1.
Lower Morava Valley
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The Lower Morava Valley Czech, Dolnomoravský úval /Jihomoravská pánev also, German, Nieder March Talsenke, Slovak, Dolnomoravský úval) is a geomorphological formation in the Moravia. It is formed by the depression in the western Carpathian Mountains in the west and Bílé Karpaty, the drainage to the River Morava of the Danube basin runs finally to the Black Sea. Including low watershed Dyje-Morava in Lanžhot, the Lower Morava Valley is a nordest part of Vienna basin and the corridor to Napajedla Gate, Upper Morava Valley, Moravian Gate and later in final goal North European Plain since ancient times. Here ran one arm of the most important trade routes from southern Europe to the Baltic Sea and also routes from Moravia to Upper Silesia, the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway built in 1840-41 from Břeclav to Přerov also traversed the Lower Morava Valley. Soil horizon - mainly sand, fluvisol and loess, partly chernozem, vyškov Gate Subcarpathia Outer Carpathian depressions South-Moravian Carpathians Upper Morava Valley Dyje–Svratka Valley Geografický místopisný slovník, Academia, Praha. ISBN 80-200-0445-9 Plašienka, D. Grecula, P. Putiš, M. Kováč, M. a Hovorka, evolution and structure of the Western Carpathians, an overview. Mineralia Slovaca - Monograph, Košice, s.1 –24
2.
Serbian language
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Serbian is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs. It is the language of Serbia and one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, it is a minority language in Montenegro, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia. Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, which is also the basis of Standard Croatian, Bosnian, the other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian. Serbian is practically the only European standard language with complete synchronic digraphia, the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles. The Latin alphabet was designed by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in 1830, Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, of the South Slavic subgroup. Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin and it has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene. The 2011 census show that 42. 88% still declare Serbian to be their native language, Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic and Latin script. Even in official government documents this constitutional requirement is rarely enforced, Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or another, for example, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script. A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one and these are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the mood, there is also the imperative mood. The conditional mood has two more tenses, the first conditional and the second conditional, Serbian has active and passive voice. As for the verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive. Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language, there are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje in 1192 and Dušanov zakonik in 1349. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, however, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being Serbian epic poetry. The epic poems were written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s
3.
Valley
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A valley is a low area between hills, often with a river running through it. In geology, a valley or dale is a depression that is longer than it is wide, the terms U-shaped and V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography to characterize the form of valleys. Most valleys belong to one of two main types or a mixture of them, with respect to the cross section of the slopes or hillsides. A valley in its broadest geographic sense is known as a dale. A valley through which a river runs may also be referred to as a vale, a small, secluded, and often wooded valley is known as a dell or in Scotland as a glen. A wide, flat valley through which a river runs is known in Scotland as a strath, a mountain cove is a small valley, closed at one or both ends, in the central or southern Appalachian Mountains which sometimes results from the erosion of a geologic window. A small valley surrounded by mountains or ridges is sometimes known as a hollow, a deep, narrow valley is known as a cwm. Similar geological structures, such as canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies, chines, a valley formed by erosion is called an erosional valley, a valley formed by geologic events such as drop faults or the rise of highlands is called a structural valley. A valley formed by flowing water, or river valley, is usually V-shaped, the exact shape will depend on the characteristics of the stream flowing through it. Rivers with steep gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep walls, shallower slopes may produce broader and gentler valleys. However, in the lowest stretch of a river, where it approaches its base level, it begins to deposit sediment, in prehistory, the rivers were used as a source of fresh water and food, as well as a place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderated temperature extremes and provided a source for irrigation, most of the first civilizations developed from these river valley communities. In geography, a vale is a river valley, usually with a particularly wide flood plain or flat valley bottom. In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the escarpment slopes of pairs of chalk formations, where the dome has been eroded, exposing less resistant underlying rock. Rift valleys, such as the Albertine Rift, are formed by the expansion of the Earths crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earths surface, there are various forms of valley associated with glaciation that may be referred to as glacial valleys. A valley carved by glaciers is normally U-shaped, the valley becomes visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it. When the ice recedes or thaws, the remains, often littered with small boulders that were transported within the ice. Floor gradient does not affect the shape, it is the glaciers size that does
4.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
5.
West Morava
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West Morava, is a river in central Serbia, a 308 km-long longer headstream of the Great Morava, which it forms with the South Morava. It was known as Brongos in antiquity, the West Morava originates in the Tašti field, east of the town of Požega, from the Golijska Moravica and Đetinja headstreams. In the field Đetinja receives from the left its main tributary, since the proximity of the confluences of Đetinja, Skrapež and Golijska Moravica, some sources consider all three rivers to be direct headstreams of the West Morava. Following the direction of the course, the Đetinja is a headstream of the West Morava, but since Golijska Moravica is 23 km longer. Measured from the source of the Golijska Moravica, the West Morava is 308 km long while the length of the West Morava proper is 210 km, north of the small town of Stalać, the West and Južna Morava meet and form the Great Morava. The West Morava river valley, Zapadno Pomoravlje, is economically the most developed of all three Morava river valleys, with the valley of the Ibar, the West Morava has a huge potential in electricity production. Water is also used for the irrigation and for the purpose the artificial lake Parmenac is created on the river. Also, out of all three Morava rivers, the West Moravas valley is the most forested one, the watershed of the West Morava is rich in ores, and includes the mining of hard coal, magnesite, chromium, etc. As a result, the industry is developed with a string of heavily industrialized towns, Užice, Požega, Čačak, Kraljevo, Trstenik. The traffic is also important for the economy as the whole of the valley is a natural route for the both roads and railways connecting eastern, central and western Serbia. Altogether, the West Morava receives 85 tributaries, the river used to be longer, but due to the regulation of the flow, it is shorter now. The West Morava has a discharge of 120 m³/s, but it is characterized by extreme fluctuations. The West Morava drains an area of 15,849 km², belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin, when melioration program began in 1966, it was projected that it will become navigable from Kruševac to Čačak. List of rivers of Serbia Great Morava South Morava Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, ISBN 86-07-00001-2 Jovan Đ
6.
South Morava
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South Morava or in the past Bulgarian Morava is a river in eastern Kosovo and in southern Serbia, which represents the shorter headwater of Great Morava. Today, it is 295 km long and it flows generally in the south to north direction, from Macedonian border to Kosovo and onwards to Central Serbia, where it meets West Morava at Stalać, to create Great Morava. The river rises in the Skopska Crna Gora mountain in Macedonia, streams of Ključevska reka and Slatinska reka join together to form the river Golema, which is, after passing the Macedonian-Serbian border, known as Binačka Morava. After 49 km it meets Preševska Moravica at Bujanovac, and for the remaining of 246 km flows as South Morava. South Morava belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin, and its own drainage area is 15,469 km² and its average discharge at the mouth is 100 m³/s and it is not navigable. After breaking through the last, Stalać gorge, it meets West Morava, in macro-geological point of view, South Morava connects Aegean basin with Pannonian basin. This creates a phenomenon named apparent flow inversion, because it seems that river from one lowland climbs up the mountains, South Morava used to be 318 km long and represented longer and natural headwater of Great Morava. Causing severe floods in history, meandering river has been shortened by almost 30 km until today, however, West Morava has always had bigger discharge. Areas in southern Serbia where South Morava flows have been almost completely deforested, as a result of this, the river brings large amount of materials to the Great Morava, filling and elevating its river bed, which helps the huge floods of its daughter river. The most important left ones are, Jablanica, Veternica, Pusta reka, right tributaries are, Vrla, Vlasina, Nišava and Sokobanjska Moravica. South Morava has a significant potential for electricity production, but this has not been used at all, huge hydroelectrical system has been constructed in its drainage basin, though. To a certain extent, its waters are used for irrigation, the most important role river valley has in transportation. It is the route for both railway and highway Belgrade–Skopje–Thessaloniki. It is part of the Pan-European corridor X, and the route of E75 Highway, Great Morava West Morava Nišava River Pčinja River Notes General Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, ISBN 86-07-00001-2 Jovan Đ
7.
Great Morava
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The Great Morava is the final section of the Morava, a major river system in Serbia. The Velika Morava begins at the confluence of the South Morava and the West Morava, located near the town of Stalać. From there to its confluence with the Danube northeast of the city of Smederevo, with its longer branch, the West Morava, it is 493 km long. The South Morava, which represents the natural headwaters of the Morava, used to be longer than the West Morava, at one time the Morava was over 600 km long. The drainage basin of the Velika Morava is 6,126 km², and of the whole Morava system is 37,444 km², Velika Morava flows through the most fertile and densely populated area of Central Serbia, called the Morava river valley or Pomoravlje. Pomoravlje was formed in a bay of a vast, ancient Pannonian Sea which dried out 200,000 years ago. Through about half of its length it passes through beautiful Bagrdan gorge, in past centuries, it was known for its seemingly endless forests, but there is almost nothing left today of those old woods. It flows into the Danube between the villages of Kulič & Dubravica, in the coal mining basin of Kostolac, one of two mines in its drainage basin. The average discharge of the Velika Morava on its confluence with Danube is 255 m³/s, tributaries of the Velika Morava are short, the longest one being the Jasenica and others rarely exceeding 50 km. Right tributaries are, Jovanovačka reka, Crnica, Ravanica, Resava, left tributaries are more numerous, including, Kalenićka reka, Lugomir, Belica River, Lepenica, Rača, and Jasenica. Many of them dont carry much water, but in years, they are known for causing major floods. Before it meets the Danube, the Velika Morava splits, creating a 47 km long arm called the Jezava and its joined by a longer river, the Ralja, from the left. The Velika Morava represents an example of a meandering river. It used to be 245 km long, but directly from its origin to the Danube, there is only 118 km in distance, its ratio is 118,245. The river bed is 80–200 m wide, and the depth as much as 10 m, notorious for its flooding, the Morava has changed its course many times, and old river bends have become small lakes, known as moravište. Južna Morava, with high erosion in its drainage basin, brings huge amounts of silt which is elevating Velika Moravas river bed. Beginning in 1966, huge works began on all three rivers to prevent future floodings, series of reservoirs were made on tributaries, and meanders were cut through, making river courses straightened, which made them shorter. It was projected that it would shorten by as much as 152 km, altogether,18 reservoirs are projected,23 meanders are to be cut, a series of embankments are to be built and intensive afforestation is to be started
8.
Black Sea
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The Black Sea is a body of water between Eastern Europe and Western Asia, bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. It is supplied by a number of rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Rioni, Southern Bug. The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2, a depth of 2,212 m. It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east, the longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km. The Black Sea has a water balance, that is, a net outflow of water 300 km3 per year through the Bosphorus. Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two-way hydrological exchange, the Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea and then the Atlantic Ocean, via the Aegean Sea and various straits. The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and these waters separate Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch, the water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the level in the basin. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established and it is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the world ocean. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a basin, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea, and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows, On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara, a line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia. Strabos Geographica reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called the Sea, for the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the Hospitable sea, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos. This is a euphemism replacing an earlier Inhospitable Sea, Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, strabo thinks that the Black Sea was called inhospitable before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. The name was changed to hospitable after the Milesians had colonized the southern shoreline and it is also possible that the epithet Áxeinos arose by popular etymology from a Scythian word axšaina- unlit, dark, the designation Black Sea may thus date from antiquity. A map of Asia dating to 1570, entitled Asiae Nova Descriptio, from Abraham Orteliuss Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, english-language writers of the 18th century often used the name Euxine Sea to refer to the Black Sea
9.
Anatolia
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Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
10.
Vardar
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The Vardar or Axios is the longest and major river in the Republic of Macedonia and also a major river of Greece. It is 388 km long, and drains an area of around 25,000 km2, the maximum depth of the river is 4 m. The river rises at Vrutok, a few north of Gostivar in the Republic of Macedonia. The Vardar basin comprises two-thirds of the territory of the Republic of Macedonia, the valley features fertile lands in the Polog region, around Gevgelija and in the Thessaloniki regional unit. The river is surrounded by mountains elsewhere, the superhighways Greek National Road 1 in Greece and M1 and E75 run within the valley along the rivers entire length to near Skopje. The river was famous during the Ottoman Empire and modern-day Turkey and was the inspiration for many folk songs. It has also depicted on the coat of arms of Skopje. The Vardaris or Vardarec is a powerful prevailing northerly wind which blows across the river valley in Greek Macedonia as well as in the Republic of Macedonia. At first it descends along the canal of the Vardar valley, somewhat similar to the mistral wind of France, it occurs when atmospheric pressure over eastern Europe is higher than over the Aegean Sea, as is often the case in winter. The etymology of the word is unclear, however most probably, the origin of the name Vardar derives Bardários from Thracian, from Proto-Indo-European *wordo-wori- black water. The name Bardários was sometimes used by the Ancient Greeks in the 3rd Century BCE, the same name was widely used in the Byzantine era. The word may ultimately be derived from the PIE root *werǵ- and its Greek name, Axios, is mentioned by Homer as the home of the Paeonians allies of Troy. The name Affi is mentioned by Pjetër Bogdani in his work Cuneus Prophetarum as a name of Vardar. Great Morava Pčinja River Proceedings of the 1st Axios Catchment Consortium Meeting by the European Commission - DG Research, PIM Ivan Milutinović, Belgrade, Serbia, Morava - Vardar Navigation Route Morava - Vardar Navigation Route map Hydropower and navigation system Morava
11.
Aegean Sea
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The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the Greek and Anatolian peninsulas, i. e. between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles, the Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea was known as Archipelago, but in English this words meaning has changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and, generally. In ancient times, there were various explanations for the name Aegean, a possible etymology is a derivation from the Greek word αἶγες – aiges = waves, hence wavy sea, cf. also αἰγιαλός, hence meaning sea-shore. The Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name Archipelago, in some South Slavic languages the Aegean is often called White Sea. The Aegean Sea covers about 214,000 square kilometres in area, the seas maximum depth is 3,543 metres, east of Crete. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos, many of the Aegean Islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows, On the South. In the Dardanelles. A line joining Kum Kale and Cape Helles, the dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of 23–30 metres, then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of 5–15 cm/s. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, Aegean Sea Intermediate Water – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40–50 m to 200–300 metres with temperatures ranging from 11–18 °C. Aegean Sea Bottom Water – occurring at depths below 500–1000 m with a uniform temperature. The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC, before that time, at the peak of the last ice age sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared c.7000 BC, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that, the subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Mycenean Civilization of the Peloponnese, later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the Athenian Empire and Hellenic Civilization. Plato described the Greeks living round the Aegean like frogs around a pond, the Aegean Sea was later invaded by the Persians and the Romans, and inhabited by the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Seljuq Turks, and the Ottoman Empire. The Aegean was the site of the democracies, and its seaways were the means of contact among several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean. Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays, in ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland
12.
Latitude
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In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earths surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles, lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the location of features on the surface of the Earth. Without qualification the term latitude should be taken to be the latitude as defined in the following sections. Also defined are six auxiliary latitudes which are used in special applications, there is a separate article on the History of latitude measurements. Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definition of latitude and longitude, in the first step the physical surface is modelled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses. The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface, the simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modelled by an ellipsoid. The definitions of latitude and longitude on such surfaces are detailed in the following sections. Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface, latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO19111 standard. This is of importance in accurate applications, such as a Global Positioning System, but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required. In English texts the latitude angle, defined below, is denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi. It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees, the precise measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either to set up theodolites or to determine GPS satellite orbits. The study of the figure of the Earth together with its field is the science of geodesy. These topics are not discussed in this article and this article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth, it may be extended to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects by a simple change of nomenclature. The primary reference points are the poles where the axis of rotation of the Earth intersects the reference surface, the plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator. Planes parallel to the plane intersect the surface in circles of constant latitude. The Equator has a latitude of 0°, the North Pole has a latitude of 90° North, the latitude of an arbitrary point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius to that point. The latitude, as defined in this way for the sphere, is termed the spherical latitude
13.
Meridian (geography)
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A meridian is the half of an imaginary great circle on the Earths surface, terminated by the North Pole and the South Pole, connecting points of equal longitude. The position of a point along the meridian is given by its latitude indicating how many degrees north or south of the Equator the point is, each meridian is perpendicular to all circles of latitude. Each is also the length, being half of a great circle on the Earths surface. Most maps show the lines of longitude, the position of the prime meridian has changed a few times throughout history, mainly due to the transit observatory being built next door to the previous one. Such changes had no significant practical effect, historically, the average error in the determination of longitude was much larger than the change in position. The adoption of WGS84 as the system has moved the geodetic prime meridian 102.478 metres east of its last astronomic position. The position of the current geodetic prime meridian is not identified at all by any kind of sign or marking in Greenwich, but can be located using a GPS receiver. The term meridian comes from the Latin meridies, meaning midday, the same Latin stem gives rise to the terms a. m. and p. m. used to disambiguate hours of the day when utilizing the 12-hour clock. Therefore, a compass needle will be parallel to the magnetic meridian, the angle between the magnetic and the true meridian is the magnetic declination, which is relevant for navigating with a compass. Searchable PDF prepared by the author, C. A. White, resources page of the U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management Meridian
14.
Rasina (river)
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The Rasina is a river in south central Serbia. The 92 km long river flows through the Rasina region, gives its name to the modern Rasina District of Serbia, the Rasina springs from the southern slopes of the Goč mountain, near the village of Rašovka, southwest of the most famous Serbian spa, Vrnjačka Banja. The river originally flows to the southeast, around the mountains of Željin and Kopaonik, next to the villages of Mitrovo Polje, Bzenica, Pleš, Jablanica, Grčak, Toskići, Budilovina and Milentija. When the Rasina reaches the town of Brus, it enters the upper Rasina region and continues next to the villages of Tršanovci, Lepenac. At this point the river reaches the side of the Veliki Jastrebac mountain. In this part of the course, the Rasina also makes a southeast border of the Aleksandrovačka Župa region, after the villages of Bogiše and Zlatari, the Rasina has been dammed at the village of Ćelije, with an artificial lake Ćelije. The lake is created as a part of the program of the Velika Morava river. The lower Rasina region is populated, with the administrative center of the Rasina District. In its lower course, the Rasina is followed by a flow of the Pepeljuša river. Seven kilometers after Kruševac, the Rasina flows into the Zapadna Morava at the village of Makrešane, the Rasina drains an area of 994 km², belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is not navigable. Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, ISBN 86-07-00001-2 Jovan Đ, marković, Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije, Svjetlost-Sarajevo, ISBN 86-01-02651-6
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Tara (mountain)
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Tara is a mountain located in western Serbia. It is part of Dinaric Alps and stands at 1, 000-1,500 metres above sea level. The mountains slopes are clad in dense forests with numerous high-altitude clearings and meadows, steep cliffs, deep ravines carved by the nearby Drina River and many karst, the mountain is a popular tourist centre. Taras national park encompasses a part of the mountain. The highest peak is Zborište, at 1,544 m, taras national park was established in 1981 and it encompasses Tara and Zvijezda mountains, in a large bend of the Drina River. The size of the park is about 220 square km with altitudes varying from 250 to 1,500 metres above sea level, the parks management office is located in nearby Bajina Bašta. The national park consists of a group of peaks with deep picturesque gorges between them. The most striking of these gorges is the Drina Gorge, with its sheer drops from 1000–250 metres and extensive views of western Serbia, the area is also characterised by karst caves, pits, springs, and breathtaking vista points. Forests account for three quarters of this national parks area, some of them being the best preserved and well-kept in Europe, Tara also boasts a rare endemic Tertiary species, the Picea omorika, or Serbian Spruce, which is now protected in a small area of the park. Because of its rarity and scientific importance, it has placed under national protection. Locally, Tara is home to different species of wildlife, including brown bears, chamois, roe deer, lynxes, otters, wolves. The main tourist points are Kaluđerske Bare on the north, close to Bajina Bašta, hotels Beli Bor and Omorika, as well as several smaller ones, are located on Kaluđerske Bare, while Mitrovac hosts eponymous childrens recreation hotel. The National Park can be reached from Bajina Bašta directly, from Perućac via Bajina Bašta, the Drina gorge, which is an integral part of the park, can be toured by boat. Interesting locally made items are woolen handcrafts, various products, juniper and plum spirits and honey
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Zlatibor
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Zlatibor is a mountainous region situated in the western part of Serbia. Zlatibor is an important tourist area of Serbia, with resources for health tourism, the main city of the region is Užice, located at the foothills of the mountain, and most of the area belongs to the municipality of Čajetina. Town of Zlatibor emerged from a group of homes into a full-fledged urban location. Zlatibor is administratively divided into two municipalities within Serbia, Čajetina and Užice, in the Zlatibor District, the railroad Belgrade-Bar passes through Zlatibor. In the Middle Ages, Zlatibor was known as Rujno, a župa that was part of Raška, the name Zlatibor started to be used in the 18th century, but its etymology is uncertain. It probably stems from the Serbian words zlatni and bor, pinus sylvestris var. zlatiborica is a subspecies of pine originating from the mountain, and is endangered today. The hill called Cigla near the village of Jablanica still has some borderline markings of the Kingdom of Serbia, Austria-Hungary, Zlatibor is located in the northern part of the Stari Vlah region, a historical border region between Raška, Herzegovina and Bosnia. It spreads over an area of 300 square kilometres,43 km in length, southeast to northwest and its highest peak Tornik has an elevation of 1,496 m. Zlatibor is situated between 43°31 N, and 43°51 N, and between 19°28 E and 19°56 E, the southern and the eastern border of Zlatibor are natural – the rivers Uvac and Veliki Rzav. Villages of Mokra Gora, Semegnjevo and Jablanica mark its western border towards the Tara Mountain, southern part of Zlatibor, extending towards the Zlatar mountain, is referred to as Murtenica. Tourist facilities include hotels, holiday centers and cottages, sports grounds. Tourist era on Zlatibor officially began on 20 August 1893, when the King of Serbia Aleksandar Obrenović decided to establish a resort on an initiative from the local hosts. To his honor, a fountain was erected on the place where he had lunch, it was accompanied by a small lake. In 1945, it was renamed to Partizanske Vode after Yugoslav Partisans, the area is a location of numerous hotels, villas, restaurants, open swimming pools and other sports facilities. Eventually, residents of surrounding villages of Sirogojno, Gostilje, Jablanica, Rožanstvo, Ljubiš, Tripkova, Tornik is the highest peak of Zlatibor, at an altitude 1,496 m. Tornik ski resort is located at elevations between 1,110 and 1,490 m and it has several tracks, four being covered by artificial snowing systems, with the total capacity of the about 5,400 skiers per hour. It is equipped with a chairlift, carrying 3,000 skiers per hour. Along with Kopaonik and Stara Planina, it is one of the most popular resorts in Serbia, ponikve Airport Zlatibor in words and pictures Zlatibor. com Live cam Tornik ski resort
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Suvobor
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Suvobor is a mountain in central Serbia, near the town of Gornji Milanovac. Its highest peak Suvobor has an elevation of 866 meters above sea level, the northwestern part of Suvobor is called Rajac and is generally best developed touristically. Suvobor and Rajac were the site of Battle of Kolubara of the World War I in December 1914, in World War II, Suvobor was a stronghold of Chetnik movement, and their leader Draža Mihailović had the main headquarters at Ravna Gora. After World War II forest rangers planted conifer trees on the bare summit of the mountain. The valleys around Suvobor are covered with oak forests, its slopes on the other hand are covered with conifer trees. On the slopes of the different animal species can be found like roe deer, hare. Vrujci spa is located at the slopes of Suvobor
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Maljen
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Maljen is a mountain in western Serbia, just south of the city of Valjevo. It is well known as a summer and winter resort, the highest peak is Kraljev Sto, at 1,104 m above sea level, followed by Crni Vrh at 1,096 m. On Maljen is situated resort Divčibare with 3 hotels,24 holiday camps, during summer the slopes of the mountain are covered with flower meadows with white daffodils. 39 Maljen–Suvobor Divčibare - pet šafrančića za jod u vazduhu
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Serbian Orthodox Church
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The Serbian Orthodox Church is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Christian churches. It is the second oldest Slavic Orthodox Church in the world, the Serbian Orthodox Church comprises the majority of population in Serbia, Montenegro, and the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is organized into metropolises and eparchies located primarily in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Croatia, the Serbian Orthodox Church is an autocephalous, or ecclesiastically independent, member of the Orthodox communion. Serbian Patriarch serves as first among equals in his church, the current patriarch is Irinej, the Church achieved autocephalous status in 1219 under the leadership of St. Sava, becoming independent Archbishopric of Žiča. Its status was elevated to that of a patriarchate in 1346 and this patriarchate was abolished by the Ottoman Turks in 1766. The modern Serbian Orthodox Church was re-established in 1920 after the unification of the Patriarchate of Karlovci, the Metropolitanate of Belgrade, Christianity spread to the Balkans beginning in the 1st century. Florus and Laurus are venerated as Christian martyrs of the 2nd century, Constantine the Great, born in Niš, was the first Christian Roman Emperor. Several bishops seated in what is today Serbia participated in the First Council of Nicaea, in 380, Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius decreed that his subjects would be Christians according to the Council of Nicea formula. Greek was used in the Byzantine church, while the Roman church used Latin, with the definite split in 395, the line in Europe ran south along the Drina river. Tim Judah says that the Roman split resulted in that Serbs are Orthodox, among old Christian heritage is the Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima, established in 535, which had jurisdiction over the whole of present-day Serbia. However, the Archbishopric did not last, as the Slavs and Avars destroyed the region sometime after 602, in 731 Leo III attached Illyricum and Southern Italy to Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople, transferring the papal authority to the Eastern Church. Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries, the history of the early medieval Serbian Principality is recorded in the work De Administrando Imperio, compiled by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. The DAI drew information on the Serbs from, among others, the Serbs were said to have received the protection of Emperor Heraclius, and Porphyrogenitus stressed that the Serbs had always been under Imperial rule. The Christianization was due partly to Byzantine and subsequent Bulgarian influence, at least during the rule of Kocel in Pannonia, communications between Serbia and Great Moravia, where Methodius was active, must have been possible. This fact, the pope was presumably aware of, when planning Methodius diocese as well as that of the Dalmatian coast, there is a possibility that some Cyrillomethodian pupils reached Serbia in the 870s, perhaps even sent by Methodius himself. Serbia was accounted Christian as of about 870, the first Serbian bishopric was founded at Ras, near modern Novi Pazar on the Ibar river. According to Vlasto, the affiliation is uncertain, it may have been under the subordination of either Split or Durazzo. The early Ras church can be dated to the 9th–10th century, the names of Serbian rulers through Mutimir are Slavic dithematic names, per the Old Slavic tradition
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Mount Athos
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Mount Athos is a mountain and peninsula in northeastern Greece and an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism. It is governed as an autonomous polity within the Greek Republic under the official name Autonomous Monastic State of the Holy Mountain, Mount Athos is home to 20 monasteries under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Mount Athos is commonly referred to in Greek as the Holy Mountain, other languages of orthodox tradition also use names translating to Holy Mountain. In the classical era, while the mountain was called Athos, the free movement of people and goods in its territory is prohibited, unless formal permission is granted by the Monastic States authorities, and only males are allowed to enter.6 square kilometres. The actual Mount Athos has steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to 2,033 metres, the surrounding seas, especially at the end of the peninsula, can be dangerous. In ancient Greek history two fleet disasters in the area are recorded, In 492 BC Darius, the king of Persia, in 411 BC the Spartans lost a fleet of 50 ships under admiral Epicleas. Though land-linked, Mount Athos is practically only by ferry. The Agios Panteleimon and Axion Estin travel daily between Ouranoupolis and Dafni, with stops at some monasteries on the western coast, there is also a smaller speed boat, the Agia Anna, which travels the same route, but with no intermediate stops. It is possible to travel by ferry to and from Ierissos for direct access to monasteries along the eastern coast, the number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, and all are required to obtain a special entrance permit valid for a limited period. Only males are permitted to visit the territory, which is called the Garden of Virgin Mary by the monks, residents on the peninsula must be males aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers. Athos in Greek mythology is the name of one of the Gigantes that challenged the Greek gods during the Gigantomachia, Athos threw a massive rock against Poseidon which fell in the Aegean sea and became Mount Athos. According to another version of the story, Poseidon used the mountain to bury the defeated giant, homer mentions the mountain Athos in the Iliad. Herodotus mentions the peninsula, then called Acte, telling us that Pelasgians from the island of Lemnos populated it and naming five cities thereon, Sane, Cleonae, Thyssos, Olophyxos, Strabo also mentions the cities of Dion and Acrothoï. Eretria also established colonies on Acte, at least one other city was established in the Classical period, Acanthus. Some of these cities minted their own coins, the peninsula was on the invasion route of Xerxes I, who spent three years excavating a channel across the isthmus to allow the passage of his invasion fleet in 483 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great, the architect Dinocrates proposed carvingg the entire mountain into a statue of Alexander, the history of the peninsula during latter ages is shrouded by the lack of historical accounts. Archaeologists have not been able to determine the location of the cities reported by Strabo. It is believed that they must have been deserted when Athos new inhabitants, according to the Athonite tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary was sailing accompanied by St John the Evangelist from Joppa to Cyprus to visit Lazarus
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Ibar river
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The Ibar, also known as the Ibër and Ibri, is a river that flows through eastern Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo, with a total length of 276 km. The river begins in the Hajla mountain, in Rožaje, eastern Montenegro, passes through Kosovo and flows into the West Morava river, Central Serbia and it belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin. Its own drainage area is 8,059 km2, average discharge at the mouth 60 m³/s, the Ibar originates from six springs on the Hajla mountain in eastern Montenegro. It flows generally north-east, passing through Ibarac, Rožaje, Radetina and Bać, passing through the most southern part of Raška District, it flows through several small villages, but this is one of the least populated areas of Serbia. In this whole area, the river has no major tributaries, also, in this part, it represents the route of the one of two main roads connecting Serbia and Montenegro. At a point near the village of Vitkovići, it turns south, continuing to the south, the river passes through Gazivode, Zubin Potok, Ugljare, Zupče and Šipolje, reaching the city of Kosovska Mitrovica. There, it makes a sharp, elbow turn to the north flowing through Zvečan, Slatina, Sočanica, Leposavić, Dren and Lešak, at Gazivode, the river is dammed, creating the artificial Lake Gazivode. Water from the lake is used for industrial and mining facilities in the Kosovska Mitrovica/Trepča area, below Gazivode another reservoir is created, Lake Pridvorice. At Kosovska Mitrovica, the river enters a minerals and ore rich area of the slopes of Kopaonik mountain. The area is rich in lead, zinc and silver. Right on its turn, the Ibar receives its longest tributary. Here, the river receives its tributaries, the Raška, Studenica and Lopatnica, from the left. In this section, the river has carved the 40 km long and 550 m deep Ibar gorge, which is the route for the major road in this part of Serbia. This stretch of the river is famous for its pinched meanders, Dolina jorgovana, Dolina banja, with many spas and springs, such as Jošanička Banja, Mataruška Banja and Bogutovačka Banja). The gorge is carved between the mountains of Golija, Čemerno and Troglav, from the east, and Kopaonik, Željin and Stolovi and this is a continuation of Kopaoniks mining rich area, including deposits of iron ore, nickel, asbestos, magnesite and hard coal. Serbia plans to build ten hydro electric power dams on the Ibar river, vrelo Ibra List of rivers of Europe Rivers of Serbia Rivers of Montenegro Notes, References, Mala Prosvetina Enciklopedija, Third edition, Prosveta, ISBN 86-07-00001-2 Jovan Đ. Marković, Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije Svjetlost-Sarajevo, ISBN 86-01-02651-6
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Kraljevo
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Kraljevo is a city and the administrative center of the Raška District in western Serbia. In 2011 the city area has a population of 68,749 inhabitants. The city administrative area consists of 16 settlements, with an area of 1530 km², it is the second largest municipality in Serbia. The coat of arms of Kraljevo simbolizes those seven kings with the seven crowns drawn on it, the lower Ibar region is thought to be the first area where Serbs began to develop cultural, political and economic life. The Serbian state named Raška was formed in the 11th century, there are numerous monasteries in the area, of which Studenica, Žiča are examples. These provided a seat for the Archbishop and have used for the crowning of seven Serbian kings, e. g. Ljubostinja, Gradac, Stara. There is also a fortress known as Maglič. The village of Rudo Polje, from which Kraljevo arose, was settled during the 14th century and this area was occupied by the Turks in the period between 1458-1459. During Turkish rule Rudo Polje became known as Karanovac, Karanovac became an important settlement during the war between Austria and Turkey in the period between 1718-1739. After 1718, a border between Austria and Turkey was established on the river Moravas which led to Karanovac becoming a place of refuge for Turks who were fleeing from the Austrians, Karanovac became a county capital in 1819. During World War II Kraljevo was caught up in the fighting between the occupying German army and the Serbian people, in 1941, local resistance fighters attacked a German garrison stationed near Kraljevo. In retaliation for the losses that the German army sustained in this attack. In November 1944, heavy battles were fought in Kraljevo and its surrounding areas, soviet and Yugoslav forces fought fiercely against the Germans. Kraljevo was liberated on 29 November 1944, one prominent feature of the area is the Coronation church which belongs to the Žiča monastery. Here, seven Serbian kings are said to have been crowned, the famous monastery of Studenica,39 km south west of Kraljevo, stands high among the south-western mountains, overlooking the Studenica, a tributary of the Ibar. The carvings around the north, south and west doors have been defaced by the Turks. The inner walls are decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among only a painting of the Last Supper. The dome and narthex are modern additions, from 1929 to 1941, Kraljevo was part of the Morava Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
