoir des grands et des devoirs des gouverneurs de province. 11 October 1629 –26 February 1666, His Serene Highness The Prince of Conti This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Conti
Armand, Prince of Conti
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Armand de Bourbon-Conti
25.
Languedoc
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Languedoc is a former province of France. Its territory is now contained in the region of Occitanie in the south of France. It had an area of approximately 27,376 square kilometers, the traditional provinces of the kingdom of France were not formally defined. A province was simply a territory of common traditions and customs, today, when people refer to the old provinces of France, they actually refer to the gouvernements as they existed in 1789. Gouvernements were military regions established in the middle of the 16th century, however, in some cases, small provinces had been merged with a large one into a single gouvernement, so gouvernements are not exactly the same as the traditional provinces. Historically, the region was called the county of Toulouse, a county independent from the kings of France. The county of Toulouse was made up of what would later be called Languedoc, but it included the province of Quercy. After the French conquest the entire county was dismantled, the part of it being now called Languedoc. The gouvernement of Languedoc was created in the middle of the 16th century, in addition to Languedoc proper, it also included the three small provinces of Gévaudan, Velay, and Vivarais, these three provinces being to the northeast of Languedoc. Some people also consider that the region around Albi was a province, called Albigeois. This decision was intentional, to avoid reviving the independently spirited county of Toulouse. In the rest of the article, Languedoc refers to the territory of this gouvernement of Languedoc, the governors of Languedoc resided in Pézenas, on the Mediterranean coast, away from Toulouse but close to Montpellier. The kings of France became fearful of the power of the governors, thus the gouvernements became hollow structures, but they still carried a sense of the old provinces, and so their names and limits have remained popular until today. The generality of Toulouse is also referred to as Upper Languedoc, while the generality of Montpellier, the intendants of Languedoc resided in Montpellier, and they had a sub-delegate in Toulouse. Montpellier was chosen on purpose to diminish the power of Toulouse, whose parlement was very influential, the intendants replaced the governors as administrators of Languedoc, but appointed and dismissed at will by the king, they were no threat to the central state in Versailles. By 1789 they were the most important element of the administration of the kingdom. For judicial and legislative matters, Languedoc was overseen by the Parlement of Toulouse and it was the first parlement created outside of Paris by the kings of France in order to be the equivalent of the Parlement of Paris in the far-away southern territories of the kingdom. The Parlement of Toulouse was the court of justice for this vast area of France
Languedoc
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Saint-Sernin Basilica in
Toulouse, displaying the typical pink brick architecture of Upper Languedoc.
Languedoc
Languedoc
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Typical view of the mountainous
Cévennes area in the thinly-populated interior of Languedoc: plateaus (the
Causses) with deep river canyons
Languedoc
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The first completed
Airbus A380 at the "A380 Reveal" event on 18 January 2005 in
Toulouse, home base of the European
aerospace industry.
26.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
Lyon
–
Top, the Basilique de Notre-Dame de Fourvière, the Place des Terreaux with the Fontaine Bartholdi and Lyon City Hall at night. Centre, the Parc de la Tête d'Or, the Confluence district and the old city. Bottom, the Pont Lafayette, the Part-Dieu district with the Place Bellecour in the foreground during the Festival of Lights.
Lyon
–
Place Carnot, Lyons
Lyon
–
The lion has been the symbol of the city for centuries and is represented throughout the city.
Lyon
–
Lyon in the 18th century
27.
Mademoiselle Du Parc
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Marquise-Thérèse de Gorla, also known under her stage name Mademoiselle Du Parc, was a French actress and ballet dancer. She was one of the stars of the Molières company and she was also known for her love affairs and as an object of affection for many famous people. She was the daughter of Giacomo Gorla, which was operator in Lyon in 1635 and she seems to have started as a dancer and actress in a travelling troupe, before becoming a member in Lyon in the company of Molière. She was the subject of poems by Corneille, the troupe of Molière, having arrived at Paris, Du Parc performed before the monarch October 24,1658 in the Louvre in the role of Hippolytus, and then before the public at the Petit Bourbon. In 1659–1660, the Du Parc couple was active at the Theatre du Marais, at Easter 1660 and she was one of the stars of the Molière troupe, performing main parts and also ballet. She suddenly left the band to join that of the Hôtel de Bourgogne and this quasi-kidnapping was the result of a quarrel between Racine and Molière. The latter,18 years older, had provided the first aid, support, advice, Racine wrote specially for her the role of Andromache. She died suddenly as one of the greatest stars in France and she was suspected to have been poisoned, but the probable cause of death seem to have been a miscarriage or an incompetent abortion
Mademoiselle Du Parc
–
Marquise-Thérèse de Gorla
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