1.
18th arrondissement of Paris
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The 18th arrondissement, located on the Rive Droite, is one of the 20 arrondissements of Paris, France. It is mostly known for hosting the district of Montmartre, which contains a hill dominated by the Sacré Cœur basilica, along with the house of music diva Dalida and well known Moulin Rouge cabaret. The 18th arrondissement also contains the African and North African district of Goutte dOr which is famous for its market, the marché Barbès, the land area of this arrondissement is exactly 6.005 km2. The population of Pariss 18th arrondissement peaked in 1931 with 288,810 inhabitants, today, the arrondissement remains very dense in population and business activity with 184,586 inhabitants and 70,285 jobs as of the most recent census. In 2012 John Henley of The Guardian said the 18th arrondissement was a comparable in many ways to Londons Tower Hamlets. Montmartre Pigalle Goutte dOr, a neighborhood in the arrondissement Quartier de La Chapelle Dailymotion formerly had its headquarters in the arrondissement. In addition, Dargaud also has its headquarters there, 18th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage
2.
Montparnasse cemetery
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Montparnasse Cemetery is a cemetery in the Montparnasse quarter of Paris, part of the citys 14th arrondissement. Created from three farms in 1824, the cemetery at Montparnasse was originally known as Le Cimetière du Sud, cemeteries had been banned from Paris since the closure, owing to health concerns, of the Cimetière des Innocents in 1786. At the heart of the city, and today sitting in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower, is Passy Cemetery, Montparnasse Cemetery is the resting place of many of Frances intellectual and artistic elite as well as publishers and others who promoted the works of authors and artists. There are also graves of foreigners who have made France their home, as well as monuments to police. The cemetery is divided by Rue Émile Richard, the small section is usually referred to as the small cemetery and the large section as the big cemetery. Although Baudelaire is buried in this cemetery, there is also a cenotaph to him, because of the many notable people buried there, it is a highly popular tourist attraction. Divisions 5 and 30 were originally Jewish enclosures and contain many Jewish graves, the main entrance to the cemetery is on Boulevard Edgar Quinet which leads to the big cemetery. There are smaller entrances to both the big and small cemeteries on Rue Émile Richard, list of burials at Montparnasse Cemetery A list of many buried at the cemetery Montparnasse Cemetery at Find a Grave Information and help in touring Montparnasse cemetery In English
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Passy Cemetery
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Passy Cemetery is a cemetery in Passy, in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France. The current cemetery replaced the old cemetery, which was closed in 1802, in the early 19th century, on the orders of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, all the cemeteries in Paris were replaced by several large new ones outside the precincts of the capital. Montmartre Cemetery was built in the north, Père Lachaise Cemetery in the east, Passy Cemetery was a later addition, but has its origins in the same edict. The current entrance was built in 1934, the retaining wall of the cemetery is adorned with a bas relief commemorating the soldiers who fell in World War I. Opened in 1820 in the residential and commercial districts of the Right Bank near the Champs-Élysées. It is the cemetery in Paris to have a heated waiting-room. Sheltered by a bower of trees, the cemetery is in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower. The cemetery was once the home of a statue by Dunikowski titled The Soul Escaping the Body and it was on top of the ceremonial grave of Antoni Cierplikowski. The statue was known by many but was removed when the grave was cleared in 2004 and it is known as a small but well visited cemetery. Natalie Clifford Barney, Notable author, salonist and lesbian socialite of the Belle Époque, the entrance of the cemetery is located at 2, Rue du Commandant Schlœsing. The street in which it is situated is named for a Free French pilot, Squadron Leader Jacques-Henri Schlœsing, who flew with the wartime RAF until killed in action, the cemetery is behind the Trocadéro. Passy Cemetery on the Mairie de Paris website Passy Cemetery on the Cimetiéres de France et dAilleurs website Information, photographs of Passy cemetery Documenting funerary statuary in Paris cemeteries, on pariscemeteries. com
4.
Montparnasse Cemetery
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Montparnasse Cemetery is a cemetery in the Montparnasse quarter of Paris, part of the citys 14th arrondissement. Created from three farms in 1824, the cemetery at Montparnasse was originally known as Le Cimetière du Sud, cemeteries had been banned from Paris since the closure, owing to health concerns, of the Cimetière des Innocents in 1786. At the heart of the city, and today sitting in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower, is Passy Cemetery, Montparnasse Cemetery is the resting place of many of Frances intellectual and artistic elite as well as publishers and others who promoted the works of authors and artists. There are also graves of foreigners who have made France their home, as well as monuments to police. The cemetery is divided by Rue Émile Richard, the small section is usually referred to as the small cemetery and the large section as the big cemetery. Although Baudelaire is buried in this cemetery, there is also a cenotaph to him, because of the many notable people buried there, it is a highly popular tourist attraction. Divisions 5 and 30 were originally Jewish enclosures and contain many Jewish graves, the main entrance to the cemetery is on Boulevard Edgar Quinet which leads to the big cemetery. There are smaller entrances to both the big and small cemeteries on Rue Émile Richard, list of burials at Montparnasse Cemetery A list of many buried at the cemetery Montparnasse Cemetery at Find a Grave Information and help in touring Montparnasse cemetery In English
5.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
6.
Place de Clichy
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The Place de Clichy, also known as Place Clichy, is situated in the northwestern quadrant of Paris. It is formed by the intersection of the Boulevard de Clichy, the Avenue Clichy, the Rue Clichy, the Boulevard des Batignolles, and the Rue dAmsterdam. It lies at the site of the barrière de Clichy. The Place de Clichy is one of the few places in Paris where four arrondissements meet at a single point, the Place de Clichy is also unusual in that it has been untouched by urban planners. This explains the heterogeneous façades of the buildings in the area, the Place de Clichy has the character of a substantial crossroads, rather than that of a real place. Surrounding the Place de Clichy is an array of shops, restaurants. It is a hive of activity, both day and night, in March 1814, at the close of the First French Empire,800,000 soldiers of various foreign armies marched on Paris. After breaking through the barriers at Belleville and Pantin, they took the hill of Montmartre, Paris was protected in the north from Clichy to Neuilly, by 70,000 men of the garde nationale. In the face of the enemy, the Maréchal de Moncey defended the barrière de Clichy. A six-metre-tall bronze statue, executed by Amédée Doublemard and dedicated to de Moncey, the Place de Clichy is, It is served by lines 2 and 13. Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens Tramways in Paris Internet portal Official nomenclature of Parisian roads
7.
Montmartre
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Montmartre is a large hill in Pariss 18th arrondissement. It is 130 m high and gives its name to the surrounding district, Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro, with line 2 stations at Anvers, Pigalle, and Blanche and line 12 stations at Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt, texts from the 8th century cite the name of mons Mercori, and a 9th-century text speaks of Mount Mars. Excavations in 1975 north of the Church of Saint-Pierre found coins from the 3rd century, earlier excavations in the 17th century at the Fontaine-du-But found vestiges of Roman baths from the 2nd century. According to Hilduin, Denis collected his head and carried it as far as the fontaine Saint-Denis, then descended the slope of the hill. Hilduin wrote that a church had built in the place formerly called Mont de Mars. In 1134, king Louis VI purchased the Merovingian chapel and built on the site the church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre and he also founded The Royal Abbey of Montmartre, a monastery of the Benedictine order, whose buildings, gardens and fields occupied most of Montmartre. He also built a chapel, called the Martyrium, at the site where it was believed that Saint Denis had been decapitated. It became a pilgrimage site. In the 17th century, a priory called abbaye den bas was built at that site, the abbey was destroyed in 1790 during the French Revolution, and the convent demolished to make place for gypsum mines. The church of Saint-Pierre was saved, at the place where the chapel of the Martyrs was located, an oratory was built in 1855. By the 15th century, the north and northeast slopes of the hill were the site of a surrounded by vineyards, gardens and orchards of peach. The first mills were built on the slope in 1529, grinding wheat, barley. The siege eventually failed when a relief force approached and forced Henry to withdraw. In 1790, Montmartre was located just outside the limits of Paris and that year, under the revolutionary government of the National Constituent Assembly, it became the commune of Montmartre, with its town hall located on place du Tertre, site of the former abbey. The main businesses of the commune were wine making, stone quarries, the mining of gypsum had begun in the Gallo-Roman period, first in open air mines and then underground, and continued until 1860. The gypsum was cut into blocks, baked, then ground, sold as montmartarite, it was used for plaster, because of its resistance to fire and water
8.
Adolphe Adam
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Adolphe Charles Adam was a French composer and music critic. Later set to different English lyrics and widely sung as O Holy Night, Adam was a noted teacher, who taught Delibes and other influential composers. Adolphe Adam was born in Paris, to Jean-Louis Adam, who was a prominent Alsatian composer and his mother was the daughter of a physician. As a child, Adolphe Adam preferred to improvise music on his own rather than study music seriously and occasionally truanted with writer Eugène Sue who was something of a dunce in early years. Jean-Louis Adam was a pianist and teacher but was set against the idea of his son following in his footsteps. Adam was determined, however, and studied and composed secretly under the tutelage of his older friend Ferdinand Hérold, a popular composer of the day. When Adam was 17, his father relented, and he was permitted to study at the Paris Conservatoire—but only after he promised that he would learn music only as an amusement, not as a career. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1821, where he studied organ and harmonium under the celebrated opera composer François-Adrien Boieldieu. Adam also played the timpani in the orchestra of the Conservatoire, however, he did not win the Prix de Rome and his father did not encourage him to pursue a music career, as he won second prize. By age 20, he was writing songs for Paris vaudeville houses and playing in the orchestra at the Gymnasie Dramatique, like many other French composers, he made a living largely by playing the organ. In 1825, he helped Boieldieu prepare parts for his opera La dame blanche, Adam was able to travel through Europe with the money he made, and he met Eugène Scribe, with whom he later collaborated, in Geneva. By 1830, he had completed twenty-eight works for the theatre, Adam is probably best remembered for the ballet Giselle. He wrote several ballets and 39 operas, including Le postillon de Lonjumeau. After quarreling with the director of the Opéra, Adam invested his money and borrowed heavily to open a fourth house in Paris. It opened in 1847, but closed because of the Revolution of 1848 and his efforts to extricate himself from these debts include a brief turn to journalism. From 1849 to his death in Paris, he taught composition at the Paris Conservatoire. His Christmas carol Cantique de Noël, translated to English as O Holy Night, is an international favorite, Cantique de Noel is based on a poem written by M. Cappeau de Roquemaure. Adam is buried in Montmartre Cemetery in Paris, List of operas by Adam List of ballets by Adolphe Adam
9.
Charles-Valentin Alkan
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Charles-Valentin Alkan was a French-Jewish composer and virtuoso pianist. Alkan earned many awards at the Conservatoire de Paris, which he entered before he was six and his career in the salons and concert halls of Paris was marked by his occasional long withdrawals from public performance, for personal reasons. During this period he published, among other works, his collections of studies in all the major keys. The latter includes his Symphony for Solo Piano and Concerto for Solo Piano, Alkan emerged from self-imposed retirement in the 1870s to give a series of recitals that were attended by a new generation of French musicians. Alkans attachment to his Jewish origins is displayed both in his life and his work and he was the first composer to incorporate Jewish melodies in art music. Fluent in Hebrew and Greek, he devoted time to a complete new translation of the Bible into French. This work, like many of his compositions, is now lost. Alkan never married, but his presumed son Élie-Miriam Delaborde was, like Alkan, following his death Alkans music became neglected, supported by only a few musicians including Ferruccio Busoni, Egon Petri and Kaikhosru Sorabji. From the late 1960s onwards, led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith, many pianists have recorded his music, Alkan was born Charles-Valentin Morhange on 30 November 1813 at 1, Rue de Braque in Paris to Alkan Morhange and Julie Morhange, née Abraham. Alkan Morhange was descended from a long-established Jewish Ashkenazic community in the region of Metz, Charles-Valentin was the second of six children – one elder sister and four younger brothers, his birth certificate indicates that he was named after a neighbour who witnessed the birth. Alkan Morhange supported the family as a musician and later as the proprietor of a music school in le Marais. At an early age, Charles-Valentin and his siblings adopted their fathers first name as their last. His brother Napoléon became professor of solfège at the Conservatoire, his brother Maxim had a career writing music for Parisian theatres. His brother Ernest was a professional flautist, while the youngest brother Gustave was to publish various dances for the piano and he entered the Conservatoire de Paris at an unusually early age, and studied both piano and organ. The records of his auditions survive in the Archives Nationales in Paris, at his solfège audition on 3 July 1819, when he was just over 5 years 7 months, the examiners noted Alkan as having a pretty little voice. The profession of Alkan Morhange is given as music-paper ruler, at Charles-Valentins piano audition on 6 October 1820, when he was nearly seven, the examiners comment This child has amazing abilities. Alkan became a favourite of his teacher at the Conservatoire, Joseph Zimmermann, who also taught Georges Bizet, César Franck, Charles Gounod, at the age of seven, Alkan won a first prize for solfège and in later years prizes in piano, harmony, and organ. At the age of seven-and-a-half he gave his first public performance, appearing as a violinist and playing an air, Alkans Opus 1, a set of variations for piano based on a theme by Daniel Steibelt, dates from 1828, when he was 14 years old
10.
Ampere
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The ampere, often shortened to amp, is a unit of electric current. In the International System of Units the ampere is one of the seven SI base units and it is named after André-Marie Ampère, French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics. SI defines the ampere in terms of base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second, in SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second. In the future, the SI definition may shift back to charge as the base unit, ampères force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the definition of the ampere. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere, conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second,1 A =1 C s. In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = It, constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs. The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt to the joule, the ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized. The international ampere was a realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit 0.001118 grams of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is 0.99985 A, at present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 107, and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm and the volt. Rather than a definition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has proposed that the ampere should be defined in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges. Since a coulomb is equal to 6. 2415093×1018 elementary charges. The proposed change would define 1 A as being the current in the direction of flow of a number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures agreed to study the proposed change, the new definition was discussed at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted. The current drawn by typical constant-voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power consumed by the system, for this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level
11.
Benjamin Ball (physician)
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Benjamin Ball was an English-born French psychiatrist, Professor of Mental Medicine in the Paris Faculty. He was born at Naples, his father being an Englishman and he became a naturalised Frenchman in 1849, and spent the whole of his professional life in Paris. He studied medicine under Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours and Jean-Martin Charcot and was an assistant of Charles Lasègue at the Salpêtrière Hospital, during his internat he was Laureate of the Academy of Medicine. He became doctor of medicine in 1862, in 1877 Benjamin Ball was the first to be appointed to the Clinical Chair of Mental and Cerebral Diseases in the Paris Faculty, to the detriment of his rival Valentin Magnan. In collaboration with Jules Bernard Luys, he founded in 1881 the journal LEncéphale, Ball is the author of numerous works relating to mental diseases such as On erotic insanity, and On persecution deliria (Du délire des persécutions, as well as Lessons on Mental Illnesses. In 1885, he published a trail-blazing treatrise On morphinomania, in which he evidenced the toxic effects of cocaine which were not absolutely acknowledged at the time, obituary of Benjamin Ball, M. D. in the British Medical Journal. Following Charcot, a Forgotten History of Neurology and Psychiatry, works by or about Benjamin Ball at Internet Archive
12.
Michel Berger
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Michel Berger was a French singer and songwriter. He was a figure of Frances pop music scene for two decades both as a singer and as a songwriter for French artists like his wife France Gall, Françoise Hardy and he died of a heart attack at the age of 44. Berger was born as Michel Jean Hamburger on 28 November 1947 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, the son of the famous doctor Jean Hamburger and Annette Haas, a concert pianist of Swiss-Jewish origin. In the early 1970s, he moved to Warner Music where he produced the albums of Véronique Sanson. In 1973, he was responsible for producing the album Message personnel and he also produced the single Je suis moi for Hardy. Berger started writing for France Gall in 1974, produced all her albums from 1975 on, in 1978, he composed the musical, Starmania, with lyrics by Luc Plamondon. The musical starred Gall, Claude Dubois, Daniel Balavoine, Diane Dufresne, Nanette Workman, Éric Estève and it was a big success in France in the 1980s and 1990s. An English version, entitled Tycoon, was released in 1991 with lyrics by Tim Rice, unfortunately, the two musicals Berger worked on immediately after Starmania did not fare well. In 1980, Berger partnered with producer Jérôme Savary and lyricist Luc Plamondon to produce the musical La Légende de Jimmy, though the show itself never saw the light of day, the album was nevertheless released in 1982. The album was a flop, and is not generally known outside of a few fansites. In 1985, Berger produced Johnny Hallydays album Rock n Roll Attitude, in 1987, Berger produced Galls album Babacar, as well as the show for her related tour. Opening at Le Zénith, and then continuing throughout Europe, the show gave rise to France Galls live album Le Tour de France 88. He is also known for his Orangina advertisement jingle, on 2 August 1992, a few weeks after the release of his first album of duets with France Gall, Michel Berger suffered a fatal heart attack after a tennis match at Ramatuelle. His untimely death came as a shock to people because he had been one of the most popular French singer-songwriters of the 1970s and 1980s. Moreover, unlike many pop stars, he came across as a nice and simple man, more interested in music, as a matter of fact, his marriage with Gall was remarkably stable. He is buried in Paris close in the cemetery of Montmartre with his daughter Pauline who died in 1997 aged only 19 and he is the father of French music supervisor, Raphael Hamburger. com website Selective Quelques mots damour Seras-tu là. Berger played the role of Chef des explosifs, whereas Fugain and Sardou appeared as student protestors
13.
Hector Berlioz
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Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss. Hector Berlioz was born in France at La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, Louis was an agnostic, with a liberal outlook, his mother, Marie-Antoinette, was a devout Roman Catholic. He had five siblings in all, three of whom did not survive to adulthood, the other two, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout his life. Berlioz was not a prodigy, unlike some other famous composers of the time, he began studying music at age 12, writing small compositions. As a result of his fathers discouragement, he never learned to play the piano and he became proficient at guitar, flageolet and flute. He learned harmony from textbooks alone—he was not formally trained, the majority of his early compositions were romances and chamber pieces. While yet at age twelve, as recalled in his Mémoires, he experienced his first passion for a woman and he also began to visit the Paris Conservatoire library, seeking out scores of Glucks operas and making personal copies of parts of them. He recalled in his Mémoires his first encounter with Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini attempted to throw the impetuous Berlioz out of the library since he was not a formal music student at that time. Berlioz also heard two operas by Gaspare Spontini, a composer who influenced him through their friendship, and whom he later championed when working as a critic, from then on, he devoted himself to composition. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Jean-François Le Sueur, director of the Royal Chapel, in 1823, he wrote his first article—a letter to the journal Le corsaire defending Spontinis La vestale. Despite his parents disapproval, in 1824 he formally abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. This work was rehearsed and revised after the rehearsal but not performed until the following year, Berlioz later claimed to have burnt the score, but it was re-discovered in 1991. Later that year or in 1825, he began to compose the opera Les francs-juges, the work survives only in fragments, the overture has been much recorded and is sometimes played in concert. In 1826 he began attending the Conservatoire to study composition under Jean-François Le Sueur and he also submitted a fugue to the Prix de Rome, but was eliminated in the primary round. Winning the prize would become an obsession until he won it in 1830
14.
La Marseillaise
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La Marseillaise is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin. The Marseillaise was a song, an anthem to freedom, a patriotic call to mobilize all the citizens. The French National Convention adopted it as the Republics anthem in 1795 and it acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching to the capital. The song is the first example of the European march anthemic style, the anthems evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music. As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries, the War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. Initially, the French army did not distinguish itself, and Coalition armies invaded France and that evening, Rouget de Lisle wrote Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin, and dedicated the song to Marshal Nicolas Luckner, a Bavarian in French service from Cham. A plaque on the building on Place Broglie where De Dietrichs house once stood commemorates the event. The melody soon became the call to the French Revolution and was adopted as La Marseillaise after the melody was first sung on the streets by volunteers from Marseille by the end of May. A newly graduated medical doctor, Mireur later became a general under Napoléon Bonaparte, the songs lyric reflects the invasion of France by foreign armies that were under way when it was written. Strasbourg itself was attacked just a few days later, the invading forces were repulsed from France following their defeat in the Battle of Valmy. As the vast majority of Alsatians did not speak French, a German version was published in October 1792 in Colmar, the Convention accepted it as the French national anthem in a decree passed on 14 July 1795, making it Frances first anthem. It later lost this status under Napoleon I, and the song was banned outright by Louis XVIII and Charles X, only being re-instated briefly after the July Revolution of 1830. During Napoleon Is reign, Veillons au Salut de lEmpire was the anthem of the regime. Eight years later, in 1879, it was restored as Frances national anthem, several musical antecedents have been cited for the melody, Mozarts Allegro maestoso of Piano Concerto No. Only the first verse and the first chorus are sung today in France, there are some slight historical variations in the lyrics of the song, the following is the version listed at the official website of the French Presidency. Verses sung in the version of the anthem are in bold. The United States Library of Congress holds the following English translation and these verses were omitted from the national anthem
15.
Lili Boulanger
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A Parisian-born child prodigy, Boulangers talent was apparent at the age of two, when Gabriel Fauré, a friend of the family and later one of Boulangers teachers, discovered she had perfect pitch. Her parents, both of whom were musicians, encouraged their daughters musical education and her father was 77 years old when Lili was born and she became very attached to him. Her mother, Raissa Myshetskaya, was a Russian princess who married her Paris Conservatoire teacher and her grandfather Frédéric Boulanger had been a noted cellist and her grandmother Juliette a singer. She also sang and played piano, violin, cello and harp and her teachers included Marcel Tournier and Alphonse Hasselmans. In 1912 Boulanger competed in the Prix de Rome but during her performance she collapsed from illness and she returned in 1913 at the age of 19 to win the composition prize for her Faust et Hélène, becoming the first woman composer to win the prize. Lili was greatly affected by the 1900 death of her father, many of her works touch on themes of grief and her work was noted for its colorful harmony and instrumentation and skillful text setting. Aspects of Fauré and Claude Debussy can be seen in her compositions, les sirènes is written for solo soprano and three part choir. The topic, mermaids, uses a text by Charles Grandmougin, the work is dedicated to Madame Jane Engel Bathori. Bathori, a soprano, was known for her concert organisation, Bathori supported many new artists and composers. Boulanger composed three psalms, Psalms 24,129 and 130 and she composed Psalm 24, entitled La terre appartient à l’Eternel, in 1916 while she was resident in Rome. The work is dedicated to Monsieur Jules Griset, who was the director of Choral Guillot de Saint-Brice, durand published the work in 1924. The work is scored for choir, accompanied by organ and brass ensemble, Psalm 129 was also composed in 1916 in Rome. This psalm is much longer than Psalm 24 and is composed for full orchestra, the premiere performance was held at the Salle Pleyel in 1921, conducted by Henri Busser. Du fond de l’abîme, is composed for voice & orchestra, Boulangers psalms convey Boulangers Catholic faith. Boulanger completed this work when she was only twenty-two, yet it sounds mature, ristow writes that Boulanger composed Du fond de labîme in reaction to World War I. Lili Boulanger was the first female composer to win the distinguished Prix de Rome in music and this work had many performances during Lilis lifetime. The text was written by Eugene Adenis based on Goethes Faust and she worked with Georges Caussade, and with Paul Vidal at the Paris Conservatoire, in order to prepare for this competition. She gained a contract with the publisher Ricordi after winning the Prix de Rome
16.
Nadia Boulanger
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Juliette Nadia Boulanger was a French composer, conductor, and teacher. She is notable for having many of the leading composers. She also performed occasionally as a pianist and organist, in that capacity, she influenced generations of young composers, especially those from the United States and other English-speaking countries. Boulanger was the first woman to conduct major orchestras in America and Europe, including the BBC Symphony, Boston Symphony, Hallé, New York Philharmonic. She conducted several premieres, including works by Copland and Stravinsky. Nadia Boulanger was born in Paris on 16 September 1887, to French composer and pianist Ernest Boulanger and his wife Raissa Myshetskaya and they had a daughter who died as an infant before Nadia was born. Nadia was born on her fathers 72nd birthday, Ernest had studied at the Paris Conservatoire and, in 1835 at the age of 20, won the coveted Prix de Rome for composition. He wrote comic operas and incidental music for plays, but was most widely known for his choral music and he achieved distinction as a director of choral groups, teacher of voice, and a member of choral competition juries. After years of rejection, in 1872 he was appointed to the Paris Conservatoire as professor of singing, Raissa qualified as a home tutor in 1873. According to Ernest, he and Raissa met in Russia in 1873 and she joined his voice class at the Conservatoire in 1876, and they were married in Russia in 1877. Through Nadias early years, although both parents were very active musically, the girl would get upset by hearing music and hide until it stopped, when Boulanger was five, Raissa became pregnant again. During the pregnancy, Boulangers response to music changed drastically, one day I heard a fire bell. Instead of crying out and hiding, I rushed to the piano, after this, Boulanger paid great attention to the singing lessons her father gave, and began to study the rudiments of music. Her sister, named Marie-Juliette Olga but known as Lili, was born in 1893, when Ernest brought Nadia home from their friends house, before she was allowed to see her mother or Lili, he made her promise solemnly to be responsible for the new babys welfare. He urged her to part in her sisters care. From the age of seven, Nadia Boulanger studied hard in preparation for her Conservatoire entrance exams, sitting in on their classes, Lili often stayed in the room for these lessons, sitting quietly and listening. Boulanger entered the Conservatoire in 1896 at the age of nine and she came third in the 1897 solfège competition, and subsequently worked hard to win first prize in 1898. She took private lessons from Vierne and Guilmant, during this period, she also received religious instruction to become an observant Catholic, taking her First Communion on 4 May 1899
17.
Georges Hilaire Bousquet
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Georges Hilaire Bousquet was a French legal scholar who contributed to the development of the legal codes of the Empire of Japan. Bousquet was born in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France, Bousquet sailed from the port of Marseilles on February 16,1872. Aged only 26 at the time, Bousquet was assigned to work with fellow Frenchman Gustave Emile Boissonade for four years and he assisted in translation of the Napoleonic Code in the Japanese language, and in drafting much of Japans civil code. Bousquet also taught at the Meihoryo, after his return to France, he resumed his legal career, rising to the post of Deputy Director of Criminal Justice in France, and was subsequently elected to the Council of State in July 1879. In January 1898, he became Director of the Customs Department under the French Ministry of Finance and he was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun in October of the same year. Bousquet also wrote a book Le Japon de Nos Jours et les Echelles de lExtreme Orient, Ouvrage Contenant Trois Cartes in 1877 and he died in Paris in 1937, and his grave is at the Montmartre Cemetery
18.
Giuseppina Bozzacchi
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Giuseppina Bozzacchi was an Italian ballerina, noted for creating the role of Swanhilda in Léo Delibes ballet Coppélia at the age of 16 while dancing for the Paris Opera Ballet. Bozzacchi, who was born in Milan, had come to Paris to study with Mme Dominique and they even asked the composer Léo Delibes to seek out a suitable Swanhilda on his trip to Italy. He returned empty-handed, but in the meantime Saint-Léon and Perrin had discovered Bozzacchi and she created Swanhilda on 25 May 1870 in the presence of Emperor Napoleon III. She repeated her success in the following weeks, in July an international dispute broke out between France and Prussia over the succession to the Spanish throne, and on 19 July France declared war. Giuseppina Bozzacchi danced Swanhilda for the 18th and last time on 31 August, the Opéra had stopped paying salaries, and Giuseppina, weakened by lack of food, became ill. She contracted smallpox and fever, and died on the morning of her 17th birthday and she was buried at Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris. Giuseppina Bozzacchi at Find a Grave The creation of Coppelia at the Wayback Machine
19.
Victor Brauner
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Victor Brauner was a French Romanian sculptor and painter of surrealistic images. He was born in Piatra Neamț, Romania, the son of a Jewish timber manufacturer who subsequently settled in Vienna with his family for a few years and it is there that young Victor attended elementary school. When his family returned to Romania in 1914, he continued his studies at the Evangelical school in Brăila and his interests revolved around zoology during that period. He attended the National School of Fine Arts in Bucharest and Horia Igiroşanu private school of painting and he visited Fălticeni and Balcic, and started painting landscapes in the manner of Paul Cézanne. Then, as he testified himself, he went through all the stages, on 26 September 1924, the Mozart Galleries in Bucharest hosted his first personal exhibition. In that period he met poet Ilarie Voronca, together with whom he founded the 75HP magazine and it was in this magazine that Brauner published the manifesto The Pictopoetry and the article The Surrationalism. He painted and exhibited Christ at the Cabaret and The Girl in the Factory and he participated to the Contimporanul exhibition in November 1924. In 1925, he undertook his first journey to Paris, from where he returned in 1927, in 1930, he settled in Paris, where he met Constantin Brâncuși, who instructed him in methods of art photography. In that same period he became a friend of the Romanian poet Benjamin Fondane and met Yves Tanguy and he lived on Moulin Vert Street, in the same building as Alberto Giacometti and Tanguy. He painted Self-portrait with enucleated eye, a premonitory theme, in 1934 André Breton wrote an introduction to the catalogue for Brauner’s first Parisian solo exhibition at the Pierre Gallery. In 1935, Brauner returned to Bucharest and he joined the ranks of the Romanian Communist Party for a short while, without a very firm conviction. On 7 April 1935, he opened a new exhibition at the Mozart Galleries. They are written in French, but their taste is kept in their Romanian language translation. The exhibition brought about many interesting articles and takings of position regarding Surrealism in arts, another remark about Brauner’s participation to Surrealist exhibitions, Despite its appearance of abstract formula … this trend is a point of transition to the art that is to come. For V. Brauner takes attitude through the character and ideology of his art. On 27 April, he created the illustrations for Gellu Naum’s poetry collections – The Incendiary Traveler, in 1938, he returned to France. On 28 August, he lost his eye in a violent argument between Oscar Domínguez and Esteban Francés. Brauner attempted to protect Esteban and was hit by a glass thrown by Domínguez and that same year, he met Jaqueline Abraham, who was to become his wife
20.
Czech people
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Ethnic Czechs were called Bohemians in English until the early 20th century, referring to the late Iron Age tribe of Celtic Boii and the land Bohemia. The Czech diaspora is found in numbers in the United States, Canada, Israel, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Switzerland, Italy. The Czech ethnic group is part of the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group, the West Slavs have origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period. The West Slavic tribe of Bohemians settled in the area of Bohemia during the migration period and they formed an independent principality in the 9th century, the Duchy of Bohemia, under the Přemyslid dynasty. According to mythology, the father of the Czech people were Forefather Čech. The Czech are closely related to the neighbouring Slovaks, the Czech–Slovak languages form a dialect continuum rather than being two clearly distinct languages. Czech cultural influence in Slovak culture is noted as having much higher than the other way around. Czech people have a history of coexistence with Germanic people. The Czech National Revival took place in the 18th and 19th centuries aiming to revive Czech language, culture, the Czech were the initiators of Pan-Slavism. The Czech ethnonym was the name of a Slavic tribe in central Bohemia that subdued the tribes in the late 9th century. The origin of the name of the tribe itself is unknown, according to legend, it comes from their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia. Research regards Čech as a derivative of the root čel-, the Czech ethnonym was adopted by the Moravians in the 19th century. The name Bohemia is Germanic, English used that name until after the establishment of Czechoslovakia, the population of the Czech lands has been influenced by different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe over time. In their Y-DNA haplogroups, which are inherited along the male line,34. 2% of Czech males belong to R1a, which is particularly common in a large region extending from South Asia and Southern Siberia to Central Europe and Scandinavia. The population of the Czech Republic descends from diverse peoples of Slavic, Celtic and Germanic origin, presence of West Slavs in the 6th century during the Migration Period has been documented on the Czech territory. Slavs settled in Bohemia, Moravia and Austria sometime during the 6th or 7th centuries, according to a popular myth, the Slavs came with Forefather Čech who settled at the Říp Mountain. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century, in 880, Prague Castle was constructed by Prince Bořivoj, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty and the city of Prague was established. Vratislav II was the first Czech king in 1085 and the duchy was raised to a kingdom under Ottokar I in 1198
21.
Myles Byrne
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Myles Byrne was a leader in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and chef de bataillon in Napoleon’s Irish Legion. Myles Byrne was born in the townland of Ballylusk near Monaseed, County Wexford, Ireland, on 20 March 1780, after the Wexford Rebellion was over, he joined Michael Dwyer and Joseph Holt in the Wicklow Hills, continuing to fight on. While there he was involved in the Emmet Rebellion, shortly after this he escaped to France. In France he eventually became Brigadier General and leader of Napoleon’s Irish Brigade and he fought in Spain and Greece. In his later years he wrote his memoirs, Memoirs of Miles Byrne and these were first published in three volumes in 1863, but there have been many subsequent reprints. ”For those areas and battles that it covers, Byrnes is the best source for the 1798 Rebellion. In Paris, Byrne frequently met many other exiled Irish - including Thomas Addis Emmet, Byrne was married in Paris to a Scots Presbyterian, Fanny Horner, but they had no children. Fannys father was John Horner, a merchant of Edinburgh, and they were married on Christmas Eve,24 December 1835 in the British Embassy Chapel in Paris. She had three brothers and two sisters, One of her brothers was Francis Horner, a Whig MP, another, Leonard Horner, was a noted geologist. A photograph of Byrne faces page 185 in Nicholas Furlongs Fr John Murphy of Boolavogue, according to the author, it was taken in Paris in 1859 and is reputed to be the first photograph taken of an Irishman. The photograph is now in Áras an Uachtaráin, the residence of the President of Ireland, John Mitchel visited Byrne when he was 80 years old and described him as One of those rare beings who never grow old. Miles Byrne died at his house in the rue Montaigne, Paris on Friday 24 January 1862 and his grave there is marked by a Celtic Cross - but this headstone appears to be a 1950s replacement for an earlier one. The inscription to his original headstone appears in his Memoirs, in part, it read, SINCEREMENT ATTACHE A LlRLANDE SON PAYS NATAL, Miles Byrne - Memoirs of Miles Byrne. Stephen Gwynn, Memoirs of Miles Byrne - edited by his Widow,2 vols, K. Wkelan & W. Nolan, Wexford, History and Society. Leonard Horner, Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M. P
22.
Nissim de Camondo
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Nissim de Camondo was a French military officer and a member of the prominent Camondo family. Named for his grandfather, he was the son of Moïse de Camondo, as the only son of two children, Nissim de Camondo was expected to take over the family business. However, immediately upon the outbreak of World War I, he joined the French Army, lieutenant Nissim de Camondo died in 1917 during aerial combat in Lorraine, and he was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris. On his death in 1935, Moïse de Camondo bequeathed his Parisian mansion at 63, rue de Monceau to the Musée des Arts Décoratifs to be used to create the Musée Nissim de Camondo in his sons honor
23.
Fanny Cerrito
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Francesca Fanny Cerrito was an Italian ballet dancer and choreographer. She was a noted for the brilliance, strength. She was also one of few women in the 19th century to be recognized for her talent as a choreographer, born in Naples, she studied under Carlo Blasis and the French choreographers Jules Perrot and Arthur Saint-Léon, the latter of whom was her husband from 1845–51. Fanny Cerrito was trained in the school of San Carlo Opera House. Her first stage appearance was in 1832 when she gained recognition almost immediately, in 1836–37 her fame started to spread beyond Italy and she appeared in Vienna to reveal some of her own choreographed works. From 1838–40, she continued to dance with La Scala in Milan, in 1843, Cerrito and Maria Taglioni danced in the same program in Milan, this event caused so much excitement that the city divided itself between the two great rival ballerinas. While in Milan, Fanny began her collaboration with Jules Perrot, during which they choreographed Ondine, ou La naïade as well as Alma, later in 1845, her choreographic talent became recognized after she presented her own ballet, Rosida
24.
Jean-Martin Charcot
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Jean-Martin Charcot was a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology. He is known as the founder of neurology, and his name has been associated with at least 15 medical eponyms, including Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. Charcot has been referred to as the father of French neurology and his work greatly influenced the developing fields of neurology and psychology, modern psychiatry owes much to the work of Charcot and his direct followers. He was the foremost neurologist of late nineteenth-century France and has called the Napoleon of the neuroses. Born in Paris, Charcot worked and taught at the famous Salpêtrière Hospital for 33 years and his reputation as an instructor drew students from all over Europe. In 1882, he established a clinic at Salpêtrière, which was the first of its kind in Europe. Charcot was a part of the French neurological tradition and studied under and he married a rich widow, Madame Durvis, in 1862 and had two children, Jeanne and Jean-Baptiste, who later became a doctor and a famous polar explorer. He was accused of being an atheist and he named and was the first to describe multiple sclerosis. Summarizing previous reports and adding his own clinical and pathological observations, the three signs of Multiple sclerosis now known as Charcots triad 1 are nystagmus, intention tremor, and telegraphic speech, though these are not unique to MS. Charcot also observed cognition changes, describing his patients as having a marked enfeeblement of the memory and he was also the first to describe a disorder known as Charcot joint or Charcot arthropathy, a degeneration of joint surfaces resulting from loss of proprioception. He researched the functions of different parts of the brain and the role of arteries in cerebral hemorrhage, Charcot was among the first to describe Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. The announcement was made simultaneously with Pierre Marie of France and Howard Henry Tooth of England, the disease is also sometimes called peroneal muscular atrophy. Charcots studies between 1868 and 1881 were a landmark in the understanding of Parkinsons disease, among other advances he made the distinction between rigidity, weakness and bradykinesia. He also led the disease formerly named paralysis agitans to be renamed after James Parkinson and he also noted apparent variations on PD, such as Parkinsons disease with hyperextension. Charcot received the first European professional chair of clinical diseases for the system in 1882. Charcot is best known today, outside the community of neurologists, for his work on hypnosis, Charcot first began studying hysteria after creating a special ward for non-insane females with hystero-epilepsy. He discovered two forms of hysteria among these women, minor hysteria and major hysteria. His interest in hysteria and hypnotism developed at a time when the public was fascinated in animal magnetism and mesmerization
25.
Henri-Georges Clouzot
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Henri-Georges Clouzot was a French film director, screenwriter and producer. He is best remembered for his work in the film genre, having directed The Wages of Fear and Les Diaboliques. Clouzot also directed films, including The Mystery of Picasso. Clouzot was an fan of the cinema and, desiring a career as a writer. He was later hired by producer Adolphe Osso to work in Berlin, after being fired from German studios due to his friendship with Jewish producers, Clouzot returned to France, where he spent years bedridden after contracting tuberculosis. Upon recovering, Clouzot found work in Nazi occupied France as a screenwriter for the German-owned company Continental Films, at Continental, Clouzot wrote and directed films that were very popular in France. His second film Le Corbeau drew controversy over its harsh look at provincial France, as a result of his association with Continental, Clouzot was barred by the French government from filmmaking until 1947. After the ban was lifted, Clouzot reestablished his reputation and popularity in France during the late 1940s with successful films including Quai des Orfèvres. After the release of his comedy film Miquette et sa mère, Clouzot married Véra Gibson-Amado, in the early and mid-1950s, Clouzot drew acclaim from international critics and audiences for The Wages of Fear and Les Diaboliques. Both films would serve as material for remakes decades later. After the release of La Vérité, Clouzots wife Véra died of an attack and Clouzots career suffered due to depression, illness. Clouzots career became less active in years, limited to a few television documentaries. Clouzot wrote several unused scripts in the 1970s and died in Paris in 1977, Henri-Georges Clouzot was born in Niort, France, to mother Suzanne Clouzot and father Georges Clouzout, a book store owner. He was the first of three children in a middle-class family, Clouzot showed talent by writing plays and playing piano recitals. In 1922, Clouzots fathers bookstore went bankrupt and his moved to Brest, France. In Brest, Henri-Georges Clouzot went to Naval School, but was unable to become a Naval Cadet due to his myopia, at the age of 18, Clouzot left for Paris to study political science. While living in Paris, he became friends with several magazine editors and his writing talents led him to theater and cinema as a playwright, lyricist and adaptor-screenwriter. The quality of his work led producer Adolphe Osso to hire him and send him to Germany to work in Studio Babelsberg in Berlin, throughout the 1930s, Clouzot worked by writing and translating scripts, dialogue and occasionally lyrics for over twenty films
26.
Dalida
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In 1961, she acquired French citizenship upon marriage, while maintaining her original Italian one. Twice honoured with the Oscar mondial du succès du disque, she is the only European singer to have won this more than once. Her 30-year career began in 1956 and ended with her last album in 1986 and her suicide led to an iconic image as a tragic diva and renowned singer. Dalida ranks abong 7 most popular singers of all time and she received more than 70 gold records and was the first singer to receive a platinum and a diamond disc. She sold more than 170 million albums Worldwide, in 1988, Dalida was posthumously honoured by the International Star Registry, with the issuance of a diploma, awarded one year after her death. Yolanda Cristina Gigliotti was born in Cairo, Egypt and she was the middle child between two brothers, Orlando and Bruno. Dalidas early life was spent in the district of Shoubra, where she attended the Scuola Tecnica Commerciale Maria Ausiliatrice, an Italian Catholic school. In 1950, Dalida participated in the Miss Ondine beauty pageant and won the title, and shortly after working as a model for Donna. In 1954, at the age of 20, Dalida competed in and won the Miss Egypt pageant and it was about this time she adopted the name Dalila, which was soon changed to the more familiar Dalida. She learned Egyptian Arabic and French growing up in Cairo, and she later added English, plus conversational-level German and Spanish. When she became a pop and music icon in Japan, she also acquired enough basic Japanese to greet her fans in their own language and she promised to hold the concert again, a promise which she soon fulfilled. Dalidas singing career started in Egypt, when she was discovered by Cherif Kamel, Dalidas quest for a career in French cinema proved to be of limited success. Instead, she began taking singing lessons, and was booked as an act on the Champs-Élysées. Morisse was artistic producer of the popular Radio Europe 1, after signing a recording contract with Barclay, Dalidas debut single Madona was promoted heavily by Morisse, and was a moderate success. The song Bambino echoed everywhere in France and was an even beyond the French frontiers. In the same year, she would also support Charles Aznavour at the Olympia and these classical songs mark the first phase of Dalidas album and maintain their charm even today. Dalida toured extensively from 1958 through the early 1960s, playing dates in France, Egypt, Italy, and her tours of Egypt and Italy spread her fame outside France and Dalida soon became well known throughout Europe. However, she waited too long before entering Americas music scene, in 1961, Dalida performed a month of shows at the Olympia in Paris, with each selling out completely
27.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
28.
Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance, more than half of his works depict dancers and he is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects. His portraits are notable for their complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, in his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life. Degas was born in Paris, France, into a wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas and his maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810. Degas began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and his mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth. Degas began to paint early in life, by the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artists studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts and he studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres. In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunts family in Naples and he also began work on several history paintings, Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60, Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860, and Young Spartans around 1860. In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy and he exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, after the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue, Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degass New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts
29.
Romantic music
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Romantic music is an era of Western classical music that began in the late 18th or early 19th century. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literary, artistic, famous early Romantic composers include Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw an expansion in the size of the orchestra and in the dynamic range. Also, public concerts became a key part of middle class society, in contrast to earlier periods. Famous composers from the half of the century include Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Verdi. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, other prominent late-century figures include Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck. The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the half of the 18th century in Europe. In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography and education. One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry, in the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism, the attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the ghostly and supernatural could apply equally to Mozarts Don Giovanni from 1787, events and changes that happen in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events always affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in effect by the late 18th century. This event had a profound effect on music, there were major improvements in the mechanical valves. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease, another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy, many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composers, on the hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers. Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be no segregation of musical tastes, during the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose
30.
Maria Deraismes
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Maria Deraismes was a French author and major pioneering force for womens rights. Born in Paris, Maria Deraismes grew up in Pontoise in the citys northwest outskirts and she became active in promoting womens rights. In 1866 a feminist group called the Société pour la Revendication du Droit des Femmes began to meet at the house of André Léo, members included Paule Minck, Louise Michel, Eliska Vincent, Élie Reclus and his wife Néomie, Mme Jules Simon and Caroline de Barrau. Maria Deraismes was persuaded to participate, because of the broad range of opinions, the group decided to focus on the subject of improving girls education. In 1870 she founded LAssociation pour le droit des femmes with Léon Richer and she helped fund Richers paper Le Droit des femmes. Deraismes work brought her recognition in Great Britain and an influence upon American activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton who met her in Paris in 1882, Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry on 14 January 1882, when it was still rare for a woman to be admitted into that Fraternity. She joined Les Libres Penseurs Lodge, of Pecq, a village to the west of Paris. A year later, she and Georges Martin organized a Masonic lodge that allow men and women as members. Out of this co-masonic Lodge came the birth of the Grande Loge Symbolique Ecossaise Le Droit Humain, with other support of Suffragettes such as Hubertine Auclert, Maria Deraismes worked to achieve political emancipation for women, standing as a symbolic candidate in the elections of 1885. On her death in 1894, Maria Deraismes was interred in the Montmartre Cemetery and her complete writings were published in 1895 and much information on her work can be found at the Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand in Paris. To honor her memory, a street in Paris was named for her, the town square in St. Nazaire was also named in her honor
31.
William Didier-Pouget
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William Didier-Pouget was a French artist, born in 1864, Toulouse, France, known for his landscape paintings. He focused primarily on the countryside of southern France, infusing his landscapes, always painted outdoors, with light, Didier-Pouget is associated with the later phase of Impressionism, although not actually identified with the group of artists typically known as the Impressionists. His career as an exhibiting artist stems from 1886 onwards and he was a member of the Société des Artistes Français, a member of lÉcole de Crozant and Société des Peintres de Montagne. Also, laureate of lInstitut au Concours Troyon, Officer of the order of Nichan Iftikar, William Didier-Pouget was the son of a newspaper editor. Antoine Paul Jules Edgar Pouget, a lover, encouraged William in his ambition to become an artist. The two would take long walks together, the elder pointing out natural phenomena while discussing methods of their pictorial representation. He related biographical details of the artists, past and present. Didier-Pouget began his art training at the École des Beaux-Arts in the city of Toulouse. He later studied at the Académie de Paris with Amédée Baudit, the famed French landscape painter and he later studied with Louis-Augustin Auguin, an associate of Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste Corot. Ultimately, Didier-Pouget was accepted into the studio of Maxime Lalanne, under these influences many profitable years followed. The seeds were sown for what would become Didier-Pougets fruitful career as an artist, William Didier-Pouget married Caroline Salley and had a daughter, Yvonne. Yvonne Aubert-Didier-Pouget became an artist painter and miniaturist, in Toulouse, the young artist had already been regarded as a prodigy of talent, and great things were expected of him. Paintings were exhibited in the provinces, attracting attention. Encouraged, Didier-Pouget sought an audience, and moved to Paris. From 1886 he exhibited regularly at the Salons, each new season showing a marked advancement in his art, bringing to the world of Paris new and delightful colour-schemes, during his early years Didier-Pougets landscape paintings were temperate and ethereal with a poetic atmosphere. Progressively he began to specialize in a style that would build his reputation all the way to the United States. The artist took pleasure in expressing the tranquil ambiance of river scenes, the soft poesy of his mountainous landscapes are suggestive of Auguin, a disciple of Corot. Didier-Pouget, part of the school, had cultivated from their groundwork the idea of leaving the foreground largely unobstructed
32.
Maxime Du Camp
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Maxime Du Camp was a French writer and photographer. Born in Paris, Du Camp was the son of a successful surgeon, after finishing college, he indulged in his strong desire for travel, thanks to his fathers assets. Du Camp traveled in Europe and the East between 1844 and 1845, and again between 1849 and 1851 in company with Gustave Flaubert, after his return, Du Camp wrote about his traveling experiences. Flaubert also wrote about his experiences with Maxime, in 1851, Du Camp became a founder of the Revue de Paris, and a frequent contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In 1853, he became an officer of the Legion of Honour, serving as a volunteer with Garibaldi in his 1860 conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Du Camp recounted his experiences in Expédition des deux Siciles. In 1870 he was nominated for the senate, but his election was frustrated by the downfall of the Empire. He was elected a member of the Académie française in 1880, mainly, it is said, on account of his history of the Commune, published under the title of Les Convulsions de Paris. Du Camp was an amateur photographer who learned the craft from Gustave Le Gray shortly prior to departing on his 1849–1859 trip to Egypt. His travel books were among the first to be illustrated with photographs, Maxime Du Camp died in 1894 and was buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre in the Montmartre Quarter of Paris. He published several works on social questions, one of which and his Souvenirs littéraires contain much information about contemporary writers, especially Gustave Flaubert, of whom Du Camp was an early and intimate friend. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Works by or about Maxime Du Camp at Internet Archive
33.
Alexandre Dumas, fils
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Dumas, fils was the son of Alexandre Dumas, père, also a well-known playwright and author of classics such as The Three Musketeers. Dumas, fils was admitted to the Académie française in 1874, Dumas was born in Paris, France, the illegitimate child of Marie-Laure-Catherine Labay, a dressmaker, and novelist Alexandre Dumas. In 1831 his father recognized him and ensured that the young Dumas received the best education possible at the Institution Goubaux. At that time, the law allowed the elder Dumas to take the child away from his mother and her agony inspired the younger Dumas to write about tragic female characters. At boarding schools, he was taunted by his classmates because of his family situation. These issues profoundly influenced his thoughts, behaviour, and writing, in 1844, Dumas moved to Saint-Germain-en-Laye to live with his father. There he met Marie Duplessis, a courtesan who would be the inspiration for the character Marguerite Gauthier in his romantic novel La Dame aux camélias. Adapted into a play, it was titled Camille in English and became the basis for Verdis 1853 opera, La Traviata, Duplessis undergoing yet another name change, this time to Violetta Valéry. Although he admitted that he had done the adaptation because he needed the money, he had success with the play. He was not only more renowned than his father during his lifetime, after this, he virtually abandoned writing novels. On 31 December 1864, in Moscow, Dumas married Nadezhda von Knorring, daughter of Johan Reinhold von Knorring, after Nadezhdas death, Dumas married Henriette Régnier de La Brière in June 1895, without issue. In 1874, he was admitted to the Académie française and in 1894 he was awarded the Légion dhonneur, Dumas died at Marly-le-Roi, Yvelines, on 27 November 1895, and was interred in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris. His grave is, perhaps coincidentally, only some 100 metres away from that of Marie Duplessis, aventures de quatre femmes et d’un perroquet Césarine La Dame aux camélias. Texte online ), with an illustrated by Albert Besnard English titled as Camellias Le Docteur Servan Antonine Le Roman d’une femme Les Quatre Restaurations. Vivier LAmi des femmes Le Supplice dune femme coll, emile de Girardin Héloïse Paranquet coll. Durentin Les Idées de Madame Aubray Le Filleul de Pompignac coll, francois Une Visite de noces La Princesse Georges La Femme de Claude Monsieur Alphonse LÉtrangère Les Danicheff coll. de Corvin La Comtesse Romani coll. Gustave Fould La Princesse de Bagdad Denise Francillon La Route de Thèbes Illegitimacy in fiction Legitimacy Maurois, the Titans, a three-generation biography of the Dumas. New York, Harper & Brothers Publishers, a Critical Edition of the Manuscripts of La Route de Thebes by Alexandre Dumas fils
34.
Marie Duplessis
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Marie Duplessis was a French courtesan and mistress to a number of prominent and wealthy men. She was the inspiration for Marguerite Gautier, the character of La Dame aux Camélias by Alexandre Dumas the younger. Much of what is known about her has been derived from the literary persona, Marie Duplessis was born Alphonsine Rose Plessis in 1824 at Nonant-le-Pin, Normandy, France. At the age of 15, she moved to Paris where she found work in a dress shop, as recorded in art of the day Marie Duplessis was evidently an extremely attractive young woman, with a petite figure and an enchanting smile. By the time she was 16, she had become aware that prominent men were willing to give her money in exchange for her company in both private and social settings. She became a courtesan and learned to read and write, and to stay abreast of events so as to be able to converse on these topics with her clients. She also added the faux noble Du to her name, Duplessis was both a popular courtesan and the hostess of a salon, where politicians, writers, and artists gathered for stimulating conversation and socializing. She rode in the Bois de Boulogne and attended opera performances and she also had her portrait painted by Édouard Viénot. Duplessis was the mistress of Alexandre Dumas, fils between September 1844 and August 1845, afterwards, she is believed to have become the mistress of composer Franz Liszt, who reportedly wished to live with her. Throughout her short life, her reputation as a discreet, intelligent and she remained in the good graces of many of her benefactors even after her relationships with them had ended. She was briefly married to at least one of her lovers, Marie Duplessis died of tuberculosis at the age of 23 on 3 February 1847. Her husband the comte de Perregaux and her lover the Baltic-German count Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg were by her side. Within a few weeks of her death, her belongings were auctioned off to pay her debts, still, her funeral in Montmartre cemetery, where her body still rests, was said to have been attended by hundreds of people. Dumas romantic novel La Dame aux Camélias was based on Duplessis and it appeared within a year of her death. In the book, Dumas became Armand Duval and Duplessis Marguerite Gautier, Dumas also adapted his story as a play, which inspired Verdis opera La Traviata and various films. Biographical Studies The Real Traviata, The Song of Marie Duplessis by René Weis Citations
35.
La Passion de Jeanne d'Arc
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The Passion of Joan of Arc is a 1928 silent French film based on the actual record of the trial of Joan of Arc. The film was directed by Carl Theodor Dreyer and stars Renée Jeanne Falconetti as Joan and it is widely regarded as a landmark of cinema, especially for its production, Dreyers direction and Falconettis performance, which is often listed as one of the finest in cinema history. The film summarizes the time that Joan of Arc was a captive of England, depicting her trial and execution. Danish film director Dreyer was invited to make a film in France by the Société Générale des Films, Dreyer spent over a year researching Joan of Arc and the transcripts of her trial before writing the script. Dreyer cast stage actress Falconetti as Joan in her major film role. Falconettis performance and devotion to the role during filming have become legendary among film scholars, the film was shot on one huge concrete set modeled on medieval architecture in order to realistically portray the Rouen prison. The film is known for its cinematography and use of close-ups, Dreyer also didnt allow the actors to wear make-up and used lighting designs that made the actors look more grotesque. Prior to its release, the film was due to French nationalists skepticism about whether a Danish person could direct a film that centered on one of Frances most revered historical icons. Dreyers final version of the film was cut due to pressure from the Archbishop of Paris. For several decades it was released and viewed in various re-edited versions that had attempted to restore Dreyers final cut, in 1981 a film print of Dreyers final cut of the film was finally discovered in a mental institution in Oslo, Norway and re-released. It has been praised and referenced by many directors and musicians. On 30 May 1431 Joan is interrogated by the French clerical court and her judges try to make her say something that will discredit her claim or shake her belief that she has been given a mission by God to drive the English from France, but she remains steadfast. One or two of them, believing that she is indeed a saint, support her, the authorities then resort to deception. A priest reads a letter to the illiterate prisoner supposedly from King Charles VII of France. When that too fails, Joan is taken to view the torture chamber, when she is threatened with burning at the stake, she finally breaks and allows a priest to guide her hand in signing a confession. However, the judge then condemns her to life imprisonment, as the jailer shaves her head, she realises she has been unfaithful to God. She demands that the return and she recants her confession. As more and more around her begin to recognise her true faith and she is then dressed in sack-cloth and taken to the place of execution
36.
Eau de Cologne
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Eau de Cologne, or simply cologne, is a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany. In a base of ethanol, eau de cologne contains a mixture of citrus oils including oils of lemon, orange, tangerine, clementine, bergamot, lime, grapefruit, blood orange. It can also contain oils of neroli, lavender, rosemary, thyme, oregano, petitgrain, jasmine, olive, oleaster, in contemporary American English usage, the term cologne has become a generic term for perfumes usually marketed towards men. The original Eau de Cologne is a spirit-citrus perfume launched in Cologne in 1709 by Giovanni Maria Farina, an Italian perfume maker from Santa Maria Maggiore Valle Vigezzo. In 1708, Farina wrote to his brother Jean Baptiste, I have found a fragrance that reminds me of an Italian spring morning, of mountain daffodils and he named his fragrance Eau de Cologne, in honour of his new hometown. The most famous Original Eau de Cologne is 4711, named after its location at Glockengasse No.4711 and it was also developed in the 18th century by Wilhelm Mülhens in Cologne and is therefore one of the oldest still produced fragrances in the world. On 12 December 2006, the perfumes and cosmetics company Mäurer & Wirtz took over 4711 from Procter & Gamble and has expanded it to a whole brand since then. The Eau de Cologne composed by Farina was used only as a perfume and his ability to produce a constantly homogeneous fragrance consisting of dozens of monoessences was seen as a sensation at the time. At the time, a vial of this aqua mirabilis cost half the annual salary of a civil servant. When free trade was established in Cologne by the French in 1797, Giovanni Maria Farinas formula has been produced in Cologne since 1709 by Farina opposite the Jülichplatz and to this day remains a secret. His shop at Obenmarspforten opened in 1709 and is today the worlds oldest fragrance factory, in 1806, Jean Marie Joseph Farina, a grand-grand-nephew of Giovanni Maria Farina, opened a perfumery business in Paris that was later sold to Roger & Gallet. That company now owns the rights to Eau de Cologne extra vieille in contrast to the Original Eau de Cologne from Cologne. Originally the water of Cologne was believed to have the power to ward off bubonic plague. By drinking the cologne the citrus oil scent would be exuded through the pores, much as flea shampoo for dogs can be based on citrus oils today. In modern times, Eau de Cologne or cologne, has become a generic term, the term cologne can be applied to perfume for men or women, but it conventionally refers to perfumes marketed towards men. In former Soviet countries, varieties of Troynoy Eau de Cologne may be used as a surrogate alcohol among poor alcoholics,4711 Cologne Johann Maria Farina gegenüber dem Jülichs-Platz Perfume Fenaroli, Giovanni, Maggesi, L. Acqua di Colonia. Rivista italiana essenze, profumi, piante offizinali, olii vegetali, le materie prime per lacqua di colonia. Physical Chemistry, Understanding Our Chemical World, variations on the Eau de Cologne Theme. Wilhelm, Jürgen, ed. Das große Köln-Lexikon, citations Works cited Eckstein, Markus, Sykes, John
37.
Georges Feydeau
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Georges Feydeau was a French playwright of the era known as the Belle Époque. He is remembered for his many lively farces and he wrote over sixty plays and was a forerunner of absurdist theatre. Georges Feydeau was born in Paris, the son of novelist Ernest-Aimé Feydeau, at the age of twenty, Feydeau wrote his first comic monologue in earnest. He found his first success four years later with Tailleur pour dames and that same year Feydeau married Marianne Carolus-Duran, the daughter of the famous portrait painter Carolus-Duran. To Feydeau, the marriage brought wealth that would sustain him until he found greater success, the marriage lasted 15 years after which the couple underwent a judicial separation and were formally divorced in 1916. Feydeau began investigating the great farces in 1890, studying the works of Eugène Labiche, Henri Meilhac and this study inspired him to write his acclaimed play Champignol malgré lui. Following this, Feydeau made a name for both in France and abroad, some of his plays opening overseas and in other languages before they opened in France. These farces often involved Paris demi-monde and they are noted for their great wit and complex plots, featuring misunderstandings and coincidences, and what one critic called a jack-in-the-box construction. Among his 60 plays, his most famous are, Une puce à loreille, Le Système Ribadier, La Dame de Chez Maxim, and Hortense a dit, Je men fous. Other notable Feydeau farces include LHôtel du libre échange, Le Dindon, though critics at the time dismissed Feydeaus works as light entertainment, he is now recognized as one of the great French playwrights of his era. His plays are seen today as precursors of Surrealist and Dada theatre, and they have been continuously revived and are still performed today,17 of them having been performed on Broadway between 1895 and 1992. In Serbia, theatre director Ljubisa Ristic directed his play Une puce à loreille, the plays premiere was on June 7,1971, and it has now been performed continuously for more than 45 years. Despite being a successful playwright during his lifetime, his propensity for high living, gambling. During the winter of 1918, Feydeau contracted syphilis and slowly descended into madness until his three years later at age 58. He is buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris, the Partys Over, a one-act play by Jay Parker is loosely based on Feydeaus one-act Par la Fenêtre. Feydeaus one-act farce Mais nte promène donc pas toute nue. translated by Olivier Bernier as Please dont walk around in the nude was produced at Harvard in 1960 and it is the funniest play ever written. Charles Moreys English adaptation of Tailleur pour dames, titled The Ladies Man, was first performed in 2007, bedroom farce Works by or about Georges Feydeau at Internet Archive Works by Georges Feydeau at LibriVox
38.
Charles Fourier
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François Marie Charles Fourier was a French philosopher and an influential early socialist thinker later associated with utopian socialism. Some of Fouriers social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society, Fourier is, for instance, credited with having originated the word feminism in 1837. Fouriers social views and proposals inspired a movement of intentional communities. Later Fourier inspired an array of revolutionary thinkers and writers. Fourier was born in Besançon, France on April 7,1772, the son of a small businessman, Fourier was more interested in architecture than in his fathers trade. He wanted to become an engineer, but the military engineering school accepted only sons of noblemen. Fourier later said he was grateful that he did not pursue engineering, because it would have consumed too much of his time, when his father died in 1781, Fourier received two-fifths of his fathers estate, valued at more than 200,000 francs. This inheritance enabled Fourier to travel throughout Europe at his leisure, in 1791 he moved from Besançon to Lyon, where he was employed by the merchant M. Bousquet. Fouriers travels also brought him to Paris, where he worked as the head of the Office of Statistics for a few months, from 1791 to 1816 Fourier was employed in Paris, Rouen, Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. As a traveling salesman and correspondence clerk, his research and thought was time-limited, he complained of serving the knavery of merchants and he took up writing, and his first book was published in 1808. Fourier died in Paris in 1837, Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution, Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called phalanxes, based around structures called Phalanstères or grand hotels. These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments, wealth was determined by ones job, jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives, jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay, Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the source of all evil and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries. Fourier characterized poverty as the cause of disorder in society. The transformation of labor into pleasure is the idea in Fouriers giant socialist utopia. He believed that there were twelve common passions which resulted in 810 types of character, one day there would be six million of these, loosely ruled by a world omniarch, or a World Congress of Phalanxes
39.
Christopher Fratin
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Christopher Fratin, also known as Christophe Fratin, was a noted French sculptor in the animalier style, and one of the earliest French sculptors to portray animals in bronze. Fratin was born in Metz, Moselle, France the son of a taxidermist and he first studied drawing under Pioche in Metz and later worked in Paris at the studio of Théodore Géricault. He exhibited at the Paris Salon from 1831–1842 and 1850–1862, as well as at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, Fratin never signed his bronzes but instead used a stamp showing his last name in straight block letters. One of the stamps he used showed the n reversed, not by design, Bronzes bearing this stamp have the appearance of not seeming to be genuine when in reality they are. Fratin received monumental commissions in France and elsewhere, including the Deux Aigles Gardant Leur Proie displayed since 1863 in New York Citys Central Park. Many of his small bronzes—including his miniature bronzes which were affordable due to their smaller size—were sold commercially to the general public during his lifetime. Today, Fratins sculpture is on permanent display in the Louvre, the Georg Eisler archive in Vienna also has on display works by Fratin. At Montrouge Square in Paris appears a colossal bronze group standing 2 meters high entitled Cheval attaqué par un lion and he also produced a number of whimsical bear sculptures, one being Ours jouant de la cornemuse which shows a bear holding a musical instrument. Fratin died on 17 August 1864 at Le Raincy and is buried in Montmartre Cemetery and he is honored in Metz where a street is named after him. Michel Poletti, Alain Richarme, Fratin, objets décoratifs & sculptures romantiques, Paris, Christopher Payne, Animals in Bronze,1986. Pierre Kjellberg, Bronzes of the 19th Century,1994, george Savage, A Concise History of Bronzes,1968. E. Benezit, Dictionnaire des Peintres et Sculpteurs,1966, stanaslas Lami, Dictionnaire de Sculpteurs de lecole Francaise,1914. Bronze Gallery, Christophe Fratin Central Park Conservancy, Eagles and Prey Christopher Fratin in American public collections, on the French Sculpture Census website
40.
Animalier
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An animalier is an artist, mainly from the 19th century, who specializes in, or is known for, skill in the realistic portrayal of animals. Animal painter is the general term for earlier artists. Although the work may be in any genre or format, the term is most often applied to sculptors and painters, by the mid-century, a taste for animal subjects was very widespread among all sections of the middle-classes. In French, a parc animalier is a zoo, richard Ansdell Rosa Bonheur Jacques Raymond Brascassat Alexandre-François Desportes Melchior dHondecoeter Charles Jacque Paul Jouve Edwin Landseer Examples Link
41.
Carole Fredericks
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Carole Denise Fredericks was an American singer most famous for her recordings in France. Carole emerged from the shadow of her brother, the legendary blues musicologist Taj Mahal, to fame and popularity in Europe. For more than two decades Paris, France, was her home and Dakar, Senegal, was her favorite vacation spot. Although Fredericks left her country, she never left her roots. Between 1990 and 1996 she was in the trio Fredericks Goldman Jones alongside singer-songwriter Jean-Jacques Goldman, Carole Denise Fredericks was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on June 5,1952, the youngest of Mildred and Harry Fredericks five children. Carole and her siblings were raised in Springfield and educated in the school system. Her mother who was originally from Bennettsville, South Carolina, sang with Big Bands and her father, the son of immigrants from the island of Saint Kitts, was a pianist and wrote arrangements for jazz trios. Carole grew up in a filled with music from around the world. Her parents encouraged creative expression in all their children, Caroles brothers and sister developed careers in art, music, dance and theatre. Her eldest brother is Grammy-winning blues musician, Taj Mahal and her parents, who came of age during the Harlem Renaissance, instilled in their children a sense of pride in their West Indian and African ancestry through their stories. Carole never got to know her father, when she was two years old, he was killed in a construction accident, crushed by a tractor when it flipped over. By the time she was 20, Carole was living in Oakland, a year after her graduation from Classical High School, she persuaded Taj to send for her. Upon her arrival in San Francisco, Taj put his sister to work as a background vocalist on a number of his albums – Mo Roots, Music Fuh Ya, Together, and Evolution. To supplement the income from work, Carole was employed as a receptionist for the Pacific Personnel Services. She was one of 71 voices in the New Generation Singers Gospel Choir, Fredericks organized a trio – piano, bass and voice – and booked singing engagements on the weekends. In an interview from OH LA, magazine she explains, I was part of a choir for three years and I was doing backup work. It was not enough to sustain a comfortable lifestyle and I started to get sick, I refused to get by on my brothers name. During this period, I was working in San Francisco at a French restaurant, some of the patrons would often suggest that I go to France
42.
African American
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
43.
Edmond de Goncourt
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Edmond de Goncourt, born Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt, was a French writer, literary critic, art critic, book publisher and the founder of the Académie Goncourt. For much of his life, he collaborated with his brother Jules creating works of art criticism and he bequeathed his entire estate for the foundation and maintenance of the Académie Goncourt. In honour of his brother and collaborator, Jules de Goncourt, each December since 1903 and it is the most prestigious prize in French language literature, given to the best imaginary prose work of the year. Marcel Proust, Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Tournier, Marguerite Duras, Romain Gary, Edmond de Goncourt died in Champrosay in 1896, and was interred in the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris. A painting in a museum hears more ridiculous opinions than anything else in the world, if there is a God, atheism must seem to Him as less of an insult than religion. Goncourt brothers Works by Edmond de Goncourt at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Edmond de Goncourt at Internet Archive Blog dedicated to Edmond and Jules de Goncourt
44.
Prix Goncourt
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The Prix Goncourt is a prize in French literature, given by the académie Goncourt to the author of the best and most imaginative prose work of the year. Four other prizes are awarded, prix Goncourt du Premier Roman, prix Goncourt de la Nouvelle, prix Goncourt de la Poésie. Of the big six French literary awards, the Prix Goncourt is the best known, the other major literary prizes are the Grand Prix du roman de lAcadémie française, the Prix Femina, the Prix Renaudot, the Prix Interallié and the Prix Médicis. Edmond de Goncourt, an author, critic, and publisher, bequeathed his estate for the foundation. In honour of his brother and collaborator, Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, the jury that determines the winner meets at the Drouant restaurant in November to make its decision. Notable winners of the prize include Marcel Proust, Simone de Beauvoir, André Malraux, the award was initially established to provide talented new authors with a monetary award that would allow them to write a second book. In 1987, the Prix Goncourt des Lycéens was established, as a collaboration between the académie Goncourt, the French Ministry of Education, and Fnac, a book, music, the Prix Renaudot is announced at the same ceremony as the Prix Goncourt. It has become known as something of a second-place prize, within months of the first prize in 1903, it spawned a hostile counter-prize in the form of the Prix Femina to counter the all-male Jury of the Goncourt with an all-female jury on the Femina. In 1921, Rene Maran won the Goncourt with Batouala, veritable roman negre, the novel caused violent reactions and was banned in all the French colonies. In 1932, the prize was controversial for passing up Louis-Ferdinand Célines Voyage au bout de la nuit for Guy Mazelines Les Loups, the voting process became the basis of the 1992 book Goncourt 32 by Eugène Saccomano. Although the award may only be given to an author once, Romain Gary won it twice, in 1956 for Les racines du ciel, the Académie Goncourt awarded the prize to Ajar without knowing his real identity. A period of literary intrigue followed, garys cousins son Paul Pavlowitch posed as the author for a time. Gary later revealed the truth in his posthumous book Vie et mort dÉmile Ajar, notes Translations full audit, March 2009 Films full audit, February 2011 Translation date is of first translation, later ones may be available. Website of the Academie Goncourt with list of past winners, in addition to the Prix Goncourt for a novel, the Academy Awards four other awards, for first novel, short story, biography and poetry. As of March 2009, the changed the award name by dropping bourses from the title. The prefix prix can be included or not, such as Prix Goncourt de la Poésie or Goncourt de la Poésie, for example, Claude Vigée was awarded a Goncourt de la Poésie in 2008. Or, Claude Vigée won the 2008 prix Goncourt de la Poésie, the award titles are, The winners are listed below. Awarded in partnership with the city of Nancy, begun in 1974 in the form of scholarships
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