1.
Conservation status
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The conservation status of a group of organisms indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Various systems of conservation status exist and are in use at international, multi-country, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Also included are species that have gone extinct since 500 AD, when discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term threatened is a grouping of three categories, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category, Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora aims to ensure that trade in specimens of wild animals. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES, in the European Union, the Birds and Habitats Directives are the legal instruments that evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats. NatureServe conservation status focuses on Latin America, United States, Canada, and it has been developed by scientists from NatureServe, The Nature Conservancy, and the network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system and its categories for species include, presumed extinct, possibly extinct, critically imperiled, imperiled, vulnerable, apparently secure, and secure. The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including inexact numeric ranks, NatureServe adds a qualifier for captive or cultivated only, which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List extinct in the wild status. The Red Data Book of the Russian Federation is used within the Russian Federation, in Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria, prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status, in Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch. In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act, it is up to the federal government, in China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book, in Finland, a large number of species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the EU Habitats Directive and EU Birds Directive. In Germany, the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation publishes red lists of endangered species, india has the Wild Life Protection Act,1972, Amended 2003 and the Biological Diversity Act,2002. In Japan, the Ministry of Environment publishes a Threatened Wildlife of Japan Red Data Book, in the Netherlands, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives, in New Zealand, the Department of Conservation publishes the New Zealand Threat Classification System lists
2.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
3.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
4.
Chordate
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Chordates are deuterostomes, as during the embryo development stage the anus forms before the mouth. They are also bilaterally symmetric coelomates, in the case of vertebrate chordates, the notochord is usually replaced by a vertebral column during development, and they may have body plans organized via segmentation. There are also additional extinct taxa, the Vertebrata are sometimes considered as a subgroup of the clade Craniata, consisting of chordates with a skull, the Craniata and Tunicata compose the clade Olfactores. Of the more than 65,000 living species of chordates, the worlds largest and fastest animals, the blue whale and peregrine falcon respectively, are chordates, as are humans. Fossil chordates are known from at least as early as the Cambrian explosion, Hemichordata, which includes the acorn worms, has been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but it now is usually treated as a separate phylum. The Hemichordata, along with the Echinodermata, form the Ambulacraria, the Chordata and Ambulacraria form the superphylum Deuterostomia, composed of the deuterostomes. Attempts to work out the relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. All of the earliest chordate fossils have found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna. Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a prospect of dating their emergence. However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial and it has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce family trees shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic. While this has been known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson, it was already in prevalent use by 1880, ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization, among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. In fish and other vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord, the pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. This is a groove in the wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus and it also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland
5.
Mammal
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Mammals are any vertebrates within the class Mammalia, a clade of endothermic amniotes distinguished from reptiles by the possession of a neocortex, hair, three middle ear bones and mammary glands. All female mammals nurse their young with milk, secreted from the mammary glands, Mammals include the largest animals on the planet, the great whales. The basic body type is a quadruped, but some mammals are adapted for life at sea, in the air, in trees. The largest group of mammals, the placentals, have a placenta, Mammals range in size from the 30–40 mm bumblebee bat to the 30-meter blue whale. With the exception of the five species of monotreme, all modern mammals give birth to live young, most mammals, including the six most species-rich orders, belong to the placental group. The largest orders are the rodents, bats and Soricomorpha, the next three biggest orders, depending on the biological classification scheme used, are the Primates, the Cetartiodactyla, and the Carnivora. Living mammals are divided into the Yinotheria and Theriiformes There are around 5450 species of mammal, in some classifications, extant mammals are divided into two subclasses, the Prototheria, that is, the order Monotremata, and the Theria, or the infraclasses Metatheria and Eutheria. The marsupials constitute the group of the Metatheria, and include all living metatherians as well as many extinct ones. Much of the changes reflect the advances of cladistic analysis and molecular genetics, findings from molecular genetics, for example, have prompted adopting new groups, such as the Afrotheria, and abandoning traditional groups, such as the Insectivora. The mammals represent the only living Synapsida, which together with the Sauropsida form the Amniota clade, the early synapsid mammalian ancestors were sphenacodont pelycosaurs, a group that produced the non-mammalian Dimetrodon. At the end of the Carboniferous period, this group diverged from the line that led to todays reptiles. Some mammals are intelligent, with some possessing large brains, self-awareness, Mammals can communicate and vocalize in several different ways, including the production of ultrasound, scent-marking, alarm signals, singing, and echolocation. Mammals can organize themselves into fission-fusion societies, harems, and hierarchies, most mammals are polygynous, but some can be monogamous or polyandrous. They provided, and continue to provide, power for transport and agriculture, as well as commodities such as meat, dairy products, wool. Mammals are hunted or raced for sport, and are used as model organisms in science, Mammals have been depicted in art since Palaeolithic times, and appear in literature, film, mythology, and religion. Defaunation of mammals is primarily driven by anthropogenic factors, such as poaching and habitat destruction, Mammal classification has been through several iterations since Carl Linnaeus initially defined the class. No classification system is accepted, McKenna & Bell and Wilson & Reader provide useful recent compendiums. Though field work gradually made Simpsons classification outdated, it remains the closest thing to a classification of mammals
6.
Odd-toed ungulate
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Members of the order Perissodactyla, otherwise known as odd-toed ungulates, are mammals characterized by an odd number of toes and by hindgut fermentation with somewhat simple stomachs. Perissodactyla comes from the Ancient Greek περισσός + δάκτυλος, unlike the even-toed ungulates, they digest plant cellulose in their intestines rather than in one or more stomach chambers. The order includes three extant families, Equidae, Rhinocerotidae, and Tapiridae, with a total of about 17 species. In spite of their different appearances, they were recognized as related families in the 19th century by the zoologist Richard Owen. The largest odd-toed ungulates are rhinoceroses, and the extinct Paraceratherium, at the other extreme, an early member of the order, the prehistoric horse Hyracotherium, had a shoulder height of only 30 to 60 cm. Apart from dwarf varieties of the horse and donkey, perissodactyls reach a body length of 180–420 cm. While rhinos have only sparse hair and exhibit a thick epidermis, tapirs and horses have dense, most species are grey or brown, although zebras and young tapirs are striped. The main axes of both the front and rear feet pass through the toe, which is always the largest. The remaining toes have been reduced in size to varying degrees, tapirs, which are adapted to walking on soft ground, have four toes on their fore feet and three on their hind feet. Living rhinos have three toes on both the front and hind feet, modern equines possess only a single toe, however, their feet are equipped with hooves, which almost completely cover the toe. Rhinos and tapirs, by contrast, have hooves covering only the edge of the toes. The ulnae and fibulae are reduced in horses, a common feature that clearly distinguishes this group from other mammals is the saddle-shaped ankle between the astragalus and the scaphoid, which greatly restricts the mobility of the foot. The thigh is relatively short, and the clavicle is absent, odd-toed ungulates have a long upper jaw with an extended diastema between the front and cheek teeth, giving them an elongated head. The various forms of snout between families are due to differences in the form of the premaxilla, the lacrimal bone has projecting cusps in the eye sockets and a wide contact with the nasal bone. The temporomandibular joint is high and the mandible is enlarged, rhinos have one or two horns made of agglutinated keratin, unlike the horns of even-toed ungulates, which have a bony core. The number and form of the teeth vary according to diet, the incisors and canines can be very small or completely absent, as in the two African species of rhinoceros. In the horses, usually only the males possess canines, the surface shape and height of the molars is heavily dependent on whether soft leaves or hard grass makes up the main component of their diets. Three or four teeth are present on each jaw half, so the dental formula of odd-toed ungulates is
7.
Equidae
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Equidae is the taxonomic family of horses and related animals, including the extant horses, donkeys, and zebras, and many other species known only from fossils. All extant species are in the genus Equus, Equidae belongs to the order Perissodactyla, which includes the extant tapirs and rhinoceros, and several extinct families. The term equid refers to any member of family, including any equine. The oldest known fossils assigned to Equidae date from the early Eocene,54 million years ago and they used to be assigned to the genus Hyracotherium, but the type species of that genus now is regarded to be not a member of this family. The other species have split off into different genera. These early Equidae were fox-sized animals with three toes on the feet, and four on the front feet. They were herbivorous browsers on relatively soft plants, and already adapted for running, the complexity of their brains suggest that they already were alert and intelligent animals. Later species reduced the number of toes, and developed teeth more suited for grinding up grasses, the family became relatively diverse during the Miocene, with many new species appearing. By this time, equids were more truly horse-like, having developed the body shape of the modern animals. Many of these bore the main weight of their bodies on their central, third, toe, with the others becoming reduced. The sole surviving genus, Equus, had evolved by the early Pleistocene, order Perissodactyla † indicates extinct taxa
8.
Equus (genus)
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Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within Equidae, Equus is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species, the term equine refers to any member of this genus, including horses. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World, Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers with simpler digestive systems than ruminants, while the domestic horse and donkey exist worldwide, wild equine populations are limited to Africa and Asia. In both systems, females take care of their offspring but males may play a role as well, Equines communicate with each other both visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations and out of the seven living species, only the plains zebra remains widespread and abundant. The word equus is Latin for horse, and is cognate with the Greek ἵππος, horse, and Mycenaean Greek i-qo /ikkʷos/, the genus Equus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae, the first equids were small, dog-sized mammals adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene, around 54 million years ago. These animals had three toes on the feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws. Equids developed into larger, three-toed animals during the Oligocene and Miocene, from there, the tridactyl toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single-toed Equus. The genus Equus, which all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus. One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens, described as zebra-like with a head shape. The oldest material to date was found in Idaho, USA, the genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged E. livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines lived ~5.6 mya, mitochondrial evidence supports the division of Equus species into non-caballoid and caballoids or true horses. Of the extant equine species, the lineage of the asses may have diverged first, zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa where they are endemic. Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the non-caballoids 4 mya, genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines, as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus E. belong to E. ferus. Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped together as New World stilt-legged horses probably all belong to a species that was endemic to North America
9.
Donkey
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The donkey or ass is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, the donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries, working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence levels. Small numbers of donkeys are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries, a male donkey or ass is called a jack, a female a jenny or jennet, a young donkey is a foal. Jack donkeys are used to mate with female horses to produce mules. Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BC, probably in Egypt or Mesopotamia and they continue to fill important roles in many places today. While domesticated species are increasing in numbers, the African wild ass is an endangered species, as beasts of burden and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia. Traditionally, the name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. This means that the scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies. At one time, the ass was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of donkey was in either 1784 or 1785, while the word ass has cognates in most other Indo-European languages, donkey is an etymologically obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. From the 18th century, donkey gradually replaced ass, and jenny replaced she-ass, by the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ass and arse had caused them to become homophones. Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management, the height at the withers ranges from 7.3 to 15.3 hands, and the weight from 80 to 480 kg. Working donkeys in the poorest countries have an expectancy of 12 to 15 years, in more prosperous countries. Donkeys are adapted to desert lands. Unlike wild and feral horses, wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary, each adult donkey establishes a home range, breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack. Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the period varies from 11 to 14 months
10.
Horse
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The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses anatomy enables them to use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait, female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four and they reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, the oldest verifiable record was Old Billy, a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had listed in Guinness World Records as the worlds oldest living pony. The exception is in endurance riding, where the age to compete is based on the animals actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages, Colt, a common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly, A female horse under the age of four, foal, A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling, most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects. Gelding, A castrated male horse of any age, mare, A female horse four years old and older
11.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
12.
Offspring
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In biology, offspring are the young born of living organisms, produced either by a single organism or, in the case of sexual reproduction, two organisms. Collective offspring may be known as a brood or progeny in a general way. This can refer to a set of offspring, such as the chicks hatched from one clutch of eggs, or to all the offspring. Human offspring are referred to as children, male children are sons, offspring can occur after mating or after artificial insemination. Offspring contains many parts and properties that are precise and accurate in what they consist of, and what they define. As the offspring of a new species, also known as a child or f1 generation, consist of genes of the father and the mother, each of these offspring contains numerous genes which have coding for specific tasks and properties. Males and females contribute equally to the genotypes of their offspring, in which gametes fuse and form. An important aspect of the formation of the parent offspring is the chromosome, depending on which genes are dominantly expressed in the gene will result in the sex of the offspring. The female will give an X chromosome, whereas the male, depending on the situation. If a male offspring is produced, the gene will consist of an X, if two X chromosomes are expressed and produced, it produces a female offspring. Cloning is the production of an offspring which represents the identical genes as its parent, reproductive cloning begins with the removal of the nucleus from an egg, which holds the genetic material. In order to clone an organ, a cell is to be produced. A common misconception of cloning is that it produces a copy of the parent being cloned. Cloning copies the DNA/genes of the parent and then creates a genetic duplicate, the clone will not be a similar copy as he or she will grow up in different surroundings from the clone and may encounter different opportunities and experiences. Although mostly positive, cloning also faces some setbacks in terms of ethics, though cell division and DNA replication is a vital part of survival, there are many steps involved and mutations can occur with permanent change in an organisms and their offsprings DNA. Lineal descendant kinship and descent Clutch size Infanticide Litter Parent-offspring conflict Parental investment
13.
Mare
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A mare is an adult female horse or other equine. In most cases, a mare is a horse over the age of three, and a filly is a female horse three and younger. In Thoroughbred horse racing, a mare is defined as a horse more than four years old. The word can also be used for other female equine animals, particularly mules and zebras, a broodmare is a mare used for breeding. A horses female parent is known as its dam, an uncastrated adult male horse is called a stallion and a castrated male is a gelding. Occasionally, the horse is used to designate only a male horse. Mares carry their young for approximately 11 months from conception to birth, usually just one young is born, twins are rare. When a domesticated mare foals, she nurses the foal for at least four to six months before it is weaned, the estrous cycle, also known as season or heat of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. As the days shorten, most mares enter a period during the winter. The reproductive cycle in a mare is controlled by the photoperiod, as the days shorten, the mare returns to the anestrus period when she is not sexually receptive. However, for most competitive purposes, foals are given a birthday of January 1. Therefore, many breeding farms begin to put mares under lights in late winter in order to bring out of anestrus early. One exception to this rule is the field of endurance riding. Fillies are sexually mature by age two and are bred at that age, but generally should not be bred until they themselves have stopped growing. A healthy, well-managed mare can produce a foal every year into her twenties, in addition, some mares become anxious when separated from their foals, even temporarily, and thus are difficult to manage under saddle until their foals are weaned. Mares are considered easier to handle than stallions, however, geldings have little to no hormone-driven behavior patterns at all, thus sometimes they are preferred to both mares and stallions. Mares have a notorious, if generally undeserved, reputation for being marish, however, there is considerable evidence that much marish behavior is mostly the result of humans expecting or allowing the mare to misbehave. Because horses in general are very attuned to the state of their riders, expectation by a rider of difficult manners during estrus can create a self-fulfilling prophecy
14.
Chromosome
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A chromosome is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. Prokaryotes usually have one single circular chromosome, whereas most eukaryotes are diploid, chromosomes in eukaryotes are composed of chromatin fiber. Chromatin fiber is made of nucleosomes, a nucleosome is a histone octamer with part of a longer DNA strand attached to and wrapped around it. Chromatin fiber, together with associated proteins is known as chromatin, chromatin is present in most cells, with a few exceptions, for example, red blood cells. Occurring only in the nucleus of cells, chromatin contains the vast majority of DNA, except for a small amount inherited maternally. Chromosomes are normally visible under a microscope only when the cell is undergoing the metaphase of cell division. Before this happens every chromosome is copied once, and the copy is joined to the original by a centromere resulting in an X-shaped structure, the original chromosome and the copy are now called sister chromatids. During metaphase, when a chromosome is in its most condensed state, in this highly condensed form chromosomes are easiest to distinguish and study. In prokaryotic cells, chromatin occurs free-floating in cytoplasm, as these cells lack organelles, the main information-carrying macromolecule is a single piece of coiled double-helix DNA, containing many genes, regulatory elements and other noncoding DNA. The DNA-bound macromolecules are proteins that serve to package the DNA, chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. Some species such as certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA and these are circular structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction plays a significant role in genetic diversity. In prokaryotes and viruses, the DNA is often densely packed and organized, in the case of archaea, by homologs to eukaryotic histones, small circular genomes called plasmids are often found in bacteria and also in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. Some use the term chromosome in a sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells. However, others use the concept in a sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα and σῶμα, describing their strong staining by particular dyes, schleiden, Virchow and Bütschli were among the first scientists who recognized the structures now so familiar to everyone as chromosomes. The term was coined by von Waldeyer-Hartz, referring to the term chromatin, in a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave the definitive demonstration that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity. His two principles were the continuity of chromosomes and the individuality of chromosomes and it is the second of these principles that was so original
15.
Hinny
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A hinny is a domestic equine hybrid that is the offspring of a male horse, a stallion, and a female donkey, a jenny. It is the cross to the more common mule, which is the product of a male donkey and a female horse. Hinnies on average are slightly smaller than mules in part because donkeys are generally smaller than horses, there is debate over whether this is the only reason for the size variances between the two types of hybrid equines. Some fanciers believe this size difference is only physiological, owing to the size of the donkey dam, as compared to mares. Others claim it is a consequence of the reciprocal cross. The position of the American Donkey and Mule Society is, The genetic inheritance of the hinny is exactly the same as the mule, like mules, hinnies do come in many sizes. This is because donkeys come in sizes, from miniatures, as small as 24 inches at the withers. Thus, a hinny is restricted to being about the size of the largest breed of donkey. Mules, however, have a horse as a parent, so they can be as large as the size of the largest breed of horse. Other than size, some minor differences occur that can be used to distinguish between mules and hinnies. The head of a hinny is said to resemble that of a more than it does a mules, with shorter ears. A male hinny is properly called a hinny, and a female hinny is properly called a mare hinny. Hinnies are difficult to obtain because of the differences in the number of chromosomes of the horse, a donkey has 62 chromosomes, whereas a horse has 64. Hinnies, being hybrids of two species, have 63 chromosomes and are sterile. The uneven number of results in an incomplete reproductive system. According to the ADMS, The equine hybrid is easier to obtain when the chromosome count. Therefore breeding for hinnies is more hit-and-miss than breeding for mules, the male hinny or mule can and will mate, but the emission is not fertile. Male hinnies and mules are usually castrated to help control their behavior by eliminating their interest in females, female hinnies and mules are not customarily spayed, and may or may not go through estrus
16.
Draft horse
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Draft horses and draft crossbreds are versatile breeds used today for a multitude of purposes, including farming, draft horse showing, logging, recreation, and other uses. They are also used for crossbreeding, especially to light riding breeds such as the Thoroughbred. While most draft horses are used for driving, they can be ridden, Draft horses are recognizable by their tall stature and extremely muscular build. In general, they tend to have an upright shoulder, producing more upright movement. They tend to have broad, short backs with powerful hindquarters, additionally, the draft breeds usually have heavy bone, and a good deal of feathering on their lower legs. Many have a profile or Roman nose. Draft breeds range from approximately 16 to 19 hands high and from 1,400 to 2,000 lb, Draft horses crossbred on light riding horses adds height and weight to the ensuing offspring, and may increase the power and scope of the animals movement. The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire named Mammoth and he stood 21.2 hands high, and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms. At over 19 hands, a Shire gelding named Goliath was the Guinness Book of World Records record holder for the worlds tallest horse until his death in 2001, humans domesticated horses and needed them to perform a variety of duties. One type of horse-powered work was the hauling of heavy loads, plowing fields, a heavy, calm, patient, well-muscled animal was desired for this work. Conversely, a light, more energetic horse was needed for riding, thus, to the extent possible, a certain amount of selective breeding was used to develop different types of horse for different types of work. The reality was that the high-spirited, quick-moving Destrier was closer to the size, build, there also were working farm horses of more phlegmatic temperaments used for pulling military wagons or performing ordinary farm work also provided bloodlines of the modern draft horse. Records indicate that even medieval drafts were not as large as those today, of the modern draft breeds, the Percheron probably has the closest ties to the medieval war horse. By the 19th century, horses weighing more than 1,600 pounds that also moved at a quick pace were in demand. Even in the 20th century, draft horses were used for practical work, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of draft horses were imported from Western Europe into the United States. Percherons came from France, Belgians from Belgium, Shires from England, many American draft registries were founded in the late 19th century. The Percheron, with 40,000 broodmares registered as of 1915, was America’s most numerous draft breed at the turn of the 20th century. A breed developed exclusively in the U. S. was the American Cream Draft, many were sold to slaughter for horsemeat and a number of breeds went into significant decline
17.
Pakistan Army
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Pakistan Army is the land-based service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. It came into existence after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies it had an active force of approximately 620,000 active personnel as of 2017. In Pakistan, there is 16–23 years of age for military service. Pakistan Army has started inducting women as commissioned officers, Pakistani Air Force and Pakistani Navy have inducted their first female pilots and sailors in 2012 see details at Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces. Since its establishment in 1947, the Army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring India, since 1947, it has also maintained a strong presence along with its inter-services in the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major joint-operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Zarb-e-Azb, Operation Toar-e-Tander, the Army has also been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Serpent in 1993. Under Article 243 of the Constitution of Pakistan, the President is appointed the civilian Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Army Staff, by statute a four-star general, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister. The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by General Qamar Javed Bajwa, the Pakistan Army was created on the 30th of June of the year 1947 from the division of the British Indian Army. Fearing that India would take over the state of Kashmir, irregulars, scouts, in response to this, the Maharaja acceded to India. The Indian Armed Forces were then deployed to Kashmir and this led to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. A ceasefire followed on UN intervention with Pakistan occupying the northwestern part of Kashmir and this aid greatly expanded the Pakistan Army from its modest beginnings. The Pakistan Army took over from politicians for the first time when General Ayub Khan came to power through a coup in 1958. He formed Convention Muslim League which included Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who would later become Pakistans first democratically elected Prime Minister, tensions with India flared in the 1960s and a brief border skirmish was fought near the Rann of Kutch area during April 1965. The War began after the failure of Operation Gibraltar on 5 August 1965, on the night of 6 September 1965, the Indian Army opened the war front to the Province of Punjab of Pakistan, the Indian Army almost reached the Pakistani city of Lahore. The Indian Army conquered around 360 square kilometres square kilometres of Pakistani territory on the outskirts of Lahore. Indian forces halted their assault on Lahore once they had reached the village of Burki, the rationale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon, and had India captured Lahore it would likely have been returned in ceasefire negotiations. The War eventually ended with a United Nations backed ceasefire and was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft,200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistans army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses, at the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000 killed
18.
Estrous cycle
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The estrous cycle comprises the recurring physiologic changes that are induced by reproductive hormones in most mammalian therian females. Estrous cycles start after sexual maturity in females and are interrupted by anestrous phases or pregnancies, typically, estrous cycles continue until death. Some animals may display bloody vaginal discharge, often mistaken for menstruation, however, species vary significantly in the detailed functioning. One difference is that animals that have estrous cycles reabsorb the endometrium if conception does not occur during that cycle, animals that have menstrual cycles shed the endometrium through menstruation instead. In species with estrous cycles, females are generally only sexually active during the phase of their cycle. This is also referred to as being in heat, in contrast, females of species with menstrual cycles can be sexually active at any time in their cycle, even when they are not about to ovulate. Humans have menstrual cycles rather than estrous cycles and they, unlike other species, were thought to not have any obvious external signs to signal estral receptivity at ovulation. Some research suggests, however, that tend to have more sexual thoughts and are far more prone to sexual activity right before ovulation. Estrus is derived via Latin oestrus, from Greek οἶστρος, specifically, this refers to the gadfly that Hera sent to torment Io, who had been won in her heifer form by Zeus. Euripides used oestrus to indicate frenzy, and to describe madness, homer uses the word to describe panic. Plato also uses it to refer to a drive and to describe the soul driven. Somewhat more closely aligned to current meaning and usage of estrus, Herodotus uses oistros to describe the desire of fish to spawn, the earliest use in English is of frenzied passion. In 1900 it was first used to describe rut in animals, in British English, the spelling is oestrus or œstrus. In all English spellings, the ends in -us and the adjective in -ous. Thus in American English, a mammal may be described as in estrus when it is in particular part of the estrous cycle. Estrum is sometimes used as a synonym for estrus, one or several follicles of the ovary start to grow. Typically this phase can last as little as one day or as long as three weeks, depending on the species, under the influence of estrogen the lining in the uterus starts to develop. Some animals may experience vaginal secretions that could be bloody, estrus refers to the phase when the female is sexually receptive
19.
Gelding
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A gelding is a castrated horse or other equine, such as a donkey or a mule. The gerund and participle gelding and the infinitive to geld refer to the procedure itself. The verb geld comes from the Old Norse gelda, from the adjective geldr, the noun gelding is from the Old Norse geldingr. The Scythians are thought to have been the first people to geld their horses, a male horse is often gelded to make him better-behaved and easier to control. Gelding can also remove lower-quality animals from the gene pool, ideally, horse breeders choose to leave only their best animals as stallions, lesser specimens are gelded, to improve the overall quality of the breed. To allow only the finest animals to breed on, while preserving adequate genetic diversity, mainstream sources place the percentage of stallions that should be kept as breeding stock at about 10%, while an extreme view states that only 0. 5% of all males should be bred. Geldings are preferred over stallions for working purposes because they are calmer, easier to handle, geldings are therefore a favorite for many equestrians. Geldings are often preferred over mares, because some mares become temperamental when in heat, also, the use of mares may be limited during the later months of pregnancy and while caring for a young foal. While this means the horse loses any breeding value, a track career can often be a boost to the value of the stallion that sired the gelding. Castration may allow a stallion to live peacefully with other horses, allowing a more social, under British National Hunt racing rules, to minimize the health and safety risk for horses, riders, and spectators, nearly all participating horses are geldings. On the other hand, in parts of Europe, geldings are excluded from many of the most prestigious flat races including the Classics. In North American Thoroughbred racing, geldings, if otherwise qualified by age, winnings, to perpetuate any given breed, some male horses must remain capable of reproduction. Thus, animals considered to be the finest representatives are kept as stallions, some cultures historically did not and still seldom geld male horses, most notably the Arabs. These people usually used mares for everyday work and for war, in these cultures, most stallions are still not used for breeding, only those of the best quality. When used as riding animals, they are kept only with or near other male horses in a bachelor setting. Sometimes cultural reasons for these practices exist, for example, castration of animals and humans was categorically forbidden in the Hebrew Bible and is prohibited in Jewish law. However, a number of horse owners are concerned that the process may cause pain for the animal or somehow lessen their vitality or spirit. While modern surgical procedures cause far less discomfort to the animal than more primitive methods, although castrations generally have few complications, there are risks
20.
Mane (horse)
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The mane is the hair that grows from the top of the neck of a horse or other equine, reaching from the poll to the withers, and includes the forelock or foretop. It is thicker and coarser than the rest of the horses coat, heredity plays a role, giving some horses a longer, thicker mane, and others a shorter, thinner one. Some horses, such as used in circuses or in mounted displays such as Cavalia, have manes allowed to grow down to their knees. Others have their manes deliberately shaved completely off for style or practical purposes, when ungroomed, however, the mane usually grows no longer than the width of the horses neck, as natural wear and tear limit its potential length. The mane is thought to keep the warm, and possibly to help water run off the neck if the animal cannot obtain shelter from the rain. It also provides some fly protection to the front of the horse, ponies usually have the thickest manes, with horse breeds having tremendous variation in thickness and length. Other equids such as the donkey often have sparse, thin manes. All domesticated horses benefit from having their manes and tails untangled regularly to remove dirt, tangles, horses with short manes usually have their manes combed, while horses with longer manes are usually groomed with a human hair brush or a stiff dandy brush. Horses with extraordinarily long manes may have their manes hand picked to remove tangles, for a horse show, the horse is generally bathed, and this includes the mane. Beyond basic care, the mane is styled in various ways, depending on the breed of horse, part of the world, Braided or plaited, seen primarily in English riding. Banded, divided into small sections with a small rubber band placed around each. Roached or hogged, shaven off down to the neck and this area is called a bridle path. It may vary in length from one inch to over a foot, the length of the bridle path is dependent on the discipline or breed of the horse, and is important to consider when grooming a horse for competition. Pleasure riding, usually the mane is kept natural or pulled, hunt seat, the mane is pulled to about 3.5 to 5 inches, and braided with hunter braids for all important competition. When the mane is braided, the forelock should also be braided, show jumping, the mane may be braided (usually with button braids, although a nicely pulled mane is acceptable. The forelock may or may not be braided, dressage, the mane is usually pulled and braided for all recognized competition, braiding is seen on either side of the neck. The forelock is sometimes left unbraided, especially in the case of stallions, baroque breeds or other horses with long manes may compete in dressage with the mane French Braided in a long, continuous braid which follows the curve of the neck. Braided for dressage with knob or button braids, Usually left unbraided for cross-country, as the rider may need to grab it
21.
Rump (animal)
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The rump or croup, in the external morphology of an animal, is the portion of the posterior dorsum that is posterior to the loins and anterior to the tail. Anatomically, the rump corresponds to the sacrum, the tailhead or dock is the beginning of the tail, where the tail joins the rump. It is known also as the base or root of the tail, in some mammals the tail may be said to consist of the tailbone and the skirt. In birds, similarly, the tail consists of tailbone and tailfan, some animals are subjected to docking, the amputation of the tailbone at or near the dock. These include dogs, cats, sheep, pigs, and horses, humans have a remnant tail, the coccyx, and the human equivalent of docking is coccygectomy. Usage varies from animal to animal, birds and cattle are said to have a rump and tailhead. Dogs are said to have a rump and dock, horses are said to have a croup, thigh or haunch, buttock, and dock. In bird anatomy, the rump is the body immediately above the tail, the color of plumage on the rump is a characteristic widely used by ornithologists to distinguish between related species, and sometimes also between males and females of the same species. Similarly, the silhouette of the tailfan is a widely used for purposes of identification. Some birds have a food reservoir pouch in the esophagus that is known as a croup, in some breeds it is traditional for tails to be cut off at the dock. Below the croup is the thigh or haunch, behind the thigh is the buttock. Applied to horses, the dock has two additional uses. Its meaning may be extended to either the entire tail minus the skirt or the tailhead only, in other equidae, it encompasses most of the tailbone, as most of that portion of the tail does not have long hairs. A lack of long hairs can be natural, as in zebras, donkeys, and the Przewalski horse, or artificial, the result of pulling, trimming, or shaving part of the skirt. A sponge used to wash the skin on the underside of the dock and other regions under the tail
22.
Equine conformation
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Equine conformation evaluates the degree of correctness of a horses bone structure, musculature, and its body proportions in relation to each other. Undesirable conformation can limit the ability to perform a specific task, Although there are several universal faults, a horses conformation is usually judged by what its intended use may be. Thus form to function is one of the first set of traits considered in judging conformation, a horse with poor form for a Grand Prix show jumper could have excellent conformation for a World Champion cutting horse, or to be a champion draft horse. Every horse has good and bad points of its conformation and many horses excel even with conformation faults. The standard of the head varies dramatically from breed to breed based on a mixture of the role the horse is bred for and what breeders, owners. Breed standards frequently cite large eyes, a broad forehead and a dry head-to-neck connection as important to correctness about the head, traditionally, the length of head as measured from poll to upper lip should be two-thirds the length of the neck topline. Presumably, the construction of the horses head influences its breathing, historically, a width of 4 fingers or 7.2 cm was associated with an unrestricted airflow and greater endurance. However, a study in 2000 which compared the intermandibular width-to-size ratio of Thoroughbreds with their racing success showed this to be untrue, the relationship between head conformation and performance are not well-understood, and an appealing head may be more a matter of marketability than performance. Among mammals, morphology of the head often plays a role in temperature regulation, Many ungulates have a specialized network of blood vessels called the carotid rete, which keeps the brain cool while the body temperature rises during exercise. Horses lack a carotid rete and instead use their sinuses to cool blood around the brain and these factors suggest that the conformation of a horses head influences its ability to regulate temperature. A horse with a face or dished head has a muzzle with a concave profile on top. Dished heads are associated with Arabians and Arabian-influenced breeds, which excel at Endurance riding and were bred in the arid Arabian desert. There are several theories regarding the role of the dished head. It may be an adaptation to reduce resistance and increase aerobic endurance. Dished head is not considered a deformity, a Roman nose is a muzzle with a convex profile. Convex heads are associated with Draft horses, Baroque horse breeds and this trait likely plays a role in warming air as it is inhaled, but may also influence aerobic capacity. Roman nose is not considered a deformity, a horse with small nostrils or small nares can be found in any breed and often accompanies a narrow jaw and muzzle. Small nostrils limit the ability to breathe hard while exerting itself
23.
American Quarter Horse
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The American Quarter Horse is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name came from its ability to other horse breeds in races of a quarter mile or less. The American Quarter Horse is well known both as a horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows and as a working ranch horse. The American Quarter Horse is also shown in English disciplines, driving, one of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756, the influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial Quarter Horse. The breed is referred to as the Famous American Quarter Running Horse. The resulting horse was small, hardy, and quick, and was used as a horse during the week. When matched against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won, with some individuals being clocked at up to 55 mph. In the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy and these horses of the west included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes. The main duty of the horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 Ranch, to this day, the Quarter Horse dominates the sport both in speed events and in competition that emphasizes the handling of live cattle. However, sprint races were popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders as well. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added back into the developing American Quarter Horse breed, the American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan and even Standardbred bloodlines. In 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association was formed by a group of horsemen, the horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy, a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge. Since the American Quarter Horse formally established itself as a breed, the resulting offspring is registered in the appendix of the American Quarter Horse Associations studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, the American Quarter Horse is best known today as a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse
24.
Pony
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Depending on context, a pony may be a horse that is under an approximate or exact height at the withers or a small horse with a specific conformation and temperament. The word pony derives from the old French poulenet, meaning foal, a young, immature horse, but this is not the meaning, unlike a horse foal. However, on occasion, people who are unfamiliar with horses may confuse an adult pony with a foal, the ancestors of most modern ponies developed small stature because they lived on the margins of livable horse habitat. These smaller animals were domesticated and bred for various purposes all over the Northern Hemisphere, ponies were historically used for driving and freight transport, as childrens mounts, for recreational riding, and later as competitors and performers in their own right. During the Industrial Revolution, particularly in Great Britain, a significant number were used as pit ponies, ponies are generally considered intelligent and friendly, although sometimes they also are described as stubborn or cunning. Properly trained ponies are appropriate mounts for children who are learning to ride, larger ponies can be ridden by adults, as ponies are usually strong for their size. In modern use, many organizations define a pony as a horse that measures less than 14.2 hands at the withers. Different organizations that use a strict measurement model vary from 14 hands to nearly 14.3 hands, many breeds classify an animal as either horse or pony based on pedigree and phenotype, no matter its height. Some full-sized horses may be called ponies for various reasons of tradition or as a term of endearment, for many forms of competition, the official definition of a pony is a horse that measures less than 14.2 hands at the withers. However, the pony can be used in general for any small horse. Furthermore, some breeds may have individuals who mature under that height but are still called horses and are allowed to compete as horses. In Australia, horses that measure from 14 hands to 15 hands are known as a galloway, people who are unfamiliar with horses may confuse an adult pony with a young, immature horse. While foals that will grow up to be horse-sized may be no taller than some ponies in their first months of life, a pony can be ridden and put to work, while a foal is too young to be ridden or used as a working animal. Foals, whether they grow up to be horse or pony-sized, can be distinguished from adult horses by their long legs. Their heads and eyes also exhibit juvenile characteristics, furthermore, in most cases, nursing foals will be in very close proximity to a mare who is the mother of the foal. While ponies exhibit some neoteny with the wide foreheads and small size, ponies originally developed as a landrace adapted to a harsh natural environment, and were considered part of the draft subtype typical of Northern Europe. At one time, it was hypothesized that they may have descended from a wild subspecies of Equus ferus. The usefulness of the pony was noted by farmers who observed that a pony could outperform a draft horse on small farms, by the 20th century, many pony breeds had Arabian and other blood added to make a more refined pony suitable for riding
25.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
26.
Rhyton
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A rhyton is a roughly conical container from which fluids were intended to be drunk or to be poured in some ceremony such as libation, or merely at table. They are typically formed in the shape of an animals head, the English word rhyton originates in the ancient Greek word ῥυτόν. The conical rhyton form has been known in the Aegean region since the Bronze Age, however, it was by no means confined to that region. Similar in form to, and perhaps originating from, the drinking horn, liddell and Scott give a standard derivation from Greek rhein, to flow, which, according to Julius Pokorny, is from Indo-European *sreu-, flow. As rhutos is stream, the neuter, rhuton, would be sort of object associated with pouring. Many vessels considered rhytons featured a mouth at the top. Smith points out that use is testified in classical paintings and accepts Athenaeuss etymology that it was named ἀπὸ τῆς ῥύσεως. Smith also categorized the name as having been a recent form of a vessel called the keras, horn. The word rhyton is not present in what is known about Mycenaean Greek, however, the bulls head rhyton, of which many examples survive, is mentioned as ke-ra-a on tablet KN K872, an inventory of vessels at Knossos, it is shown with the bull ideogram. Ventris and Chadwick restored the word as the adjective *keraa, with a Mycenaean intervocalic h, rhyta shaped after bulls are filled through the large opening and emptied through the secondary, smaller one. This means that two hands are required, one to close the opening and one to fill the rhyton. This has led scholars to believe that rhytons were typically filled with the help of two people or with the help of a chain or a rope that would be passed through a handle. Rhytons modeled after animals were designed to make it look like the animal was drinking when the vessel was being filled, a bull rhyton weighed about three kilograms when empty and up to six kilograms when full. Other rhytons with animal themes were modeled after boars, lions, some shapes, such as lioness rhyta, could be filled through simple submersion, thanks to the vessel’s shape and buoyancy. Horizontally designed rhyta, like those modeled after lionesses, could be filled by being lowered into a fluid, vertically designed rhyta, like those modeled after boars, required another hand to cover the primary opening and to prevent the liquid from spilling as the vessel was filled. Rhyta were often used to strain liquids such as wine, beer, some rhyta were used in blood rituals and animal sacrifice. In these cases, the blood may have been thinned with wine, some vessels were modeled after the animal with which they were intended to be used during ritual, but this was not always the case. It cannot be supposed that every drinking horn or libation vessel was pierced at the bottom, the scoop function would have come first
27.
Brygos
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Brygos was an ancient Greek potter, active in Athens between 490 and 470 BC. He is known as a producer of excellent drinking cups, about 200 of his pieces are known. The workshop of Brygos employed a red-figure vase painter who is called the Brygos Painter. The Brygos Painter is one of the most famous painters of his time. His work is characterised by its quality and realistic depictions. The workshop of Brygos also employed the Briseis Painter, among others, Brygos Painter Pottery of ancient Greece Art in ancient Greece Ingeborg Scheibler. ISBN 3-406-39307-1 Getty Museum - Brygos Potter
28.
Aleria
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Aléria is a commune in the Haute-Corse department of France on the island of Corsica, former bishopric and present Latin Catholic titular see. It includes the easternmost point in Metropolitan France, Aléria shares the canton of Moïta-Verde with 13 other communes, Moïta, Ampriani, Campi, Canale-di-Verde, Chiatra, Linguizzetta, Matra, Pianello, Pietra-di-Verde, Tallone, Tox, Zalana and Zuani. Aléria is 70 kilometres to the south of Bastia on Route N198, in the centre of the Plaine Orientale, also called the Plaine dAléria and it includes a number of villages and monuments. Most of the rest of the island is precipitously mountainous, the eastern coastline is punctuated by a number of lakes connecting to the Tyrrhenian Sea, the remnant of an ancient system of lagoons behind barrier beaches. The Corsicans refer to them under the name of Étang, pool, marshland is also extensive on the coast requiring that cities be built inland from it. Malaria has historically been a problem near the marshlands and swamps of eastern Corsica, the fine barrier beaches are a recreational attraction. The Tavignano River enters the commune to the northwest and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea and its lands include a delta, marshes to the south and the unconnected étang de Diane to the north. To the west, the étang de Terre Rosse is a lake, Corsica had an indigenous population in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age but the east coast was subject to colonization by Mediterranean maritime powers, Greeks, Etruscans, Carthaginians, Romans. They typically built on an étang, which used as a harbor. Alaliē was placed between the end of the 3. 5-kilometre long Ētang de Diane and the Tavignano River, slightly inland. The site is occupied today by the village of Cateraggio at the crossroads of national routes N200. N200 follows the Vallé du Tavignano into the mountains of Corte. Still south of there was the Etruscan necropolis, in todays Casabianda, Aléria takes its name from the Roman town placed there after the defeat of the Etruscans. The entire district, however, is still, following the Corsican custom of including some mountains. It incorporates the lands of Teppe Rosse, the entire Étang de Diane and the Plage de Padulone 3 kilometres east of Cateraggio. Since 1975 a series of laws have created the Casabianda-Aléria Nature Preserve,1,748 hectares between the mouth of the Tavignanu and the Étang dUrbinu, which is 5 kilometres to the south. The reserve to the south was initiated from the grounds of the penitentiary of Casabianda in 1951. It was instituted in 1880 in a then pestilential area which it was hoped the prisoners could farm and it contained 1800 ha and 214 plots
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Working animal
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A working animal is an animal, usually domesticated, that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks. They may be members of the family, such as guide dogs or other assistance dogs, or they may be animals trained to provide tractive force. The latter types of animals are called animals or beasts of burden. Most working animals are either service animals or draft animals and they may also be used for milking or herding, jobs that require human training to encourage the animal to cooperate. Some, at the end of their lives, may also be used for meat or other products such as leather. The history of working animals may predate agriculture, with used by our hunter-gatherer ancestors. Around the world, millions of animals work in relationship with their owners, domesticated species are often bred to be suitable for different uses and conditions, especially horses and working dogs. Working animals are raised on farms, though some are still captured from the wild, such as dolphins. People have found uses for a variety of abilities found in animals. The strength of horses, elephants and oxen is used in pulling carts, the keen sense of smell of dogs is used to search for drugs and explosives as well helping to find game while hunting and to search for missing or trapped people. Several animals including camels, donkeys, horses and dogs are used for transport, either riding or to pull wagons, other animals including dogs and monkeys provide assistance to blind or disabled people. Conversely, not all domesticated animals are working animals, for example, while cats may perform work catching mice, it is an instinctive behavior, not one that can be trained by human intervention. Other domesticated animals, such as sheep, or rabbits, may have uses for meat, hides and wool. Finally, small pets such as most birds or hamsters are generally incapable of performing work other than that of providing simple companionship. Some animals are used due to physical strength in tasks such as ploughing or logging. Such animals are grouped as a draught or draft animal, others may be used as pack animals, for animal-powered transport, the movement of people and goods. People ride some animals directly as mounts, Alternatively, one or more animals in harness may be used to pull vehicles and they include equines such as horses, ponies, donkeys, and mules, elephants, yaks, and camels. Dromedary camels in arid areas of Australia, North Africa and the Middle East, on occasion, reindeer, though usually driven, may be ridden
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Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
31.
Sorrel (horse)
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Sorrel is an alternative term for the chestnut, one of the most common equine coat colors in horses. The term probably comes from the color of the spike of the sorrel herb. Chestnut is more used to describe this color in England and on the east coast of the United States. Some horse enthusiasts insist that chestnut and sorrel are two distinct colorations, but there is no genetic difference between the two and no clear consensus on what the distinction is. Some argue that sorrel should be used to describe only lighter shades, or shades with a very clear reddish tint, while chestnut denotes darker shades or shades with more brown in them. The American Quarter Horse Association, which uses both terms, describes a sorrel as a type of copper-red chestnut, but allows that chestnut is also a correct term, in terms of equine coat color genetics there is no difference at all. Solid reddish-brown color is a color of horses, caused by the recessive e gene. A sorrel and a bay, especially a blood bay, may be confused with one another, however, all bays have black points - a black mane, tail and lower legs. Light-colored sorrels, sometimes called blond sorrels, especially if they have flaxen manes and tails, however, true palomino coloration is the result of a horses being heterozygous for the cream dilution gene. Some definitions list sorrel as a color, used to describe only horses whose mane, tail. Other definitions are broader and include reddish-brown horses with flaxen manes, many organizations simply avoid the whole fuss and choose one of the two terms to denote all reddish or brown colorations that are not bay. Web Site accessed January 12, 2008*AQHA General Glossary
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Bay (horse)
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Bay is a hair coat color of horses, characterized by a reddish-brown body color with a black mane, tail, ear edges, and lower legs. Bay is one of the most common colors in many horse breeds. The black areas of a bay horses hair coat are called points, and without them. Black points may sometimes be covered by white markings, however such markings do not alter a horses classification as bay, bay horses have dark skin, except under white markings - where the skin is pink. Genetically, bay occurs when a horse carries both the Agouti gene and a base coat. The addition of genes creates many additional coat colors. While the basic concepts behind bay coloring are fairly simple, the genes themselves, the genetics of dark shades of bay are still under study. A DNA test said to detect the seal brown allele was developed, sooty genetics also appear to darken some horse bay coats, and that genetic mechanism is yet to be fully understood. Bay horses range in color from a copper red, to a rich red blood bay to a very dark red or brown called dark bay, mahogany bay, black-bay. The dark, brown shades of bay are referred to in other languages by words meaning black-and-tan. Dark bays/browns may be so dark as to have black coats, with brownish-red hairs visible only under the eyes, around the muzzle, behind the elbow. Dark bay should not be confused with Liver chestnut, which is also a dark brown color, but a liver chestnut has a brown mane, tail and legs. The pigment in a bay coat, regardless of shade, is rich. This makes bays particularly lustrous in the sun if properly cared for, some bay horses exhibit dappling, which is caused by textured, concentric rings within the coat. Dapples on a bay horse suggest good condition and care, though many well-cared for horses never dapple, the tendency to dapple may also be, to some extent, genetic. Bays often have a hair shaft, which, if shaved too closely, may cause the horse to appear several shades lighter. However, as the hair out, it will darken again to the proper shade. This phenomenon is part of bay color genetics, but usually not seen in shades of bay because there is less red in the hair shaft
33.
Black (horse)
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Black is a hair coat color of horses in which the entire hair coat is black. Black is a relatively uncommon coat color, and it is not uncommon to mistake dark chestnuts or bays for black, true black horses have dark brown eyes, black skin, and wholly black hair coats without any areas of permanently reddish or brownish hair. They may have pink skin beneath any white markings under the areas of white hair, black horses that do not sun bleach are called non-fading or sheer blacks. Some breeds of horses, such as the Friesian horse, Murgese, black is also common in the Fell pony, Dales pony, Ostfriesen and Alt-Oldenburger, Kladruber, and Groningen. When identifying the color of a horse, it is important to disregard all pink-skinned white markings. White markings and patterns such as pinto and leopard have no bearing on the base coat color of the animal. Black foals are born a mousy gray but can be darker shades. Black foals have dark skin and eyes at birth, an adult-like black foal coat often indicates that the foal will gray, if the foal has at least one gray parent. Graying can be confirmed by the presence of hairs around the eyes. Gray Lipizzaner horses are born black. Black adult horses are easier to identify, as the coat must be entirely black, a sun bleached black may be confused with a dark bay, but a trained eye can distinguish between them, particularly by examining the fine hairs around the eyes and muzzle. When a black horse is sun-bleached, the mane and tail often sun bleach most prominently, a sun-bleached black may also be mistaken for the less common smoky black, but can be distinguished by pedigree analysis or DNA testing. Dark bay or seal brown, The darkest shades of bay are commonly confused with black, however, a dark bay will always show some rich red character in its coat. Horses with a dark coat that may appear black, but have tan or reddish hairs around the eyes, muzzle, armpits. Both colors are genetically distinct from black and can be confirmed with a DNA test, liver chestnut, Some red horses are so dark that they appear black, and are often called black chestnuts as a consequence. However, even the darkest liver chestnuts will show some red character in their coats, even dark liver chestnuts do not have any true black pigment in their coats. This can be verified with DNA testing, liver chestnut is very common in the Morgan horse. Smoky black, The action of the gene in the heterozygous condition has a minimal effect on black pigment
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Gray (horse)
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Gray or grey is a coat color of horses characterized by progressive silvering of the colored hairs of the coat. Most gray horses have black skin and dark eyes, unlike many depigmentation genes and their adult hair coat is white, dappled, or white intermingled with hairs of other colors. Gray horses may be any base color, depending on other color genes present. White hairs begin to appear at or shortly after birth and become lighter as the horse ages. Graying can occur at different rates—very quickly on one horse and very slowly on another, gray horses appear in many breeds, though the color is most commonly seen in breeds descended from Arabian ancestors. People who are unfamiliar with horses may refer to horses as white. However, a horse whose hair coat is completely white will still have black skin. This is how to discern a gray horse from a white horse, white horses usually have pink skin and sometimes even have blue eyes. Young horses with hair coats consisting of a mixture of colored, Some horses that carry dilution genes may also be confused with white or gray. While gray is commonly called a color by breed registries. It is a dominant allele, and thus a horse only one copy of the gray allele. A homozygous gray horse, one carrying two gray alleles, will always produce gray foals, gray is common in many breeds. Today, about one horse in 10 carries the mutation for graying with age, the vast majority of Lipizzaners are gray, as are the majority of Andalusian horses. Many breeds of French draft horse such as the Percheron and Boulonnais are often gray as well, gray is also found among Welsh Ponies, Thoroughbreds, and American Quarter Horses. All of these breeds have common ancestry in the Arabian horse, in particular, all gray Thoroughbreds descend from a horse named Alcocks Arabian, a gray born in 1700. The gray coat color makes up about 3% of Thoroughbreds, gray also occurs in spotted horses such as pintos or Appaloosas, but its effects wash out the contrast of the markings of these patterns. For this reason, some breed registries refuse or cancel registration of gray horses. A gray foal may be any color
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White (horse)
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White horses are born white and stay white throughout their lives. White horses may have brown, blue, or hazel eyes, true white horses, especially those that carry one of the dominant white genes, are rare. Most horses that are referred to as white are actually gray horses whose hair coats are completely white. White horses have unpigmented skin and a hair coat. Many white horses have dark eyes, though some have blue eyes, some white horses are born with partial pigmentation in their skin and hair, which may or may not be retained as they mature, but when a white horse lightens, both skin and hair lose pigmentation. In contrast, grays retain skin pigment and only the hair becomes white, White colorings, whether white markings, white patterns or dominant white are collectively known as depigmentation phenotypes, and are all caused by areas of skin that lack pigment cells. Depigmentation phenotypes have various causes, and those that have been studied usually map to the EDNRB. However, much about the genetics behind various all-white depigmentation phenotypes are still unknown, dominant white is best known for producing pink-skinned all-white horses with brown eyes, though some dominant white horses have residual pigment along the topline. Dominant white is, as the name implies, a dominant color. At least one parent must be dominant white and it does not skip generations because it is not recessive, nonetheless, new variations or mutations producing dominant white do occur spontaneously from time to time. Dominant white is rare, but has occurred in many breeds and it has been studied in Thoroughbreds, Arabian horses, the American White horse and the Camarillo White horse. There are 11 identified variants of dominant white, each corresponding to a foundation animal. No horse has been identified as dominant white, and researchers have suggested that at least some forms of dominant white results in nonviable embryos in the homozygous state. While homologous mutations in mice are often linked to anemia and sterility, dominant white horses typically have white noses that can be subject to sunburn. Sabino-white horses are pink-skinned with all-white or nearly-white coats and dark eyes and they are homozygous for the dominant SB1 allele at the Sabino 1 locus, which has been mapped to KIT. Without a DNA test, Sabino-white horses are indistinguishable from dominant white horses, Sabino 1 has not been found in the Arabian horse, Clydesdale, Thoroughbred, Standardbred horse, or Shire horse. The Sabino 1 allele is not linked to any health defects, the leopard complex, related to the Leopard gene, characterizes the Appaloosa and Knabstrupper breeds with their spotted coats. Leopard is genetically distinct from all other white and white-spotting patterns
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Roan (horse)
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Roan is a horse coat color pattern characterized by an even mixture of colored and white hairs on the body, while the head and points—lower legs, mane and tail—are mostly solid-colored. Horses with roan coats have white hairs evenly intermingled throughout any other color, the head, legs, mane and tail have fewer scattered white hairs or none at all. The roan pattern is dominantly-inherited, and is found in horse breeds. While the specific mutation responsible for roan has not been exactly identified, true roan is always present at birth, though it may be hard to see until after the foal coat sheds out. The silvering effect of mixed white and colored hairs can create coats that look bluish or pinkish, horses with the roan pattern have an even mixture of white and colored hairs in the coat. These interspersed white hairs are scattered or absent on the horses head, mane, tail. The unaffected color on the legs often forms a sharp, inverted V above the knee and hock, the non-white background coat may be any color, as determined by unrelated genetic factors. Often, the coat color is used in combination with the word roan to describe the shade of a roan horses coat. However, there are colloquial terms used for some colors. The most common terms for various colors are the following. But in the strictest sense, blue roan is a synonym for a roan with a black background coat. Red roan used to include both chestnut and bay roans, in 1999, the American Paint Horse Association changed its coat color descriptions, roans with a chestnut background coat are registered red roan, while bay roan is its own category. The American Quarter Horse Association followed suit in 2003, previously, the term Strawberry roan described the pinkish color of a light chestnut or sorrel roan. While less common, the term lilac roan may be applied to a dark chestnut roan, bay roan replaced red roan as the term for a roan with a bay background coat. Some roan horses have white hair than others, and even individual horses may look lighter or darker based on the season. While roan is always present at birth, the soft first coat of newborn foals may not show the white hairs well, some roan horses get darker with age. Generally, roans appear to have white hair when they have their short summer coats. These peculiar tendencies of roans led to the Icelandic word for roan, if the skin is damaged by even a very minor scrape, cut or brand, the coat grows back in solid-colored without any white hairs
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Palomino
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Palomino is a coat color in horses, consisting of a gold coat and white mane and tail. Genetically, the color is created by a single allele of a dilution gene called the cream gene working on a red base coat. Palomino is created by a mechanism of incomplete dominance, hence it is not considered true-breeding. Due to their color, palominos stand out in a show ring. They were particularly popular in movies and television during the 1940s and 1950s, one of the most famous palomino horses was Trigger, known as the smartest horse in movies, the faithful mount of the Hollywood cowboy star Roy Rogers. Another famous palomino was Mr. Ed who starred on his own TV show in the 1960s, Palomino horses have a yellow or gold coat, with a white or light cream mane and tail. The shades of the coat color range from cream to a dark gold. Unless also affected by other, unrelated genes, palominos have dark skin and brown eyes, some have slightly lighter brown or amber eyes. A heterozygous cream dilute such as the palomino must not be confused with a horse carrying champagne dilution, a horse with rosy-pink skin and blue eyes in adulthood is most often a cremello or a perlino, a horse carrying two cream dilution genes. The presence of the sooty gene may result in a palomino having darker hairs in the mane, tail, the summer coat of a palomino is usually a slightly darker shade than the winter coat. Many non-palominos may also have a gold or tan coat and a light mane, chestnut with flaxen mane and tail, Lighter chestnuts with a light cream mane and tail carry a flaxen gene, but not a cream dilution. For example, the Haflinger breed has many light chestnuts with flaxen that may superficially resemble dark palomino, cremellos carry two copies of the cream gene and have a light mane and tail but also a cream-colored hair coat, rosy pink skin and blue eyes. Horses with a dark brown coat but a flaxen mane and tail are sometimes called chocolate palomino. However, this coloring is not genetically palomino, there are two primary ways the color is created. The best-known is a chestnut with a flaxen mane and tail. The genetics that create light flaxen manes and tails on otherwise chestnut horses are not yet fully understood, but they are not the same as the cream dilution. The other genetic mechanism is derived from the silver dapple gene, which lightens a black coat to dark brown, buckskins have a golden body coat but a black mane and tail. Buckskin is also created by the action of a single cream gene, dun horses have a tan body with a darker mane and tail plus primitive markings such as a dorsal stripe down the spine and horizontal striping on the upper back of the forearm
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Dun gene
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The dun gene is a dilution gene that affects both red and black pigments in the coat color of a horse. The classic dun is a gray-gold or tan, characterized by a color ranging from sandy yellow to reddish brown. A dun horse always has a stripe down the middle of its back, a tail and mane darker than the body coat. Other duns may appear a light shade, or a steel gray. Manes, tails, primitive markings, and other areas are usually the shade of the undiluted base coat color. The dun allele is a dominant, so the phenotype of a horse with either one copy or two copies of the gene is dun. The dun gene also is characterized by primitive markings, which are darker than the body color. A countershading gene can also produce faint dorsal striping, even in such as the Arabian horse or the Thoroughbred. A primary characteristic of the dun gene is the dorsal stripe, the shoulder stripes are less common and often fainter, but usually visible on horses with a short summer coat. The dun coat color is thought to be a trait in the horse. This is because equines appearing in prehistoric cave paintings are dun and these species include both subspecies of Equus ferus, the extinct Equus lambei, and the extant onager and kiang. The dun gene has a stronger effect on the body than the mane, tail, legs. This explains why points on a dun are a shade darker than the coat, or in the case of a dun, the mane, tail. Dun, also called bay dun, classic dun or zebra dun, the most common type of dun, has a tan or gold body with black mane, tail, genetically, the horse has an underlying bay coat color, acted upon by the dun gene. Red dun, also called claybank or fox dun, horses do not have black points, instead, the points and primitive markings are a darker shade of red than the coat. Genetically, the horse has a chestnut coat color, acted upon by the dun gene. Grullo or grulla, also called blue dun or mouse dun, is a smoky, bluish, to mouse-brown color and they consistently have black points and they often have a dark or black head, which is an identifying characteristic of this color. The primitive markings usually are all black, genetically, the horse has an underlying black coat color, acted upon by the dun gene
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Buckskin (horse)
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Buckskin is a hair coat color of horses, referring to a color that resembles certain shades of tanned deerskin. Similar colors in some breeds of dogs are called buckskin. The horse has a tan or gold colored coat with black points, Buckskin occurs as a result of the cream dilution gene acting on a bay horse. Buckskins should not be confused with dun-colored horses, which have the dun dilution gene, however, it is possible for a horse to carry both dilution genes, these are called buckskin duns or sometimes dunskins. Also, bay horses without any dun gene may have a faint dorsal stripe, additional primitive striping beyond just a dorsal stripe is a sure sign of the dun gene. A buckskin horse can occur in any number of different breeds least one parent must carry the cream gene, web Site accessed January 12,2008 Media related to Buckskin horses at Wikimedia Commons
40.
Pinto horse
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A pinto horse has a coat color that consists of large patches of white and any other color. The distinction between pinto and solid can be tenuous, as so-called solid horses frequently have areas of white hair, various cultures throughout history appear to have selectively bred for pinto patterns. Many breeds of horse carry pinto patterns, pinto coloring, known simply as coloured in nations using British English, is most popular in the United States. While pinto colored horses are not a breed, several competing color breed registries have formed to encourage the breeding of pinto-colored horses, pinto patterns are visually and genetically distinct from the leopard complex spotting patterns characteristic of horse breeds such as the Appaloosa. The word pinto is Spanish for painted, and also dappled or spotted, while pinto coloration is rare in the wild, images from pottery and other art of ancient antiquity show horses with flashy spotted patterns were favored by man. Images of spotted horses appear in the art of Ancient Egypt, later, spotted horses were among those brought to the Americas by the Conquistadors. The color became popular, particularly among Native Americans, and was bred for in the United States. There are a number of words which describe the various color, essentially, a pinto horse is genetically created when an allele for a spotting pattern is present. The genes that create the base coat color are not related to the genes that create white spotting. The precise mechanisms that create spotting are not all fully understood, what horse terminology describes as pinto or coloured has been called leucism or partial albinism by pigment researchers. Common terms for describing different types of horses include, Piebald. Any pinto pattern on a base coat, thus a black-and-white spotted horse. Any pinto pattern on any base coat other than black, as chestnut and bay are the most common base coat colors, skewbalds are most often chestnut and white or bay and white. At one time, the term may have applied more specifically to brown-looking pinto horses, coloured, The term for pinto coloration in nations using British English, including both piebald and skewbald. Tricolored or Tricoloured, a term for horse with three colors, in nations using British English and it is usually incorporated into the term skewbald. I. e. star, snip, strip, or blaze, tobiano is a simple dominant trait caused by a single gene and therefore all tobiano horses have at least one tobiano parent. A DNA test exists for tobiano, tobiano is not associated with any health concerns. Overo, A collective term used primarily by the American Paint Horse Association, overo essentially means pinto and it denotes patterns produced by at least three different genetic mechanisms, frame, splashed white or sabino, described below
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Tobiano
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Tobiano is a spotted color pattern commonly seen in Pinto horses, produced by a dominant gene. The tobiano gene produces white-haired, pink-skinned patches on a coat color. The coloration is present from birth and does not change throughout the horses lifetime and it is a dominant gene, so any tobiano horse must have at least one parent who carries the tobiano gene. Other spotting patterns seen in Pinto horses include frame overo, splashed white, in the United Kingdom, Tobianos are frequently referred to as Coloured or as Pied, Piebald if black and white, or Skewbald if white and any base color other than black. Bay and white horses are also referred to as Tri-Coloured. I. e. star, snip, strip, or blaze, Tobiano is a dominant gene, designated TO. Therefore, one parent must be a tobiano for the pattern to occur, in the case of horses born Tobiano but turn gray, the skin will retain pigmented and unpigmented skin beneath its hair that may produce ghost markings. The Tobiano gene itself is not linked to lethal white syndrome, however, some Tobiano horses may be carriers of the gene if they have overo ancestors, and thus have produced affected offspring when bred to another horse that is also a carrier. In some cases, a horse carries both Tobiano and Overo genetics may display white markings that combine both patterns, and are referred to as Toveros. Tobiano occurs due to an inversion on ECA3 where the gene order of a section spanning nearly one-third of the chromosome flipped during a genetic recombination event. It is thought to be an ancient gene, about 3500 years old. Genetic testing is available to determine the presence of the Tobiano gene. After some years of research from the University of Kentucky, in 2008 the chromosomal inversion that affects regulatory regions of the KIT gene was discovered and this inversion was finally mapped for genetic testing and is now offered by several laboratories. Testing is most often intended to determine homozygosity, but is useful in cases where a horse has greyed out. Web Site accessed January 12,2008 Introduction to Coat Color Genetics from Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, web Site accessed January 12,2008
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Appaloosa
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The Appaloosa is an American horse breed best known for its colorful spotted coat pattern. There is a range of body types within the breed. Each horses color pattern is genetically the result of various spotting patterns overlaid on top of one of several recognized base coat colors. The color pattern of the Appaloosa is of interest to those who study equine coat color genetics, as it, Appaloosas are prone to develop equine recurrent uveitis and congenital stationary night blindness, the latter has been linked to the leopard complex. Artwork depicting prehistoric horses with leopard spotting exists in prehistoric cave paintings in Europe, Appaloosas were once referred to by settlers as the Palouse horse, possibly after the Palouse River, which ran through the heart of Nez Perce country. Gradually, the name evolved into Appaloosa, the Nez Perce lost most of their horses after the Nez Perce War in 1877, and the breed fell into decline for several decades. A small number of dedicated breeders preserved the Appaloosa as a breed until the Appaloosa Horse Club was formed as the breed registry in 1938. Today, the Appaloosa is one of the most popular breeds in the United States and it is best known as a stock horse used in a number of western riding disciplines, but is also a versatile breed with representatives seen in many other types of equestrian activity. Appaloosas have been used in movies, an Appaloosa is the mascot for the Florida State Seminoles. Appaloosa bloodlines have influenced other horse breeds, including the Pony of the Americas, the Nez Perce Horse, the Appaloosa is best known for its distinctive, preferred leopard complex-spotted coat. Spotting occurs in several overlay patterns on one of several recognized base coat colors, there are three other distinctive, core characteristics, mottled skin, striped hooves, and eyes with a white sclera. Skin mottling is usually seen around the muzzle, eyes, anus, striped hooves are a common trait, quite noticeable on Appaloosas, but not unique to the breed. Horses with two ApHC parents but no identifiable Appaloosa characteristics are registered as non-characteristic, a special registration status. The weight range varies from 950 to 1,250 pounds, however, the ApHC does not allow pony or draft breeding. The original old time or old type Appaloosa was a tall, narrow-bodied, the body style reflected a mix that started with the traditional Spanish horses already common on the plains of America before 1700. Then, 18th-century European bloodlines were added, particularly those of the pied horses popular in that period and these horses were similar to a tall, slim Thoroughbred-Andalusian type of horse popular in Bourbon-era Spain. The original Appaloosa tended to have a convex profile that resembled that of the warmblood-Jennet crosses first developed in the 16th century during the reign of Charles V. The original Appaloosas frequently had a mane and tail, but that was not a primary characteristic as many early Appaloosas did have full manes
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Leopard complex
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The leopard complex is a group of genetically-related coat patterns in horses. These patterns range from progressive increases in interspersed white hair similar to graying or roan to distinctive, secondary characteristics associated with the leopard complex include a white sclera around the eye, striped hooves and mottled skin. The leopard complex genes are linked to abnormalities in the eyes. These patterns are most closely identified with the Appaloosa horse breed, coat patterns in the leopard complex range from being hardly distinguishable from an unaffected coat, to nearly pure white. Unlike most other spotting patterns, the spotting and especially the regions associated with the leopard complex tend to be symmetrical. Furthermore, an amount of this inherited white patterning is present at birth. The amount of white, even if none is present at birth, colored spots reflect the underlying coat color, be it black, chestnut, gray, or silver dun-buckskin. A number of factors, each separately, genetically controlled, interact to produce familiar patterns such as snowflake, leopard, a single, incomplete dominant gene controls the presence of leopard-spotting in horses. A dominant gene requires only a copy to produce an affected phenotype. A horses genotype may be lp/lp, Lp/lp, or Lp/Lp, Horses without a dominant Lp gene do not exhibit leopard-complex traits, and cannot produce offspring with the Lp gene unless it is contributed by the other parent. Such horses are termed non-characteristic among Appaloosa horse aficionados, the presence of regions of alternating pigmented and unpigmented skin may not definitively suggest the leopard gene. They may not be due to the effects of other genes. For example, extensive white markings on the face may mask the presence of mottling around the eyes and muzzle, a DNA test can now identify the Lp gene, though a combination of pedigree knowledge and coat characteristics also help. While both heterozygous and homozygous Lp horses possess the characteristics, heterozygotes and homozygotes differ significantly in the presence of true spots. True leopard spots are produced only by the Lp gene, since these spots match the coat color, they are not visible unless the surrounding pigment is removed. As a rule, heterozygous leopards have larger, more abundant spots, there is at least one genetically-controlled type of white patterning that is strictly associated with the leopard complex. These white patterns permit the spots associated with the complex to become visible. Other white patterns, such as tobiano or white leg markings, a certain amount of leopard-associated white patterning may be present at birth
44.
Second Anglo-Afghan War
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This was the second time British India invaded Afghanistan. The war ended after the British emerged victorious against the Afghan rebels, most of the British and Indian soldiers withdrew from Afghanistan. This was aimed to thwart expansion by the Russian Empire into India, after tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. That same summer, Russia sent a diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, tried unsuccessfully to keep them out, Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878, and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too. The Amir not only refused to receive a British mission under Neville Bowles Chamberlain, a British force of about 50,000 fighting men, mostly Indians, was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the Russian Tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to Mazar-i-Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879. According to this agreement and in return for a subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression. Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak, and a force of 10,000 Afghans, staged an uprising, despite besieging the British garrison there, he failed to maintain the Siege of Sherpur, instead shifting focus to Roberts force, and this resulted in the collapse of this rebellion. Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the massacre of Cavagnari, Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar. Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan on 1 September at the Battle of Kandahar, abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew. They also used a method involving urine, Pathan women urinated into prisoners mouths. Captured British soldiers were out and fastened with restraints to the ground, then a stick. Pathan women then squatted and urinated directly into the mouth of the man until he drowned in the urine, there were several decisive actions in the Second Anglo–Afghan War, from 1878 to 1880. Here are the battles and actions in chronological order, an asterisk indicates a clasp was awarded for that particular battle with the Afghanistan Medal. Afghan Wars and the North-West Frontier 1839–1947, westminster, National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations. Afghanistan, A Short Account of Afghanistan, Its History, and Our Dealings with It
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Sepoy
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A sepoy was formerly the designation given to an Indian soldier. In the modern Nepalese Army, Indian Army, Pakistan Army, the term sepoy is derived from the Persian word sepāhī meaning infantry soldier in the Mughal Empire. In the Ottoman Empire the term Sipahi was used to refer to cavalry troopers, in its most common application, sepoy was the term used in the British Indian Army, and earlier in that of the British East India Company, for an infantry private. Initially it referred to Hindu or Muslim soldiers without regular uniform or discipline and it later generically referred to all native soldiers in the service of the European powers in India. Close to ninety-six percent of the British East India Companys army of 300,000 men were native to India, a Sipahi or a sepoy was an infantryman in both the Mughal Empire and the Kingdom of Mysore. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb raised battalions of sepoys variously armed with matchlocks, rockets and these troops were successfully employed in siege warfare, particularly during the Siege of Bidar, the Siege of Bijapur and the Siege of Golconda. Initially the British recruited sepoys from the communities in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies. In the Bengal Army however, recruitment was only amongst high caste Brahmin and Rajput communities, mainly of the Uttar Pradesh, recruitment was undertaken locally by battalions or regiments often from the same community, village and even family. The commanding officer of a battalion became a form of substitute for the chief or gaon bura. He was the mai-baap or the father and mother of the making up the paltan. There were many family and community ties amongst the troops and numerous instances where family members enlisted in the battalion or regiment. The izzat of the unit was represented by the regimental colours and these colours were stored in honour in the quarter guard and frequently paraded before the men. They formed a point in battle. The oath of fealty by the sepoy was given to the East India Company, the salary of the sepoys employed by the East India Company, while not substantially greater than that paid by the rulers of Indian states, was usually paid regularly. Advances could be given and family allotments from pay due were permitted when the troops served abroad, there was a commisariat and regular rations were provided. Weapons, clothing and ammunition were provided centrally, in contrast to the soldiers of local kings whose pay was often in arrears, in addition local rulers usually expected their sepoys to arm themselves and to sustain themselves through plunder. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the surviving East India Company regiments were merged into a new Indian Army under the control of the British Crown. The designation of sepoy was retained for Indian soldiers below the rank of lance naik, following the formation of the French East India Company in 1719, companies of Indian sepoys were raised to augment the French regulars and Swiss mercenary troops available
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. PMID 4045884. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mule". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 959–960.
