1.
Monte Carlo Resort and Casino
–
The Monte Carlo Resort and Casino is a megaresort hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States. The hotel, with a height of 360 ft, has 32 floors, featuring a 102, 000-square-foot casino floor with 1,400 slot machines,60 table games and it is owned and operated by MGM Resorts International. The hotel offers 2,992 guest rooms, including 259 luxury suites and it is being converted from late 2016 to 2018 into the Park MGM, with the upper floors converted into a boutique hotel, NoMad Las Vegas. The hotel, named to invoke the Place du Casino in Monte Carlo, features chandelier domes, marble floors, neoclassical arches, ornate fountains, as of 2010, Monte Carlo has a AAA-Four-Diamond rating. A21,000 sq ft pool area includes a pool with constantly changing wave patterns. The CityCenter Tram offers access to the Bellagio and Crystals retail district in the CityCenter complex, on October 7,2010, the JabbaWockeeZ - described as a modern dance/hip-hop crew - began performance of their permanent headline show at Monte Carlo, entitled MÜS. I. C. In 2012, the JabbaWockeeZ show moved to the 800-seat Monte Carlo Pavilion, on October 11,2015, Blue Man Group discontinued their show at the Monte Carlo and moved back to the Luxor to open a new show, which opened on November 18,2015. The hotel seeks to provide an unpretentiously luxurious experience, as of 2009, the Monte Carlo print advertising campaign features humorously misspelled French words coupled with glamorous images. The campaigns tagline is Unpretentiously luxurious, ground was broken for the hotel in March 1995. It was originally known as the Grand Victoria, the palatial style was a reminiscent of the Belle Epoque, which is how the French refer to the architecture of the Victorian era in England. After much criticism by MGM Grand officials, it was shortened to Victoria and then changed to Monte Carlo, named after the Monte Carlo Casino in Monte Carlo, Monaco. Monte Carlo was built as a joint venture between Mirage Resorts and Circus Circus Enterprises, and cost US$344 million to build, the resort sits on 44 acres, occupied by the Dunes Hotel golf course until its demolition in October 1993. The Monte Carlo opened to the public on June 21,1996, at 12,01 a. m. following invitation-only VIP pre-opening celebration the prior day, including a fireworks show. On January 25,2008, at 10,57 AM, portions of the hotel facades Exterior Insulation Finishing System burned with some debris falling off and starting smaller secondary fires on ledges three floors below. The fire was contained a hour after it began. It was a fire, although there was water damage to parts of several floors. The Hotel & Casino reopened to guests on February 15,2008, MGM Mirage officials put the total losses due to fire damage and loss of business at just under $100 million. The 5, 200-seat Park Theater at the Monte Carlo was built and it will feature the new Eataly restaurant
Monte Carlo Resort and Casino
Monte Carlo Resort and Casino
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Monte Carlo at night, aerial view
Monte Carlo Resort and Casino
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Monte Carlo at night, front view
Monte Carlo Resort and Casino
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Monte Carlo, as seen from the Las Vegas Strip
2.
Monte Carlo
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Monte Carlo /ˈmɒnti ˈkɑːrloʊ/ officially refers to an administrative area of the Principality of Monaco, specifically the ward of Monte Carlo/Spélugues, where the Monte Carlo Casino is located. The permanent population of the ward of Monte Carlo is about 3,500, from west to east they are, Fontvieille, Monaco-Ville, La Condamine, and Monte Carlo. Monte Carlo is situated on a prominent escarpment at the base of the Maritime Alps along the French Riviera and it is also the location of the Hôtel de Paris, the Café de Paris, and the Salle Garnier. The eastern part of the quarter includes the community of Larvotto with Monacos only public beach, as well as its new center. At the quarters eastern border, one crosses into the French town of Beausoleil, at the time, a number of small towns in Europe were growing prosperous from the establishment of casinos, notably in German towns such as Baden-Baden and Homburg. The success of the casino grew slowly, largely due to the areas inaccessibility from much of Europe, the installation of the railway in 1868, however, brought with it an influx of people into Monte Carlo and saw it grow in wealth. Saint-Charles Church on Monte Carlos Avenue Sainte-Charles was completed in 1883 and it was restored in its centenary year. The municipalities were merged into one in 1917, after accusations that the government was acting according to the divide and conquer. Today, Monaco is divided into 10 wards, with an eleventh ward planned to land reclaimed from the sea. The quarter of Monte Carlo was served by tramways from 1900 to 1953, in 2003 a new cruise ship pier was completed in the harbour at Monte Carlo. Monte Carlo is host to most of the Circuit de Monaco and it also hosts world championship boxing bouts, the European Poker Tour Grand Final and the World Backgammon Championship as well as the Monaco International Auto Show, fashion shows and other events. Although the Monte Carlo Masters tennis tournament is billed as taking place in the community, Monte Carlo has been visited by royalty as well as the general public and movie stars for decades. The rally, however, takes place outside the Monte Carlo quarter and is run mostly on French roads, the Opéra de Monte-Carlo or Salle Garnier was built to designs of the architect Charles Garnier, who also designed the Paris opera house now known as the Palais Garnier. Although much smaller, the Salle Garnier is very similar in style with decorations in red and gold and it was inaugurated on 25 January 1879 with a performance by Sarah Bernhardt dressed as a nymph. The first opera performed there was Robert Planquettes Le Chevalier Gaston on 8 February 1879, gunsbourg had remained for sixty years. This production formed part of an association between the company and Massenet and his operas, two of which were presented there posthumously. Other famous twentieth-century singers to appear at Monte Carlo included Titta Ruffo, Geraldine Farrar, Mary Garden, Tito Schipa, Beniamino Gigli, Claudia Muzio, Georges Thill, and Lily Pons. Apart from Massenet, composers whose works had their first performances at Monte Carlo included, Saint-Saëns, Mascagni, indeed, since its inauguration, the theatre has hosted 45 world premiere productions of operas
Monte Carlo
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View of Monte Carlo (and Monaco) from the east
Monte Carlo
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Charles III of Monaco was responsible for turning the Monte Carlo district and Monaco into a thriving town.
Monte Carlo
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Monte Carlo Casino
Monte Carlo
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Hotel de Paris
3.
Monaco
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Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a sovereign city-state and microstate, located on the French Riviera in Western Europe. France borders the country on three sides while the other side borders the Mediterranean Sea, Monaco has an area of 2.02 km2 and a population of about 38,400 according to the last census of 2015. With 19,009 inhabitants per km², it is the second smallest, Monaco has a land border of 5.47 km, a coastline of 3.83 km, and a width that varies between 1,700 and 349 m. The highest point in the country is a pathway named Chemin des Révoires on the slopes of Mont Agel, in the Les Révoires Ward. Monacos most populous Quartier is Monte Carlo and the most populous Ward is Larvotto/Bas Moulins, through land reclamation, Monacos land mass has expanded by twenty percent, in 2005, it had an area of only 1.974 km2. Monaco is known as a playground for the rich and famous, in 2014, it was noted about 30% of the population was made up of millionaires, more than in Zürich or Geneva. Monaco is a principality governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, although Prince Albert II is a constitutional monarch, he wields immense political power. The House of Grimaldi have ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, the official language is French, but Monégasque, Italian, and English are widely spoken and understood. The states sovereignty was recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Despite Monacos independence and separate foreign policy, its defense is the responsibility of France, however, Monaco does maintain two small military units. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the countrys first casino, Monte Carlo, since then, Monacos mild climate, scenery, and gambling facilities have contributed to the principalitys status as a tourist destination and recreation center for the rich. In more recent years, Monaco has become a major banking center and has sought to diversify its economy into services and small, high-value-added, the state has no income tax, low business taxes, and is well known for being a tax haven. It is also the host of the street circuit motor race Monaco Grand Prix. Monaco is not formally a part of the European Union, but it participates in certain EU policies, including customs, through its relationship with France, Monaco uses the euro as its sole currency. Monaco joined the Council of Europe in 2004 and it is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Monacos name comes from the nearby 6th-century BC Phocaean Greek colony, according to an ancient myth, Hercules passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods. As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos, because the only temple of this area was the House of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos. It ended up in the hands of the Holy Roman Empire, an ousted branch of a Genoese family, the Grimaldi, contested it for a hundred years before actually gaining control
Monaco
–
Statue of
Francesco Grimaldi, " Il Malizia " ("the Cunning"), disguised as a monk with a dagger hidden under the cloak of his
habit. However, he was ousted by the Genoese just four years later. The Grimaldi family purchased Monaco from the
Crown of Aragon in 1419.
Monaco
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Flag
Monaco
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Monaco circa 1900
Monaco
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Mayor of Monaco announcing concessions ending absolute monarchy of
Prince Albert I in 1910
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
Gambling
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Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning money and/or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements be present, consideration, chance and prize, the term gaming in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law. However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world, for instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission. Gambling is also an international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009. In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials which have a value, many popular games played in modern casinos originate from Europe and China. Games such as craps, baccarat, roulette, and blackjack originate from different areas of Europe, a version of keno, an ancient Chinese lottery game, is played in casinos around the world. In addition, pai gow poker, a hybrid between pai gow and poker is also played, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban gambling or heavily control it by licensing the vendors. Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling in the areas where it is not allowed, there is generally legislation requiring that the odds in gaming devices are statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible. Since these high-payoffs have very low probability, a bias can quite easily be missed unless the odds are checked carefully. Most jurisdictions that allow gambling require participants to be above a certain age, in some jurisdictions, the gambling age differs depending on the type of gambling. For example, in many American states one must be over 21 to enter a casino, E. g. Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation. Under common law, particularly English Law, a contract may not give a casino bona fide purchaser status. For case law on recovery of gambling losses where the loser had stolen the funds see Rights of owner of money as against one who won it in gambling transaction from thief. This was a plot point in a Perry Mason novel, The Case of the Singing Skirt. Religious perspectives on gambling have been mixed, ancient Hindu poems like the Gamblers Lament and the Mahabharata testify to the popularity of gambling among ancient Indians. However, the text Arthashastra recommends taxation and control of gambling, ancient Jewish authorities frowned on gambling, even disqualifying professional gamblers from testifying in court. For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling, in at least one case, the same bishop opposing a casino has sold land to be used for its construction. Although different interpretations of law exist in the Muslim world
Gambling
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Caravaggio,
The Cardsharps, c. 1594
Gambling
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Gamblers in the
Ship of Fools, 1494
Gambling
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Bag with 65 Inlaid Gambling Sticks, Tsimshian (Native American), 19th century,
Brooklyn Museum
Gambling
–
The
Caesars Palace main fountain. The statue is a copy of the ancient
Winged Victory of Samothrace.
6.
Casino
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A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry, casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as comedy, concerts. The term casino is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators, Casino is of Italian origin, the root casa originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. In modern-day Italian, the term designates a bordello, while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. Not all casinos were used for gaming, the Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre, the Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that towns most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant. In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a casino or kasino is an officers mess, in Italian—the source-language of the word—a casino is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a casinò. The precise origin of gambling is unknown and it is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleons France and Elizabethan England and it was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry. In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons, the creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, during the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, Americas first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now Americas second largest gambling city, most jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age. Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players and this can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative
Casino
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Slot machines in Atlantic City. Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos
Casino
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The
Marina Bay Sands
Casino
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The Venetian Macao
Casino
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A sign at the
Thousand Islands Casino
7.
Les Ballets de Monte Carlo
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Les Ballets de Monte Carlo is a classical ballet company established in 1985 by Her Royal Highness the Princess of Hanover in accordance with the wishes of her mother, Princess Grace of Monaco. It is the national company of the Principality of Monaco. The first performance took place on 21 December 1985, casting among others several guest stars of the Paris Opera. Directed by Ghislaine Thesmar and Pierre Lacotte, the company rehearsed in the Diaghilev studio, performing on the stage of the Salle Garnier at the Monte Carlo Opera and immediately started touring. Their repertoire includes works from the Ballets Russes and contemporary pieces from guest choreographers such as Kevin Haigen, John Clifford, Jean-Christophe Maillot, Dieter Amman, in 1989, Jean Yves Esquerre became artistic director, after the departure of Ghislaine Thesmar and Pierre Lacotte one year earlier. In 1992, Jean-Christophe Maillot joined the company, first as artistic consultant, further, in December 2000, they inaugurated their first ballet season on the huge stage of the Salle des Princes at the brand new congress center in Monaco, the Grimaldi Forum. These were two turning points in the history of the company and the beginning of a new dance era in Monaco. Official website Les Ballets de Monte Carlo in Tel Aviv, Ballet for the 21st Century
Les Ballets de Monte Carlo
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Titles by birth
8.
House of Grimaldi
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The House of Grimaldi is associated with the history of the Republic of Genoa, Italy and of the Principality of Monaco. The Grimaldi descend from Grimaldo, a Genoese statesman at the time of the early Crusades and he may have been a son of Otto Canella, a consul of the Republic of Genoa in 1133. In turn Grimaldo became a consul in 1160,1170 and again in 1184 and his numerous descendants led maritime expeditions throughout the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and soon the North Sea. They quickly became one of the most powerful families of Genoa, the Grimaldis feared that the head of a rival Genoese family could break the fragile balance of power in a political coup and become lord of Genoa, as had happened in other Italian cities. They entered into a Guelphic alliance with the Fieschi family and defended their interests with the sword, the Guelfs however were banned from the City in 1271, and found refuge in their castles in Liguria and Provence. They signed a treaty with Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Count of Provence to retake control of Genoa, in 1276, they accepted a peace under the auspices of the Pope, which however did not put an end to the civil war. Not all the Grimaldis chose to return to Genoa, as preferred to settle in their fiefdoms. In 1299, the Grimaldis and their allies launched a few galleys to attack the port of Genoa before taking refuge on the Western Riviera, during the following years, the Grimaldis entered into different alliances that would allow them to return to power in Genoa. This time, it was the turn of their rivals, the Spinola family, during this period, both the Guelphs and Ghibellines took and abandoned the castle of Monaco, which was ideally located to launch political and military operations against Genoa. Therefore, the tale of Francis Grimaldi and his faction — who took the castle of Monaco disguised as friars in 1297 — is largely anecdotal, in the early 14th century, the Aragonese raided the shores of Provence and Liguria, challenging Genoa and King Robert of Provence. In 1353, the fleet of eighty Venetian and Aragonese galleys gathered in Sardinia to meet the fleet of sixty galleys under the command of Anthony Grimaldi. Only nineteen Genoese vessels survived the battle, fearing an invasion, Genoa rushed to request the protection of the Lord of Milan. Several of the oldest feudal branches of the House of Grimaldi appeared during these conflicts, such as the branches of Antibes, Beuil, Nice, Puget, and Sicily. In 1395, the Grimaldis took advantage of the discords in Genoa to take possession of Monaco and this is the origin of todays principality. As was customary in Genoa, the Grimaldis organised their family ties within a corporation called albergo, the House of Grimaldi provided several doges, cardinals, cabinet ministers, and military officers of historical note. By convention, sovereign European houses are reckoned in the male line, therefore, since 1731, it has been determined genealogically that it was in fact the French noble House of Goyon-Matignon that ruled as Princes of Monaco until 1949. Similarly, when Charlotte Louvet was legitimised in 1911 and made successor to Monaco, her husband, Count Pierre de Polignac, adopted, as a condition of the marriage, in this way the Grimaldi name and arms were continued. Until 2002, a treaty between Monaco and France stated that if the reigning Prince ever failed to leave dynastic offspring, the 2002 agreement modified this to expand the pool of potential heirs to dynastic collaterals of the reigning Prince, guaranteeing Monegasque independence
House of Grimaldi
–
Prince's Palace of Monaco
House of Grimaldi
–
Motto: With God's Help (
Latin: Deo Juvante)
House of Grimaldi
–
Rainier I. Grimaldi (1267-1314)
House of Grimaldi
–
Elena Grimaldi, as painted by
Anthony van Dyck, c. 1623
9.
Sports club
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A sports club or sport club, sometimes athletics club or sports society or sports association, is a group of people formed for the purpose of playing sports. A club is solely created by its members, players and supporters, clubs may be dedicated to a single sport or to several. The term athletics club is used for a general sports club. Many professional sports clubs have a system where the affiliated supporters pay an annuity fee. Registered associate member fees, attendance receipts, sponsoring contracts, team merchandising, TV rights, some sports teams are owned and financed by a single non-sports company, for example the several sports teams owned by Red Bull GmbH and collectively known as Red Bulls. They may compete in different sports and leagues, being headquartered in some cases across several countries. In general, student sports can be described as composed by multisports clubs, each one representing its educational institution, in the United States major institutions like The New York Athletic Club and Los Angeles Athletic Club serve as athletic clubs that participate in multiple sports. Examples also abound of sports clubs that are in one sports team. Each team from the NFL, CFL, NBA, MLB, NHL or MLS North American sports leagues, can be called sports clubs, but in practice, they focus solely on a single sport. In the United Kingdom, almost all sports organizations are dedicated to a single sport. In addition, like in other countries, many universities and colleges develop a wide range of student sport activities including at a professional or semi-professional level. Fulham F. C. once ran a professional league team and rowing club. Many football clubs originate from cricket teams, today, most major cities have separate clubs for each sport. Many clubs internationally describe themselves as football clubs, generally, British football clubs field only football teams. Their counterparts in other countries tend to be full multi-sport clubs. Community organizations Health club Leisure centre North American Association of Sports Economists Sociedad Anónima Deportiva Voluntary Sports Societies of the USSR
Sports club
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A sport club in
Belo Horizonte, Brazil, showing various paved and painted surfaces for
futsal,
basketball and
volleyball, with two
swimming pools in the foreground.
10.
Maria Caroline Gibert de Lametz
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Marie Caroline Gibert de Lametz, was a French stage actress and later Princess Consort and regent de facto of Monaco, the spouse of Florestan I, Prince of Monaco. Marie Caroline was originally a stage actress, the marriage of her parents ended in divorce. For some time, Maria Caroline was able to alleviate the economic situation stemming from Monacos new position as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia. The couple also attempted to meet demands for greater democracy. Encouraged by the Revolutions of 1848, the towns of Menton and they had hoped to be annexed by Sardinia, but this did not occur, and the towns remained in a state of political limbo until they were finally ceded to France in 1861. After her husbands death in 1856, her son, Prince Charles III took over control of the throne, together, they worked towards laying the foundation for Monaco as a major resort destination. She died on November 25,1879, the Peerage retrieved 26 February 2007
Maria Caroline Gibert de Lametz
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Maria Caroline Gibert de Lametz
11.
Florestan I, Prince of Monaco
–
Florestan I, Prince of Monaco was Prince of Monaco and Duke of Valentinois from 2 October 1841 until his death. He was born Tancrède Florestan Roger Louis Grimaldi the second son of Prince Honoré IV and Louise dAumont Mazarin and succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother, Honoré V. The princely couple also attempted to meet demands for greater democracy. When they saw that their efforts were doomed to failure, they handed over power to their son Charles and this was, however, too little, too late. Encouraged by the events of 1848, the towns of Menton and they had hoped to be annexed by Sardinia, but this did not occur, and the towns remained in a state of political limbo until they were finally ceded to France in 1861, under Charles III. Despite his good intentions, by the time of Florestans death in Paris in 1856 and it remained for his heir to remedy the situation
Florestan I, Prince of Monaco
–
Florestan I
12.
Bankruptcy
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Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
Bankruptcy
–
Notice of closure attached to the door of a Computer Shop outlet the day after its parent company declared "bankruptcy" (strictly, put into administration) in the
United Kingdom
Bankruptcy
–
Insolvency
Bankruptcy
–
Bankruptcy according to
Salvation Army,
Switzerland.
Bankruptcy
–
In 2013, Detroit filed the
largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.
13.
Menton
–
Menton is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region in southeastern France. Situated on the French Riviera, along the Franco-Italian border, it is nicknamed perle de la France. The Menton area has been inhabited since the era, and is the site of the original Grimaldi Man find of early modern humans, as well as remains of Neanderthals. In Roman times, the Via Julia Augusta, a road connecting Placentia with Arelates passed through Menton, running along the Rue Longue in the old town. The first major settlement occurred during the 11th century CE, when the Count of Ventimiglia constructed the Château de Puypin on the Pépin hill, north, Menton was thus incorporated into the Republic of Genoa. The first mention of Menton dates from 21 July 1262, in the treaty between Charles of Anjou and Genoa. Its position on the border between the Angevin-ruled Provence and the Republic of Genoa, which at the time claimed Monaco as its western limit, acquired in 1346 by Charles Grimaldi, Lord of Monaco, Menton was ruled by the Princes of Monaco until the French Revolution. Annexed during the Revolution, Menton remained part of France through the First Empire and it belonged to the district of Sanremo in the department of Alpes-Maritimes, which at the time included Monaco and Sanremo. In 1814, Menton was included in a reconstituted principality of Monaco which, after Napoleons Hundred Days in 1815, the Princes of Monaco were obliged to do homage to the King for Menton, although not for Monaco itself. In 1848, Menton, along with its neighbour Roquebrune, seceded from Monaco, due at least in part to a tax imposed on lemon exports. The county of Nice was thus annexed to France that June, and Napoleon III paid 4 million francs in compensation to the prince of Monaco, by the end of the 19th century, tourism was an important factor in Mentons growth. The town was popular with English and Russian aristocrats who built many of the hotels, villas. Many of these hotels and palaces were pressed into service as hospitals during World War I to allow injured troops to recuperate in a pleasant climate, Menton was the only sizable settlement captured by Italy during its invasion of France in June 1940. Following the armistice of June 22,1940, two-thirds of the territory of the commune was annexed by Italy as terra irredenta, the annexation lasted until 8 September 1943. Although officially returned to Vichy France, Menton was in fact occupied by Nazi Germany until its liberation by American and Canadian troops of the First Special Service Force on 8 September 1944. Menton, nicknamed the Pearl of France, is located on the Mediterranean Sea at the Franco-Italian border, the fishing industry was devastated in the 1980s and 1990s when a combination of overfishing and hypoxia in the bay. At the time, the devastation was attributed to the dubiously nicknamed killer algae Caulerpa taxifolia spread throughout the coastal sea floor. Menton has got a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, frosts are extremely rare but occasionally occur every few year
Menton
–
The harbour of Menton, with the basilica of Saint-Michel-Archange beyond, viewed from the Quai Napoléon III
Menton
–
Menton, as part of Monaco, was the extreme western area of the
Republic of Genoa (green color) in 1664.
Menton
–
Sailboats in Menton harbor, photograph by
Jean Gilletta early 1900s
Menton
–
The port and the old part of town.
14.
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin
–
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France between Monaco and Menton. The name was changed from Roquebrune to differentiate the town from Roquebrune-sur-Argens in the neighboring Var department, in pre-Roman times the area was settled by the Ligurians. Traces of their language can be found in the local dialect. The commune was founded in 971 by Conrad I, count of Ventimiglia, in 1355, Roccabruna fell under the control of the Grimaldi family of Monaco for five centuries, during which time the castle was strengthened. In 1793, Roquebrune became French for the first time, changing the name from the original Roccabruna, in 1804 Napoleon built a road along the coastline. This road connected the village to the rest of the Côte dAzur, in 1848, there was a revolution related to the Italian Risorgimento, with the result that Roccabruna and Menton became free cities under the protection of the Savoy Prince. They hoped to be part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, but this did not occur, and they remained in a state of political limbo from 1849 until they were finally ceded to France by a plebiscite in 1861. As a consequence of these ideals, during World War II all the coastal area between Italy and Monte Carlo was occupied and administered by the Kingdom of Italy until September 1943. The area became fashionable in the 1920s and 1930s leading to the construction of notable buildings including Coco Chanels La Pausa on Cap Martin. The Irish poet William Butler Yeats died in the town of Menton on January 28,1939. Yeatss body was buried at a cemetery in Roquebrune until September 1948, today Roquebrune-Cap-Martin comprises several villages and towns, St. All the area has a huge tourism activity, mainly from April to October, the local dialect actually is linguistically part of the mentonasque of the Païs Mentounasc, a cultural area between the Ligurian dialects and the Occitan language. Since 1861 the use of the French language has increased enormously in the city, despite its name, the Monte Carlo Country Club is located in the municipality. It is the venue for the tennis Monte-Carlo Masters
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin
–
The old village, the cape and the bay of Roquebrune
15.
Charles III, Prince of Monaco
–
Charles III was Prince of Monaco and Duke of Valentinois from 20 June 1856 to his death. He was the founder of the casino in Monte Carlo, as his title in Monegasque. He was born in Paris Charles Honoré Grimaldi, the son of Florestan I of Monaco. Charles was married on 28 September 1846 in Brussels to Countess Antoinette de Mérode-Westerloo and he was succeeded by his son Albert I of Monaco. He was the 182nd Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower, Monte Carlo is named after Charles III. It stands for the Mount Charles in Italian, in his middle years his sight greatly weakened, and by the last decade of his life he had become almost totally blind. He died at Château de Marchais, on the 1st June 2016, fifteen thousand 2 euro coins were issued by Monaco, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the foundation of Monte Carlo by Charles III
Charles III, Prince of Monaco
–
Charles III
16.
Prospectus (finance)
–
A prospectus, in finance, is a disclosure document that describes a financial security for potential buyers. In the context of a securities offering, such as an initial public offering. In a securities offering in the United States, a prospectus is required to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission as part of a registration statement. In certain situations, such as when the offering is not required to be registered with the SEC, prospectuses are generally prepared with the assistance of the underwriter acting as issue manager. Publication of information in relation to the issue of securities in the United Kingdom is governed by the Prospectus Rules, a prospectus must be published where certain types of securities either are offered to the public or are requested for admission on a regulated market. In the United Kingdom, the regulated market is London Stock Exchange full list. The Alternative Investment Market does not constitute a regulated market, nor does the Professional Securities Market for issues of debt securities. The prospectus must be approved by the competent authority in the United Kingdom, which is currently the Financial Conduct Authority in its capacity as the United Kingdom Listing Authority
Prospectus (finance)
–
A prospectus from the US
17.
French franc
–
The franc, also commonly distinguished as the French franc, was a currency of France. Between 1450 and 1999, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it was revalued in 1960, with each new franc being worth 100 old francs. The French franc was a commonly held reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries. The first franc was a gold coin introduced in 1360 to pay the Ransom of King John II of France and this coin secured the kings freedom and showed him on a richly decorated horse earning it the name franc à cheval. The obverse legend, like other French coins, gives the title as Francorum Rex. Its value was set as one livre tournois, john’s son, Charles V, continued this type. It was copied exactly at Brabant and Cambrai and, with the arms on the horse cloth changed, conquests led by Joan of Arc allowed Charles VII to return to sound coinage and he revived the franc à cheval. John II, however, was not able to strike enough francs to pay his ransom, John II died as a prisoner in England and his son, Charles V was left to pick up the pieces. Charles V pursued a policy of reform, including stable coinage, an edict dated 20 April 1365 established the centerpiece of this policy, a gold coin officially called the denier d’or aux fleurs de lis which had a standing figure of the king on its obverse. Its value in money of account was one livre tournois, just like the franc à cheval, in accordance with the theories of the mathematician, economist and royal advisor Nicolas Oresme, Charles struck fewer coins of better gold than his predecessors. In the accompanying deflation both prices and wages fell, but wages fell faster and debtors had to settle up in better money than they had borrowed, the Mayor of Paris, Etienne Marcel, exploited their discontent to lead a revolt which forced Charles V out of the city. The States General which met at Blois in 1577 added to the pressure to stop currency manipulation. Henry III agreed to do this and he revived the franc and this coin and its fractions circulated until 1641 when Louis XIII of France replaced it with the silver Écu. Nevertheless, the franc continued in accounting as a synonym for the livre tournois. The decimal franc was established as the currency by the French Revolutionary Convention in 1795 as a decimal unit of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as “5 FRANCS” and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. e. Coinage with explicit denominations in decimal fractions of the franc also began in 1795, decimalization of the franc was mandated by an act of 7 April 1795, which also dealt with of weights and measures. France’s first decimal coinage used allegorical figures symbolizing revolutionary principles, like the designs the United States had adopted in 1793
French franc
–
Franc à cheval
French franc
–
Franc à pied
French franc
–
1795 five centimes, the first year of decimal fractions for the franc.
French franc
–
1799 two-decimes
essai coin
18.
Resort
–
A resort is a self-contained commercial establishment that endeavors to provide most of a vacationers wants, such as food, drink, lodging, sports, entertainment, and shopping, on the premises. The term resort may be used for a property that provides an array of amenities, typically including entertainment. A hotel is frequently a central feature of a resort, such as the Grand Hotel at Mackinac Island, some resorts are also timeshare or fractionally owned, or wholly owned condominium complexes. A resort is not always a commercial establishment operated by a single company, commonly these facilities are of higher quality than would be expected if one were to stay at a hotel or eat in a towns restaurants. Closely related to these resorts are convention and large meeting sites, generally these occur in cities where special meeting halls, together with ample accommodations as well as varied dining and entertainment, are provided. An all-inclusive resort charges a price that includes most or all items. At a minimum, most inclusive resorts include lodging, unlimited food, drink, sports activities, all-inclusive resorts are found in the Caribbean, particularly in Dominican Republic, Egypt, and elsewhere. Many also offer sports and other included in the price as well. They are often located in warmer regions, the all-inclusive model originated in the Club Med resorts, which were founded by the Belgian Gérard Blitz. Some all-inclusive resorts are designed for specific vacation interests, for example, certain resorts cater to adults, while even more specialized properties accept couples only. Other all-inclusive resorts are geared toward families, with facilities like craft centers, game rooms, all-inclusive resorts are also very popular locations for destination weddings. A spa resort is a short term residential/lodging facility with the purpose of providing individual services for spa-goers to develop healthy habits. Historically many such spas were developed at the location of natural hot springs or sources of mineral waters, golf resorts are resorts that cater specifically to the sport of golf, and include access to one or more golf course and or clubhouse. Golf resorts typically provide golf packages that provide visitors with all greens and cart fees, range balls, accommodations, in North America a ski resort is generally a destination resort in a ski area. Ski resort is less likely to refer to a town or village, a megaresort is a type of destination resort which is of an exceptionally large size, such as those along the Las Vegas Strip. In Singapore integrated resort is a euphemism for a destination resort. A holiday village is a type of self-contained resort in Europe, a holiday camp in the United Kingdom refers to a resort where the accommodation is in chalets. The term holiday park is used for a resort where the accommodation includes static caravans, there are 1500+ timeshare resorts in the U. S. that are operated by major hospitality, timeshare-specific, or independent companies
Resort
–
Resorts combine a hotel and a variety of recreations, such as
swimming pools, shown here in San Diego, California
Resort
–
Kayaking provided by a lakeside resort in
Jasper, Alberta
Resort
–
An
island resort in the
Maldives.
Resort
–
Miami Beach in Florida
19.
Nice
–
Nice is the fifth most populous city in France and the capital of the Alpes-Maritimes département. The urban area of Nice extends beyond the city limits. Nice is about 13 kilometres from the principality of Monaco, the city is nicknamed Nice la Belle, which means Nice the Beautiful, which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of todays Nice contains Terra Amata, a site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength, for centuries it was a dominion of Savoy, and was then part of France between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to Piedmont-Sardinia until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The citys main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais owes its name to visitors to the resort, for decades now, the picturesque Nicean surroundings have attracted not only those in search of relaxation, but also those seeking inspiration. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to some of Western cultures most outstanding painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse. Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and it is one of its most visited cities and it also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the capital city of the County of Nice. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by the Greeks of Massalia, the ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens, but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, during the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, during the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town, the landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill, another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the area was also defended by walls
Nice
–
Nice Port
Nice
–
Nice in the time of the
Roman Empire.
Nice
–
The Tower of Saint François
Nice
–
Nice in 1624
20.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
21.
Franc
–
The franc is the name of several currency units. The French franc was the currency of France until the euro was adopted in 1999. The Swiss franc is a world currency today due to the prominence of Swiss financial institutions. The name is said to derive from the Latin inscription francorum rex used on early French coins and until the 18th century, or from the French franc, the countries that use francs include Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and most of Francophone Africa. Before the introduction of the euro, francs were used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra. The franc was used within the French Empires colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes italianised or hispanicised as the franco, for instance in Luccan franco, one franc is typically divided into 100 centimes. It was equivalent to one livre tournois, the French franc was the name of a gold coin issued in France from 1360 until 1380, then a silver coin issued between 1575 and 1641. The franc finally became the currency from 1795 until 1999. Though abolished as a coin by Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver écu. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination. The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro =6, fourteen African countries use the franc CFA, originally worth 1.7 French francs and then from 1948,2 francs but after January 1994 worth only 0.01 French franc. Therefore, from January 1999,1 CFA franc is equivalent to €0.00152449, a separate circulates in Frances Pacific territories, worth €0.0084. In 1981, The Comoros established an arrangement with the French government similar to that of the CFA franc, originally,50 Comorian francs were worth 1 French franc. In January 1994, the rate was changed to 75 Comorian francs to the French franc, since 1999, the currency has been pegged to the euro. The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the wide circulation. Newly unified Italy adopted the lira on a basis in 1862. In the 1870s the gold value was made the fixed standard, the 1921 monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in 1932
Franc
–
Franc
Franc
Franc
Franc
22.
Pope Leo XIII
–
Pope Leo XIII reigned as Pope from 20 February 1878 to his death. He was the oldest pope, and had the third longest pontificate, behind that of Pius IX and he is the most recent pontiff to date to take the pontifical name of Leo upon being elected to the pontificate. He is well known for his intellectualism and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. In his famous 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum, Pope Leo outlined the rights of workers to a wage, safe working conditions. He influenced Roman Catholic Mariology and promoted both the rosary and the scapular, Leo XIII issued a record of eleven Papal encyclicals on the rosary earning him the title as the Rosary Pope. In addition, he approved two new Marian scapulars and was the first pope to fully embrace the concept of Mary as Mediatrix and he was the first pope to never have held any control over the Papal States, after they had been dissolved by 1870. He was briefly buried in the grottos of Saint Peters Basilica before his remains were transferred to the Basilica of Saint John Lateran. Born in Carpineto Romano, near Rome, he was the sixth of the seven sons of Count Ludovico Pecci and his brothers included Giuseppe and Giovanni Battista Pecci. Until 1818 he lived at home with his family, in which counted as the highest grace on earth, as through her. Together with his brother Giuseppe, he studied in the Jesuit College in Viterbo and he enjoyed the Latin language and was known to write his own Latin poems at the age of eleven. In 1824 he and his older brother Giuseppe were called to Rome where their mother was dying, Count Pecci wanted his children near him after the loss of his wife, and so they stayed with him in Rome, attending the Jesuit Collegium Romanum. In 1828, Giuseppe entered the Jesuit order, while Vincenzo decided in favour of secular clergy and he studied at the Academia dei Nobili, mainly diplomacy and law. In 1834 he gave a student presentation, attended by several cardinals, for his presentation he received awards for academic excellence, and gained the attention of Vatican officials. Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Lambruschini introduced him to Vatican congregations, during a cholera epidemic in Rome he ably assisted Cardinal Sala in his duties as overseer of all the city hospitals. Pope Gregory XVI appointed Pecci on 14 February 1837, as personal prelate even before he was ordained priest on 31 December 1837, by the Vicar of Rome and he celebrated his first mass together with his priest brother Giuseppe. He received his doctorate in theology in 1836 and doctorates of civil, shortly thereafter, Gregory XVI appointed Pecci as legate to Benevento. The smallest of papal provinces, Benevento included about 20,000 people, the main problems facing Pecci were a decaying local economy, insecurity because of widespread bandits, and pervasive Mafia or Camorra structures, who often were allied with aristocratic families. Pecci arrested the most powerful aristocrat in Benevento, and his troops captured others, with the public order restored, he turned to the economy and a reform of the tax system to stimulate trade with neighboring provinces
Pope Leo XIII
–
Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII
–
The house in Carpineto, in which the Pecci brothers grew up
Pope Leo XIII
–
Carpineto in 1860
Pope Leo XIII
–
Bishop Pecci as
Nuncio in
Brussels
23.
Charles Garnier (architect)
–
Jean-Louis Charles Garnier was a French architect, perhaps best known as the architect of the Palais Garnier and the Opéra de Monte-Carlo. Charles Garnier was born Jean-Louis Charles Garnier on 6 November 1825 in Paris, on the Rue Mouffetard and his father was originally from Sarthe, and had worked as a blacksmith, wheelwright, and coachbuilder before settling down in Paris to work in a horse-drawn carriage rental business. He married Felicia Colle, daughter of a captain in the French Army, later in life, Garnier would all but ignore the fact that he was born of humble origins, preferring to claim Sarthe as his birthplace. Garnier became an apprentice of Louis-Hippolyte Lebas, and after that a student of the École royale des Beaux-Arts de Paris. He obtained the Premier Grand Prix de Rome in 1848, at age twenty-three, the subject of his final examination was entitled, Un conservatoire des arts et métiers, avec galerie dexpositions pour les produits de lindustrie. He became a pensioner of the Académie de France à Rome from 17 January to 31 December 1849 and he traveled through Greece which provided him the subject of his fourth year submission, presented at the Paris Salon in 1853. He visited Greece with Edmond About and Constantinople with Théophile Gautier and he worked on the Temple of Aphaea in Aegina where he insisted on polychromy. He was named, in 1874, member of the Institut de France, on 30 December 1860 the Second Empire of Emperor Napoleon III announced a competition for the design of a new, state-funded opera house. The old opera house, located on the rue Le Peletier, applicants were given a month to submit entries. There were two phases to the competition, and Garnier was one of about 170 entrants in the first phase and he was awarded the fifth-place prize and was one of seven finalists selected for the second phase. You have greatly improved your project since the first competition, whereas Ginain has ruined his, soon the thirty-five-year-old and relatively unknown Garnier began work on the building, which eventually would be named for him, the Palais Garnier. Many people had difficulty in deciding exactly what style he was trying to portray, when asked by Empress Eugénie in what style the building was to be done, he is said to have replied, Why Maam, in Napoleon Trois, and you complain. Construction began in the summer of 1861, though setbacks would delay it for fourteen years. During the first week of excavation, a stream was discovered. It required eight months for the water to be pumped out, Garniers double-walled and bitumen-sealed cement and concrete foundation proved strong enough to withstand any possible leakages, and construction continued. The defeat of the French army by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan in 1870 resulted in the end of the Second Empire. During the Siege of Paris and the Paris Commune in 1871, the opera house was finally inaugurated on 5 January 1875. The people who entered the building, spanning nearly 119,000 square feet, were generally awed by its immense size
Charles Garnier (architect)
–
Charles Garnier by
Nadar, c. 1880
Charles Garnier (architect)
–
The Palais Garnier in winter.
Charles Garnier (architect)
–
Seaside facade of the
Monte Carlo Casino Theatre, designed by Garnier
Charles Garnier (architect)
–
Monument to Garnier at the Palais Garnier
24.
Palais Garnier
–
The Palais Garnier is a 1, 979-seat opera house, which was built from 1861 to 1875 for the Paris Opera. The Paris Opera now mainly uses the Palais Garnier for ballet, the Palais Garnier has been called probably the most famous opera house in the world, a symbol of Paris like Notre Dame Cathedral, the Louvre, or the Sacré Coeur Basilica. This opinion is far from unanimous however, the 20th-century French architect Le Corbusier once described it as a lying art, the Palais Garnier is a building of exceptional opulence. The style is monumental and considered Second-Empire Beaux-Arts style with axial symmetry in plan and these include very elaborate multicolored marble friezes, columns, and lavish statuary, many of which portray deities of Greek mythology. The principal facade is on the side of the building, overlooking the Place de lOpéra. Fourteen painters, mosaicists and seventy-three sculptors participated in the creation of its ornamentation, the two gilded figural groups, Charles Gumerys LHarmonie and La Poésie, crown the apexes of the principal facades left and right avant-corps. They are both made of gilt copper electrotype, the facade also incorporates other work by Gumery, Alexandre Falguière, and others. On the left and right lateral returns of the front facade are busts of the librettists Eugène Scribe and Philippe Quinault, when the Empire fell, work stopped, leaving unfinished dressed stonework. It is covered by a 13.5 metre diameter dome, two pairs of obelisks marking the entrances of the Rotunda to the north and the south. The interior consists of interweaving corridors, stairwells, alcoves and landings allowing the movement of large numbers of people, rich with velvet, gold leaf, and cherubim and nymphs, the interior is characteristic of Baroque sumptuousness. The building features a ceremonial staircase of white marble with a balustrade of red and green marble. Its design was inspired by Victor Louiss grand staircase for the Théâtre de Bordeaux, the pedestals of the staircase are decorated with female torchères, created by Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse. When they were first fixed in two months before the opening of the building it was obvious to Garnier that they were too dark for the space. With the help of two of his students, Pils had to rework the canvases while they were in place overhead on the ceiling and, at the age of 61, he fell ill. His students had to finish the work, which was completed the day before the opening and this hall 18 meters high,154 meters long and 13 meters wide was designed to act as a drawing room for Paris society. Its ceiling was painted by Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry and represents various moments in the history of music, the foyer opens into an outside loggia at each end of which are the Salon de la Lune and Salon du Soleil. The auditorium has a traditional Italian horseshoe shape and can seat 1,979, the stage is the largest in Europe and can accommodate as many as 450 artists. The canvas house curtain was painted to represent a draped curtain, complete with tassels, the ceiling area, which surrounds the chandelier, was originally painted by Jules Eugène Lenepveu
Palais Garnier
–
The façade of the Palais Garnier opera house
Palais Garnier
–
Plan of the Palais Garnier
Palais Garnier
–
Gumery 's L'Harmonie (1869), atop the left
avant-corps of the façade, is 7.5 metres (25 ft) of gilt copper electrotype
Palais Garnier
–
Facade of the Palais Garnier with labels indicating the locations of various sculptures
25.
French Third Republic
–
It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
French Third Republic
–
A French propaganda poster from 1917 is captioned with an 18th century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."
French Third Republic
–
Flag
French Third Republic
–
The
Sacré-Cœur Basilica was built as a symbol of the Ordre Moral.
French Third Republic
–
In France, children were taught in school not to forget the lost provinces of
Alsace-Lorraine, which were coloured in black on maps.
26.
Salle Garnier
–
The Opéra de Monte-Carlo is an opera house, which is part of the Monte Carlo Casino located in the principality of Monaco. With the lack of cultural diversions available in Monaco in the 1870s, Prince Charles III, along with the Société des bains de mer, the main public entrance to the hall was from the casino, while Charles IIIs private entrance was on the western side. It opened in 1879 and became known as the Salle Garnier, after the architect Charles Garnier, the architect Charles Garnier also designed the Paris opera house now known as the Palais Garnier. Nevertheless, its style was heavily influenced by that of the Palais Garnier. The hall was inaugurated on 25 January 1879 with a performance by Sarah Bernhardt dressed as a nymph, the first opera performed there was Robert Planquettes Le Chevalier Gaston on 8 February 1879, followed by three additional operas in the first season. Conductor Arturo Vigna served as director of the Monte Carlo Opera from 1895-1903. This production formed part of an association between the company and Massenet and his operas, two of which were presented there posthumously. Apart from Massenet, composers whose works had their first performances at Monte Carlo included, Saint-Saëns, Mascagni, indeed, since its inauguration, the theatre has hosted 45 world premiere productions of operas. René Blum was retained to found the Ballet de lOpéra, the Golden Age of the Salle Garnier has passed, since small companies with small houses are not able to mount highly expensive productions. Nonetheless, the present day company still presents a season containing five or six operas, twice in its 130-year history the Opéra was transformed into a spectacular venue to host gala-dinners. The first occasion was in 1966 for the celebration of centenary of Monte-Carlo hosted by Grace Kelly and Rainier III, the Opera was transformed for the third time on 27 July 2013 to host the Love Ball, a fundraising gala event organised by the Naked Heart Foundation. Category, Opera world premieres at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo Mondial du Théâtre Notes Sources Bonillo, Jean-Lucien, Charles Garnier and Gustave Eiffel on the French and Italian Rivieras, The Dream of Reason. Inventaires in Bonillo et al. pp. 186–205, the Splendour of the Garnier Rooms at the Monte Carlo Casino in Bonillo et al. Opera, The Guide to Western Europes Great Houses, santa Fe, New Mexico, John Muir Publications
Salle Garnier
–
Seaside facade of the Salle Garnier, home of the Opéra de Monte-Carlo
Salle Garnier
–
Auditorium and stage (c. 1879)
Salle Garnier
–
Royal box and corner boxes (c. 1900)
27.
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
The
Palais Garnier (1861-75), an example of
Second Empire Beaux Arts style, typically employing
Neo-Baroque decorative elements
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Farmer Palace in
Kazan,
Russia
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
The
San Francisco War Memorial Opera House of 1932, among the last major American buildings constructed in the Beaux-Arts style
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Beaux-Arts building decoration presenting images of the Roman
goddesses Pomona and
Diana. Note the naturalism of the postures and the
channeled rustication of the stonework.
28.
Roulette
–
Roulette is a casino game named after the French word meaning little wheel. The ball eventually loses momentum and falls onto the wheel and into one of 37 or 38 colored and numbered pockets on the wheel The first form of roulette was devised in 18th century France. A century earlier, Blaise Pascal introduced a form of roulette in the 17th century in his search for a perpetual motion machine. The game has played in its present form since as early as 1796 in Paris. The description included the house pockets, There are exactly two slots reserved for the bank, whence it derives its sole mathematical advantage and it then goes on to describe the layout with. two betting spaces containing the banks two numbers, zero and double zero. The book was published in 1801, an even earlier reference to a game of this name was published in regulations for New France in 1758, which banned the games of dice, hoca, faro, and roulette. The roulette wheels used in the casinos of Paris in the late 1790s had red for the single zero, to avoid confusion, the color green was selected for the zeros in roulette wheels starting in the 1800s. In some forms of early American roulette wheels - as shown in the 1886 Hoyle gambling books, there were numbers 1 through 28, plus a single zero, a zero. The Eagle slot, which was a symbol of American liberty, was a slot that brought the casino extra edge. Soon, the tradition vanished and since then the features only numbered slots. Existing wheels with Eagle symbols are rare, with fewer than a half-dozen copies known to exist. Authentic Eagled wheels in excellent condition can fetch tens of thousands of dollars at auction, in the 19th century, roulette spread all over Europe and the US, becoming one of the most famous and most popular casino games. A legend says that François Blanc supposedly bargained with the devil to obtain the secrets of roulette, the legend is based on the fact that the sum of all the numbers on the roulette wheel is 666, which is the Number of the Beast. In the United States, the French double zero wheel made its way up the Mississippi from New Orleans and this eventually evolved into the American style roulette game as different from the traditional French game. The American game developed in the gambling dens across the new territories where makeshift games had been set up, whereas the French game evolved with style and leisure in Monte Carlo. However, it is the American style layout with its simplified betting and fast cash action, using either a single or double zero wheel, that now dominates in most casinos around the world. During the first part of the 20th century, the only towns of note were Monte Carlo with the traditional single zero French wheel. In the 1970s, casinos began to flourish around the world, by 2008 there were several hundred casinos worldwide offering roulette games
Roulette
–
Roulette ball
Roulette
–
French roulette
Roulette
–
"Gwendolen at the roulette table" - 1910 illustration to
George Eliot ' "
Daniel Deronda ".
Roulette
–
18th century E.O. wheel with gamblers
29.
Blackjack
–
Blackjack, also known as twenty-one, is the most widely played casino banking game in the world. Blackjack is a card game between a player and dealer, meaning players compete against the dealer but not against other players. It is played one or more decks of 52 cards. The player or players are dealt a hand and add together the value of their cards. Face cards are counted as ten points, a player and the dealer can count an ace as 1 point or 11 points. All other cards are counted as the value shown on the card. After receiving their first two cards, players have the option of getting a hit, or taking an additional card, in a given round, the player or the dealer wins by having a score of 21 or by having the higher score that is less than 21. Scoring higher than 21 results in a loss, a player may win by having any final score equal to or less than 21 if the dealer busts. The dealer must hit until the cards total 17 or more points, Players win by not busting and having a total higher than the dealers. The dealer loses by busting or having a lesser hand than the player who has not busted, If the player and dealer have the same total, this is called a push, and the player typically does not win or lose money on that hand. If all available players bust, the hand ends automatically without the dealer having to play his or her hand, Blackjack has inspired other casino games, including Spanish 21 and pontoon. Blackjacks precursor was twenty-one, a game of unknown origin, the first written reference is found in a book by the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, most famous for writing Don Quixote. Cervantes was a gambler, and the characters of his tale Rinconete y Cortadillo. They are proficient at cheating at ventiuna, and state that the object of the game is to reach 21 points without going over, the game is played with the Spanish baraja deck, which lacks eights and nines. This short story was written between 1601 and 1602, implying that ventiuna was played in Castilla since the beginning of the 17th century or earlier, later references to this game are found in France and Spain. When twenty-one was introduced in the United States, gambling houses offered bonus payouts to stimulate players interest, One such bonus was a ten-to-one payout if the players hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black jack. This hand was called a blackjack, and the name stuck to the even though the ten-to-one bonus was soon withdrawn. In the modern game, a blackjack refers to any hand of an ace plus a ten or face card regardless of suits or colours, at a casino blackjack table, the dealer faces five to seven playing positions from behind a semicircular table
Blackjack
–
A blackjack
Blackjack
–
Initial deal
30.
Craps
–
Craps is a dice game in which the players make wagers on the outcome of the roll, or a series of rolls, of a pair of dice. Players may wager money against each other or a bank, because it requires little equipment, street craps can be played in informal settings. Craps developed from a simplification of the early English game of hazard and its origins are complex and may date to the Crusades, later being influenced by French gamblers. There was a flaw in Bernards version of the game in which players could exploit the casino using fixed dice and taking advantage of the way players can bet with or against the dice thrower. An American dice maker named John H. Winn introduced the dont pass betting option in order to fix this problem, the game, first known as crapaud, reportedly owes its modern popularity to street craps. Street craps may be played by rolling the dice against a backstop, such as a curb or stair-stoop, or without a backstop, during World War II, street-style craps became popular among soldiers, who often played it using an Army blanket as a shooting surface. With no backboard or sidewalk curb to hit against, this rise to presumed methods of dice control. Bank craps or casino craps is a game played by multiple or a single player betting on the outcome of the dice, the players and casino employees stand or sit around a large oval craps table. In most houses sitting at a table is discouraged unless the player is handicapped. With the table oriented with its long sides running left to right, along one side is the casinos bank – thousands of chips, stacked 20 high. Along the opposite side of the tub is usually a long, the left and right U-shaped sections of the table each have the same bet areas marked on the layout, with space for usually up to eight players to stand and place their bets on each side. An additional group of bets, referred to as proposition bets, is in the middle of the layout, the top rim of the table has horizontal grooves for players to keep their chips while not in play. Each employee also watches for mistakes by the others because of the large number of bets. In smaller casinos or at times of day, one or more of these employees may be missing. Responsibility of the dealers is adjusted, the stickman continuing to handle the center bets, by contrast, in street craps, there is no marked table and often the game is played with no back-stop against which the dice are to hit. The wagers are made in cash, never in chips, and are thrown down onto the ground by the players. There are no attendants, and so the progress of the game, fairness of the throws, each casino may set which bets are offered and different payouts for them, though a core set of bets and payouts is typical. Players take turns rolling two dice and whoever is throwing the dice is called the shooter, while acting as the shooter, a player must have a bet on the Pass line and/or the Dont Pass line
Craps
–
A craps table with a game in progress.
31.
Baccarat (card game)
–
Baccarat is a card game played at casinos. There are three variants of the game, punto banco, baccarat chemin de fer, and baccarat banque. Punto banco is strictly a game of chance, with no skill or strategy involved, in baccarat chemin de fer and baccarat banque, by contrast, both players can make choices, which allows skill to play a part. Despite this, the odds are in favour of the bank. Baccarat is a card game played between two hands, the player and the banker. Each baccarat coup has three possible outcomes, player, banker, and tie, originally named Baccara, the game was introduced into France from Italy at the end of the 15th-century by soldiers returning from the Franco-Italian War during the reign of Charles VIII. Similar games include Macao, Oicho-Kabu, and Gabo japgi, in baccarat, cards have a point value, cards two through nine are worth face value, tens, jacks, queens and kings have no point value, aces are worth 1 point, jokers are not used. Hands are valued according to the rightmost digit of the sum of their constituent cards, for example, a hand consisting of 2 and 3 is worth 5, but a hand consisting of 6 and 7 is worth 3. The highest possible value in baccarat is therefore nine. About 91% of total income from Macau casinos in 2014 came from punto banco, in some countries, this version of the game is known as tableau. Punto banco is dealt from a shoe containing 6 or 8 decks of cards shuffled together with 8 decks being most commonly used, for each coup, two cards are dealt face up to each hand, starting from player and alternating between the hands. The croupier may call the total, If either Player or Banker or both achieve a total of 8 or 9 at this stage, the coup is finished and the result is announced, Player win, a Banker win, or tie. If neither hand has eight or nine, the rules are applied to determine whether Player should receive a third card. Then, based on the value of any card drawn to the player, the coup is then finished, the outcome is announced, and winning bets are paid out. If neither the Player nor Banker is dealt a total of 8 or 9 in the first two cards, the tableau is consulted, first for Players rule, then Bankers, Players rule If Player has an initial total of 0–5, he draws a third card. If Player has an total of 6 or 7, he stands. Bankers rule If Player stood pat, the banker regards only his own hand and that means Banker draws a third card with hands 0–5 and stands with 6 or 7. If Player drew a card, the Banker acts according to the following more complex rules, If Player drew a 2 or 3, Banker draws with 0–4
Baccarat (card game)
–
Baccarat pallet and cards
32.
Video poker
–
Video poker is an arcade or casino game based on five-card draw poker. It is played on a console similar in size to a slot machine. Video poker first became commercially viable when it became economical to combine a television-like monitor with a state central processing unit. The earliest models appeared at the time as the first personal computers were produced, in the mid-1970s. Video poker became more established when SIRCOMA, which stood for Si Redds Coin Machines. Throughout the 1980s, video poker became increasingly popular in casinos, today video poker enjoys a prominent place on the gaming floors of many casinos. The game is popular with Las Vegas locals, who tend to patronize locals casinos off the Las Vegas Strip. These local casinos often offer lower denomination machines or better odds, after inserting money into the machine, play begins by placing a bet of one or more credits and pressing the deal button. The player is then given 5 cards and has the opportunity to one or more of them in exchange for new ones drawn from the same virtual deck. After the draw, the machine pays out if the hand or hands played one of the winning combinations. Unlike the table version, the player may discard all 5 of their cards if they so choose. Pay tables allocate the payouts for hands and are based on how rare they are, the variation. A typical pay table starts with a hand of a pair of jacks. Some machines offer progressive jackpots, or other bonuses, thereby spurring players to both play more coins and to play more frequently. Maureen OConnor, former mayor of San Diego, lost nearly $13 million playing video poker, Video poker machines in casinos in the United States are regulated by state or Indian gaming agencies. These agencies typically require that the machines deal random card sequences using a deck of cards. This is based on a Nevada Gaming Commission regulation later adopted by states with a gaming authority. Video poker machines are tested to ensure compliance with this requirement before they are offered to the public, there are many variations of video poker
Video poker
–
Video Poker
33.
Slot machine
–
A slot machine, informally fruit machine, puggy, the slots, poker machine or simply slot, is a casino gambling machine with three or more reels which spin when a button is pushed. Many modern machines are equipped with a legacy lever in addition to the button. Slot machines include a currency detector that validates the money inserted to play, the machine pays off according to patterns of symbols visible on the front of the machine when it stops. Modern computer technology has resulted in variations on the slot machine concept, Slot machines are the most popular gambling method in casinos and constitute about 70 percent of the average US casinos income. The slot machine term derives from the slots on the machine for inserting and retrieving coins, fruit machine comes from the traditional fruit images on the spinning reels, such as lemons and cherries. Sittman and Pitt of Brooklyn, New York, U. S. developed a machine in 1891 which was a precursor to the modern slot machine. It contained five drums holding a total of 50 card faces and was based on poker and this machine proved extremely popular and soon many bars in the city had one or more of the machines. Players would insert a nickel and pull a lever, which would spin the drums and the cards they held, the player hoping for a good poker hand. To make the better for the house, two cards were typically removed from the deck, the ten of spades and the jack of hearts. The drums could also be rearranged to further reduce a players chance of winning, the bell gave the machine its name. Three bells in a row produced the biggest payoff, ten nickels, Liberty Bell was a huge success and spawned a thriving mechanical gaming device industry. Even when the use of these devices was banned in his home state after a few years. The Liberty Bell machine was so popular that it was copied by many slot machine manufacturers, thus in 1907, manufacturer Herbert Mills from Chicago produced a slot machine called the Operator Bell. By 1908 lots of bell machines were installed in most cigar stores, saloons, bowling alleys, brothels, early machines, including an 1899 Liberty Bell, are now part of the Nevada State Museums Fey Collection. Other early machines, such as the trade stimulator, gave out winnings in the form of fruit-flavoured chewing gums with pictures of the flavours as symbols on the reels, the popular cherry and melon symbols derive from this machine. The BAR symbol now common in slot machines was derived from a logo of the Bell-Fruit Gum Company. In these cases, a mint vending machine was declared to be a device because by chance the machine would occasionally give the next user a number of tokens exchangeable for more candy. Despite the fact that the result of the next use would be displayed on the machine, the courts ruled that he appealed to the players propensity to gamble
Slot machine
–
Slot machines in the
Trump Taj Mahal
Slot machine
–
1899 "Liberty Bell" machine, manufactured by Charles Fey.
Slot machine
–
Plaque marking the location of Fey's San Francisco workshop, where he invented the three-reel slot machine. The location is a
California Historical Landmark.
Slot machine
–
A row of "Wheel of Fortune" slot machines in a casino in Las Vegas. This specific slot machine is themed to the TV game show
Wheel of Fortune.
34.
Croupier
–
A croupier or dealer is someone appointed at a gambling table to assist in the conduct of the game, especially in the distribution of bets and payouts. Croupiers are typically employed by casinos, originally a croupier meant one who stood behind a gambler, with extra reserves of cash to back him up during a gambling session. The word derived from croup and was by way of analogy to one who rode behind on horseback and it later came to refer to one who was employed to collect the money from a gaming-table. Training methods to become a casino croupier vary from country to country, in North America, blackjack is almost always the game that dealers learn first, as it is simple and popular, and when the dealer makes errors, they tend not to cost the casino much money. In Europe, croupiers tend to learn roulette first, complex, busy games such as craps, with complicated payout systems, etc. are usually reserved for the most competent and/or ambitious dealers. American, Australian and British croupiers are required to apply for a gambling license and this license includes police background checks and credit rating checks, to help determine if they are eligible to commence employment. Croupiers are not permitted to deal at a casino until being issued this license, as is common with customer service staff in the United States, croupiers there depend on tips to make their wage worthwhile. While a croupier should theoretically have no personal interest in the outcome of the game, tips are often pooled and divided amongst all the staff. Fraternising with customers is frowned upon, and most casinos prevent their gambling staff from being seen smoking or even being seen in uniform outside the casino, some gambling strategies include suggestions to tip the casino dealer in order to create a good atmosphere and improve dealers mood. According to these strategies, tipping might even make the dealer shuffle the cards less frequently, Australian casinos forbid dealers from taking tips. Because casinos tend to allow smoking on the floor, American croupiers are exposed to secondhand smoke. Britain banned smoking in all places, including casinos, in 2007. Card Player magazine Day in the life story
Croupier
–
A croupier deals cards for a game of
Texas hold 'em.
35.
The Times
–
The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
The Times
–
Front page of The Times from 4 December 1788
The Times
–
Roy Thomson
The Times
–
A wounded British officer reading The Times's report of the end of the
Crimean War, in
John Everett Millais ' painting
Peace Concluded.
The Times
–
John Walter, the founder of The Times
36.
Charles Coborn
–
Charles Coborn was a British music hall singer and comedian born in Stepney, east London. He was born Colin Whitton McCallum, and adopted his name from Coborn Road. In a long career, Coborn was known largely for two songs, Two Lovely Black Eyes </ref>and The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo by Fred Gilbert. The latter song was bought for £10, but the rights were sold for £600. The song quickly became a staple of his act, and he performed it on tour in different languages throughout the world, Coborn confirmed that Gilberts inspiration was the gambler and confidence trickster Charles Wells. Wells was reported to have won one-and-a-half million francs at the Monte Carlo casino, when Gilbert first offered the song, Coborn was reluctant to adopt it. In his autobiography he states, ‘ liked the very much, especially the chorus. But when he found that he could not get the out of his head. Coborn later estimated that he had performed the song 250,000 times in the course of his career, described as a literate man of high principles, he was never fully accepted by the music hall establishment, but continued to work until the end of his long life. Tracks that he recorded in his 80s can be found on Chairmans Choice - Music Hall Greats CD, in other songs such as Should husbands work. He took up the music tradition of social comment. He appeared in the film Variety Jubilee, at the age of 91 and he is buried with his wife in Brompton Cemetery, London. His eldest son, Major Duncan McCallum, became MP for Argyll
Charles Coborn
–
As The Man Who Broke the Bank in Monte Carlo
37.
Charles Wells (gambler)
–
Charles De Ville Wells is one of the men who broke the bank at Monte Carlo, in a series of successful gambles in 1891, made famous by the song The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo. Subsequently, he was referred to, especially in the press. He was also a fraudster who used several aliases and who served four prison sentences and he was possibly the first criminal to set up a Ponzi scheme, pre-dating the swindles of Charles Ponzi himself by ten years. Charles De Ville Wells was born in Broxbourne, Hertfordshire and his father was Charles Jeremiah Wells, poet and lawyer, to whom John Keats once addressed a sonnet. His mother was Emily Jane Hill, the daughter of a Hertfordshire school teacher, Charles was the youngest of four surviving children, and the only son. When he was a few old, the family moved from their home in Broxbourne, Hertfordshire, to France, where they lived initially at Quimper. Charles Wells found employment as an engineer at the shipyards and docks of Marseille in the 1860s, there is evidence that he also worked at a sugar beet processing plant in the Ukraine and a lead mine in Spain. In 1868, he invented a device for regulating the speed of ships’ propellers, in about 1879, he moved to Paris, where he persuaded members of the public to invest in a fraudulent scheme to build a railway at Berck-sur-Mer. He disappeared with his money and was convicted in his absence by a Paris court. He relocated to Britain, where, from 1885 onwards, he persuaded members of the public to invest in what he claimed were valuable inventions of his own devising. Although he promised substantial profits, there is no evidence any of his backers ever received a return on their outlay. Wells visited the Monte Carlo Casino in late July to early August 1891, with initial stake money of £4,000, he won approximately £60,000 over these two visits and broke the bank several times. At the start of day, every gaming table in the casino was funded with a cash reserve of 100,000 francs – known as the bank. If a gambler won very large amounts, and this reserve was insufficient to pay the winnings, play at that table was suspended while extra funds were brought from the casinos vaults. In a ceremony devised by François Blanc, the owner of the casino, a black cloth was laid over the table in question. After an interval, the table was re-opened and play continued, considerable speculation arose following Wells achievements. Some newspapers dismissed his wins as a publicity stunt, but Wells claimed to have used a system he had perfected. His past record as a fraudster, on the other hand, a further possibility, however unlikely, is that he was exceptionally lucky
Charles Wells (gambler)
–
Monte Carlo Casino,
Monaco
38.
Busting Vegas
–
Busting Vegas is a 2005 book by Ben Mezrich about a group of MIT card counters and blackjack players commonly known as the MIT Blackjack Team. While represented as non-fiction by Mezrich, the book contains significant fictional elements, the book is a sequel to Bringing Down the House, however, the team discussed in Busting Vegas were primarily active prior to the team discussed in Bringing Down the House. The books protagonist, Semyon Dukach, is recruited by team leader Victor Cassius while attending MIT to play on a highly specialised blackjack team and they employ advanced advantage play strategies like card steering and Ace sequencing. The team deals with the crises of success, and one of the players develops a substance abuse problem that will prove their downfall. Semyon Dukach is a person and MIT alum. The story is based on his experiences and told from his perspective. Victor Cassius is a composite character, many of the events involving Victor appear to be drawn from the experiences of Johnny Chang including the plane crash detailed at the start of the book. Another composite character at least partly based on an MIT team member known only as Katie who appeared in the History Channel documentary Breaking Vegas, the team never got robbed by a casino executive on a golf course in Aruba. This story is based on the experiences of one of Johnny Changs associates. Semyon was not abducted at gunpoint outside a casino in Atlantic City and this story was based on an experience he had while working delivering pizzas in Houston, and had no connection to blackjack or gambling. The team that played in Monte Carlo consisted of Semyon, Andy Bloch, Semyon did reach out to a casino private investigator to help locate a teammate, but not due to drug use. There was no player on the team with whom Semyon had a romantic relationship, in fact he was married with a child at the time of the events in the book. Semyon did not at any point meet Ben Mezrich in a brothel, Ben Mezrich did not learn or use these techniques himself. Semyon demonstrated steering a 10 card for him once
Busting Vegas
–
Hardcover edition
39.
Ben Mezrich
–
Ben Mezrich is an American author from Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Mezrich was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Molli Newman, a lawyer, and Dr. Reuben Mezrich and he was raised in a conservative Jewish household and attended Princeton Day School, in Princeton, New Jersey. He graduated magna cum laude with a degree in Social Studies from Harvard University in 1991, some of his books have been written under the pseudonym Holden Scott. He is known for his non-fiction books and he has been married to Tonya M. Chen since 2006. Mezrich is best known for his first non-fiction work, Bringing Down the House, the story was made into the movie 21, released in 2008. In 2004, Mezrich published a new book called Ugly Americans, also a nonfiction work, this book recounts the exploits of an American named John Malcolm, who was an assistant securities trader. In 2005 Mezrich published Busting Vegas, The MIT Whiz Kid Who Brought the Casinos to Their Knees a semi-sequel to Bringing Down the House. The book tells the story of another student involved in a similar Blackjack team, as with Bringing Down the House many of the events depicted in Busting Vegas were later contested by main character Semyon Dukach who described the book as only about half true. Mezrich published a new book in July 2009 about Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, titled The Accidental Billionaires, The Founding Of Facebook, A Tale of Sex, Money, Genius, and Betrayal. It debuted at No.4 on the New York Times Nonfiction Bestseller List, aaron Sorkin adapted the book for the screenplay of the film The Social Network, which was released on October 1,2010. It was directed by David Fincher and stars Jesse Eisenberg as Mark Zuckerberg,2014 saw the release of Seven Wonders, Mezrichs first novel since The Carrier in 2001. Seven Wonders is a thriller involving murder, conspiracy, historical mystery. In it, the brother of a murdered mathematician takes a far-flung journey—from Brazil, India, Peru, publishers Weekly writes that Mezrich has written a rollicking adventure with a fantastic behind-the-scenes tour of some of the worlds most intriguing spots. He also represented Massachusetts as a contestant in the Sexiest Bachelor in America Pageant on Fox in 2000, fatal Error is a TBS premiere movie adaptation of his second book, Reaper, starring Antonio Sabato, Jr. and Robert Wagner. Skin was originally written as an X-Files episode, rigged was optioned by Mark Cubans 2929 as well as Q, a work of fiction by Mezrich. Ugly Americans has been optioned by Summit, with a written by Robert Schenkkan, Pulitzer Prize-winning writer of The Quiet American. Official website Ben Mezrich at the Internet Movie Database Poker Moments Interview, September 24,2010 Appearances on C-SPAN In Depth interview with Mezrich, November 6,2011
Ben Mezrich
–
Mezrich in 2011
40.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Stereographic card showing an MIT mechanical drafting studio, 19th century (photo by
E.L. Allen, left/right inverted)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
A 1905 map of MIT's Boston campus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
Plaque in Building 6 honoring
George Eastman, founder of
Eastman Kodak, who was revealed as the anonymous "Mr. Smith" who helped maintain MIT's independence
41.
Semyon Dukach
–
Semyon Dukach is Managing Director of Techstars in Boston. He is also known as a top angel investor, the Chairman of SMTP, Dukach was the main character in Busting Vegas and the only member of the MIT blackjack team to be referred to by his real name in either book. Born on 25 October 1968 in Moscow, Dukach moved to the US in 1979 at the age of 11 and he completed a BS in Computer Science at Columbia University in New York in 1990 and a MS in Computer Science at MIT in Boston in 1993. At a young age Semyon developed an interest in video games, Semyon became proficient at the game by reading Ken Ustons Mastering PAC-MAN. This led him to read Ustons other titles on blackjack, giving him an understanding of the basics of card counting before he was approached to play with the MIT Blackjack Team. While attending MIT, Dukach was trained as a player on the MIT Blackjack team whose exploits were loosely depicted in the Hollywood movie 21, starting out with Strategic Investments in 1992, Dukach was a major player on the team. At the end of 1993 SI dissolved and Semyon was involved in an effort with the remaining players from SI for the next year. By 1995 Dukach and a few players split off from that team and formed a second and this new team was referred to as the Amphibians and the team that they left was referred to as the Reptiles. Since stopping play in the late 1990s, Dukachs involvement in blackjack has been limited, xconomy lists Semyon as a top Angel Investor in New England. According to his website, he has invested in over 100 start up companies, as of March 2014, Dukach is the Managing Director of the Techstars startup accelerator in Boston. Director, Boston TechStars, starting March 2014, Dukach is the brother of Inna Dukach the opera singer married to Sean Altman, former front man of Rockapella
Semyon Dukach
–
Semyon Dukach
42.
Andy Bloch
–
Andrew Elliot Bloch is a professional poker player. He holds two electrical engineering degrees from MIT and a JD from Harvard Law School, while studying at MIT, Bloch became part of the MIT blackjack team, featured in the book Bringing Down the House. Bloch said he has made up to $100,000 in one session while playing blackjack and he was one of the members of the team to play in Monte Carlo as detailed in Ben Mezrichs Busting Vegas. Bloch was featured in the blackjack documentary The Hot Shoe, as well as starring in his own instructional blackjack DVD, Beating Blackjack, Bloch started playing poker seriously in 1992, entering some small $35 weekly tournaments once a month. By the end of the year, he had won one of the World Poker Finals tournaments and that was the first time he ever played no-limit Texas hold em. In 1997, he skipped the last week of law school classes to play in the World Series of Poker Main Event and he was the guinea pig in a low-tech hole card cam trial. Tom Sims was looking for a volunteer to sweat and record all his hole cards and his records turned into a 2-part CardPlayer Magazine article. After passing the bar exam in 1999, he decided to delay his law career, in 2005 Bloch chose to boycott the WPT in protest to its player release process. Bloch returned to the WPT after a lawsuit initiated by seven high-profile poker players, including Chris Ferguson, Bloch was the second season winner of the Ultimate Poker Challenge. He was a member of Team Full Tilt at Full Tilt Poker prior to the closing down. At the 2006 World Series of Poker, Bloch finished 2nd in the $50,000 H. O. R. S. E. Event when his 9♣ 8♠ failed to improve against David Chip Reeses A♣ Q♣ in the final hand, the heads-up battle lasted 286 hands and was the longest recorded in WSOP history. In 2006, he defeated Phil Laak heads up to win the Pro-Am Poker Equalizer taking in the prize of $500,000. The tournament was broadcast in early 2007 on ESPN, in March 2008, Andy Bloch finished runner-up to Chris Ferguson in the NBC National Heads-Up Poker Championship. He would defeat Ferguson later that year in Season 5 of Poker After Dark, Bloch finished runner-up to Nenad Medić in the $10,000 Pot-Limit Holdem World Championship at the 2008 World Series of Poker, earning $488,048. As of 2009, his live tournament winnings exceed $4,200,000. His 24 cashes as the WSOP account for $2,149,821 of those winnings, Bloch won his first WSOP bracelet on June 2,2012 in a $1,500 Seven Card Stud event. The event started with 367 players and ended with a table that included David Williams
Andy Bloch
–
Andy Bloch in the
2007 World Series of Poker
43.
Identity document
–
An identity document is any document which may be used to prove a persons identity. If issued in a small, standard credit card size form, some countries issue formal identity documents, while others may require identity verification using informal documents. When the identity document incorporates a persons photograph, it may be called photo ID, in the absence of a formal identity document, a drivers license may be accepted in many countries for identity verification. Some countries do not accept drivers licenses for identification, often because in countries they do not expire as documents. Most countries accept passports as a form of identification, some countries require all people to have an identity document available at any time. Many countries require all foreigners to have a passport or occasionally a national identity card from their country available at any time if they do not have a permit in the country. The identity document is used to connect a person to information about the person, the photo and the possession of it is used to connect the person with the document. A unique national identification number is the most secure way, a version of the passport considered to be the earliest identity document inscribed into law was introduced by King Henry V of England with the Safe Conducts Act 1414. For the next 500 years and before World War I, most people did not have or need an identity document, both Australia and Great Britain, for example, introduced the requirement for a photographic passport in 1915 after the so-called Lody spy scandal. The shape and size of identity cards were standardized in 1985 by ISO/IEC7810, some modern identity documents are smart cards including a difficult-to-forge embedded integrated circuit, that were standardized in 1988 by ISO/IEC7816. New technologies allow identity cards to contain information, such as photographs, face, hand or iris measurements. Electronic identity cards are available in countries including Belgium, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Guatemala, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Morocco, Portugal. Law enforcement officials claim that identity cards make surveillance and the search for criminals easier, in countries that dont have a national identity card, there is, however, concern about the projected large costs and potential abuse of high-tech smartcards. There is debate in these countries about whether such cards and their centralised database would constitute an infringement of privacy, most criticism is directed towards the enhanced possibilities of extensive abuse of centralised and comprehensive databases storing sensitive data. None of the countries listed above mandate possession of identity documents, for example, all vehicle drivers must have a driving licence, and young people may need to use specially issued proof of age cards when purchasing alcohol. Arguments for identity documents as such, In order to avoid mismatching people, Every human being already carries their own personal identification in the form of DNA, which is extremely hard to falsify or to discard. For example, in Sweden private companies such as banks refused to issue ID cards to individuals without a Swedish card and this forced the government to start issuing national cards. It is also hard to control information usage by private companies
Identity document
–
Old South African identity card issued to a permanent resident (PR).
Identity document
–
Sample of the second generation ID card issued in
China
Identity document
–
Hong Kong Permanent ID card
Identity document
–
Frontside of ID card issued in
Taiwan
44.
Monte Carlo methods
–
Monte Carlo methods are a broad class of computational algorithms that rely on repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results. Their essential idea is using randomness to solve problems that might be deterministic in principle and they are often used in physical and mathematical problems and are most useful when it is difficult or impossible to use other approaches. Monte Carlo methods are used in three distinct problem classes, optimization, numerical integration, and generating draws from a probability distribution. In principle, Monte Carlo methods can be used to any problem having a probabilistic interpretation. By the law of numbers, integrals described by the expected value of some random variable can be approximated by taking the empirical mean of independent samples of the variable. When the probability distribution of the variable is parametrized, mathematicians often use a Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampler, the central idea is to design a judicious Markov chain model with a prescribed stationary probability distribution. That is, in the limit, the samples being generated by the MCMC method will be samples from the desired distribution, by the ergodic theorem, the stationary distribution is approximated by the empirical measures of the random states of the MCMC sampler. In other problems, the objective is generating draws from a sequence of probability distributions satisfying a nonlinear evolution equation, in other instances we are given a flow of probability distributions with an increasing level of sampling complexity. These models can also be seen as the evolution of the law of the states of a nonlinear Markov chain. In contrast with traditional Monte Carlo and Markov chain Monte Carlo methodologies these mean field particle techniques rely on sequential interacting samples, the terminology mean field reflects the fact that each of the samples interacts with the empirical measures of the process. Monte Carlo methods vary, but tend to follow a particular pattern, generate inputs randomly from a probability distribution over the domain. Perform a deterministic computation on the inputs, for example, consider a circle inscribed in a unit square. Given that the circle and the square have a ratio of areas that is π/4, uniformly scatter objects of uniform size over the square. Count the number of objects inside the circle and the number of objects. The ratio of the two counts is an estimate of the ratio of the two areas, which is π/4, multiply the result by 4 to estimate π. In this procedure the domain of inputs is the square that circumscribes our circle and we generate random inputs by scattering grains over the square then perform a computation on each input. Finally, we aggregate the results to obtain our final result, there are two important points to consider here, Firstly, if the grains are not uniformly distributed, then our approximation will be poor. Secondly, there should be a number of inputs
Monte Carlo methods
–
Computational physics
45.
Random
–
Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events. A random sequence of events, symbols or steps has no order, individual random events are by definition unpredictable, but in many cases the frequency of different outcomes over a large number of events is predictable. For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome, rather than haphazardness, and applies to concepts of chance, probability, the fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal definitions of randomness. In statistics, a variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events, Random variables can appear in random sequences. A random process is a sequence of variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern. These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the applications of randomness. Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties, Monte Carlo methods, which rely on random input, are important techniques in science, as, for instance, in computational science. By analogy, quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasirandom number generators, Random selection is a method of selecting items from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population. For example, with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles, note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable and that is, if the selection process is such that each member of a population, of say research subjects, has the same probability of being chosen then we can say the selection process is random. In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate, many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. Most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness, the Chinese of 3000 years ago were perhaps the earliest people to formalize odds and chance. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms and it was only in the 16th century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of the calculus had a impact on the formal study of randomness. The early part of the 20th century saw a growth in the formal analysis of randomness. In the mid- to late-20th century, ideas of information theory introduced new dimensions to the field via the concept of algorithmic randomness
Random
–
Ancient
fresco of dice players in
Pompei.
Random
–
A pseudorandomly generated
bitmap.
Random
–
The ball in a
roulette can be used as a source of apparent randomness, because its behavior is very sensitive to the initial conditions.
46.
Sampling (statistics)
–
Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population. Each observation measures one or more properties of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals, in survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide the practice, in business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population. Acceptance sampling is used to determine if a lot of material meets the governing specifications. In sampling, this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn, a population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wishes to understand. Because there is rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population. Sometimes what defines a population is obvious, in this case, the batch is the population. Although the population of interest often consists of objects, sometimes we need to sample over time, space. For the time dimension, the focus may be on periods or discrete occasions, in other cases, our population may be even less tangible. For example, Joseph Jagger studied the behaviour of roulette wheels at a casino in Monte Carlo, in this case, the population Jagger wanted to investigate was the overall behaviour of the wheel, while his sample was formed from observed results from that wheel. Similar considerations arise when taking repeated measurements of some characteristic such as the electrical conductivity of copper. This situation often arises when we seek knowledge about the system of which the observed population is an outcome. In such cases, sampling theory may treat the population as a sample from a larger superpopulation. Here the superpopulation is everybody in the country, given access to this treatment – a group which does not yet exist, note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not be the same as the population about which we actually want information. Often there is large but not complete overlap between two groups due to frame issues etc. However, in the general case this is not usually possible or practical. There is no way to identify all rats in the set of all rats, where voting is not compulsory, there is no way to identify which people will actually vote at a forthcoming election. These imprecise populations are not amenable to sampling in any of the ways below, as a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can identify every single element and include any in our sample
Sampling (statistics)
–
A visual representation of the sampling process.
47.
Algorithm
–
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a self-contained sequence of actions to be performed. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks, an algorithm is an effective method that can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic, some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem. In English, it was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term, but it wasnt until the late 19th century that algorithm took on the meaning that it has in modern English. Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled Carmen de Algorismo composed by Alexandre de Villedieu and it begins thus, Haec algorismus ars praesens dicitur, in qua / Talibus Indorum fruimur bis quinque figuris. Which translates as, Algorism is the art by which at present we use those Indian figures, the poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new style of Indian dice, or Talibus Indorum, or Hindu numerals. An informal definition could be a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations, which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. Generally, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually, but humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets, They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. An enumerably infinite set is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers, the concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a set of axioms. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, from such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete and abstract usage of the term. Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data, thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments, in its favor are hard to refute. Gurevich. Turings informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis, according to Savage, an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine. Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from a source, written to an output device. Stored data are regarded as part of the state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures, for some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined, specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be dealt with, case-by-case
Algorithm
–
Alan Turing's statue at
Bletchley Park.
Algorithm
–
Logical NAND algorithm implemented electronically in
7400 chip
48.
James Bond
–
The James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections. The latest novel is Trigger Mortis by Anthony Horowitz, published in September 2015, additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond, and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character, Moneypenny. The character has also adapted for television, radio, comic strip, video games. As of 2017, there have been twenty-four films in the Eon Productions series, the most recent Bond film, Spectre, stars Daniel Craig in his fourth portrayal of Bond, he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series. There have also two independent productions of Bond films, Casino Royale and Never Say Never Again. In 2015, the franchise was estimated to be worth $19.9 billion, the Bond films are renowned for a number of features, including the musical accompaniment, with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions, and two wins. Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bonds cars, his guns, the films are also noted for Bonds relationships with various women, who are sometimes referred to as Bond girls. Ian Fleming created the character of James Bond as the central figure for his works. Bond is an officer in the Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6. Bond is known by his number,007, and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander. Among those types were his brother, Peter, who had involved in behind-the-lines operations in Norway. Aside from Flemings brother, a number of others also provided some aspects of Bonds make up, including Conrad OBrien-ffrench, Patrick Dalzel-Job and Bill Biffy Dunderdale. The name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies. He further explained that, When I wrote the first one in 1953, I wanted Bond to be a dull, uninteresting man to whom things happened. When I was casting around for a name for my protagonist I thought by God, is the dullest name I ever heard. On another occasion, Fleming said, I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, James Bond was much better than something more interesting, like Peregrine Carruthers. Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure—an anonymous, likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is certainly good-looking. Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way and that black hair falling down over the right eyebrow
James Bond
–
Ian Fleming 's image of James Bond; commissioned to aid the
Daily Express comic strip artists.
James Bond
–
Hoagy Carmichael —Fleming's view of James Bond
James Bond
–
Goldeneye, in Jamaica, where Fleming wrote all the Bond novels
James Bond
–
John McLusky's rendition of James Bond.
49.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
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