1.
London Wall
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It is now the name of a road in the City of London running along part of the course of the old wall between Wormwood Street and the Rotunda junction where St. Martins Le Grand meets Aldersgate Street. Until the later Middle Ages the wall defined the boundaries of the City of London, although the exact reason for the walls construction is unknown, the wall appears to have been built in the late 2nd or early 3rd century. This was around 80 years after the construction in 120AD of the fort, whose north. It continued to be developed until at least the end of the 4th century, reasons for its construction may have been connected to the invasion of northern Britain by Picts who overran Hadrians Wall in the 180s. After a struggle with his rival, Septimius Severus, Albinus was defeated in 197AD at the Battle of Lugdunum, the economic stimulus provided by the wall and Septimiuss subsequent campaigns in Scotland improved Londiniums financial prosperity in the early 3rd century. The walls gateways coincided with their alignment to the British network of Roman roads, the original gates, clockwise from Ludgate in the west to Aldgate, in the east were, Ludgate, Newgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Aldersgate, between Newgate and Cripplegate, was added around 350AD, the length and size of the wall made it one of the biggest construction projects in Roman Britain. The completed wall, which had gateways, towers and defensive ditches, was built from Kentish ragstone and it was 2 mi long enclosing an area of about 330 acres. It 2.5 m to 3 m wide and up to 6 m ) high, the ditch or fossa in front of the outer wall was 2 m deep and up to 5 m wide. There were at least 22 towers spaced about 64 m apart on the section of the wall. After Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates in the late 3rd century, with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Londinium ceased to be the capital of Britannia although Romano-British culture continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields area until around 450. From around 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the area slightly to the west of the old abandoned Roman city. But by about 680, London had revived sufficiently to become a major Saxon port, however, the upkeep of the wall was not maintained and London fell victim to two successful Viking assaults in 851 and 886 AD. Within the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester, in the same year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was refounded by Alfred. Archaeological research shows that this abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life. This was part Alberts policy of building an in-depth defence of the Kingdom of Wessex against the Vikings as well as creating a strategy against the Vikings who controlled Mercia. The Burghal Hidage of Southwark was also was created on the southbank of the River Thames during this time, the city walls of London were repaired as the city slowly grew until about 950 when urban activity increased dramatically. A large Viking army that attacked the London burgh was defeated in 994, by the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England
2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
3.
EC postcode area
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The EC postcode area, also known as the London EC postal area, is a group of postcode districts in central London, England. It includes almost all of the City of London and parts of the London Boroughs of Islington, Camden, Hackney, Tower Hamlets, the area covered is of very high density development. Deliveries for the EC postcode area are made from Mount Pleasant Mail Centre, the current postcode districts are relatively recent divisions of the EC1, EC2, EC3 and EC4 districts established in 1917. Where the districts are used for other than the sorting of mail, such as use as a geographic reference and on street signs. Postcode Address File List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom London postal district Royal Mails Postcode Address File A quick introduction to Royal Mails Postcode Address File
4.
Barbican tube station
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Barbican is a London Underground station situated near the Barbican Estate, on the edge of the ward of Farringdon Within, in the City of London. It has been known by various names since its opening in 1865, the station is served by the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines, and is situated between Farringdon and Moorgate stations, in Travelcard Zone 1. Until 2009, Barbican was additionally served by Thameslink services to, Barbican station lies in an east-west-aligned trench with cut-and-cover tunnels at either end. The modern entrance gives access from Aldersgate Street, through a 1990s building, to the north of the station are the rears of buildings that face onto Charterhouse Street, Charterhouse Square and Carthusian Street. To the south are the rears of buildings that face onto Long Lane, the station is close to the Barbican Estate, Barbican Centre, City of London School for Girls, St Bartholomew-the-Great, and Smithfield. The station was opened with the name Aldersgate Street on 23 December 1865 on the Moorgate extension from Farringdon, the stations name was shortened to Aldersgate on 1 November 1910 and it was renamed again on 24 October 1924 as Aldersgate & Barbican. On 1 December 1968 the stations name was simplified to Barbican, train services were disrupted during the Second World War when the station suffered severe bomb damage in the Blitz, particularly in December 1940. This led to the removal of the floors, and in 1955 the remainder of the street-level building was also demolished. Increasing traffic by other companies, including traffic, led to the track between Kings Cross and Moorgate being widened to four tracks in 1868, the route was called the City Widened Lines. Suburban services from the Midland Railway ran via Kentish Town and the Great Northern Railway ran via Kings Cross, passenger trains from the Great Northern line, via the York Road and Hotel curves at Kings Cross to the Widened Lines, ran until the Great Northerns electrification on 1976. As a result, Barbican is no longer a multimodal station, on 16 December 1866 three passengers were killed, a guard was seriously injured and one other person suffered shock when a girder collapsed onto a passenger train in the station. The accident was the first to include multiple passengers on the underground network, four people died during the accident, and a fifth died while awaiting trial. Service on the line was running again only 30 minutes after the accident, the station replaced an earlier building at 134 Aldersgate Street, which for many years had a sign claiming This was Shakespeares House. The station has no surface building, the station is mostly open to the elements, though there are some short canopies. The remains of the structure for a glass canopy over all four platforms may still clearly be seen. At the west end of the island platform is a disused signal box. Also from this end of the platforms may be seen the beginnings of the complex of tunnels leading under Smithfield meat market, livestock for the market was at one time delivered by rail and there was a substantial goods yard under the site of the market. Platform 1 is the most northerly, serving eastbound London Underground services, platforms 2 and 3 form an island platform, with platform 2 serving westbound services
5.
St. Paul's tube station
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St. Pauls is a London Underground station located in the City of London financial district. The station, which takes its name from the nearby St Pauls Cathedral, is on the Central line and it should not be confused with City Thameslink railway station which opened in 1990 with the name St. Pauls Thameslink, but is some distance from the Underground station. The station was opened by the Central London Railway on 30 July 1900 with the name Post Office, the name Post Office was possibly chosen instead of the more obvious St. Pauls to differentiate it from a South Eastern Railway station which already held that name. A modern ventilation shaft in the centre of the island at the junction indicates the location of the original lift shafts. When the SER station called St. Pauls was renamed as Blackfriars in 1937, the Underground station called Post Office took the name St. Pauls, at the end of the 19th century, Newgate Street was a narrow road with some of its mediaeval character remaining. To reduce land purchase and compensation payments, the CLR routed its tunnels directly under public roads, at St. Pauls the narrowness of the road required the tunnels to be placed one above the other with the westbound tunnel uppermost. The lifts originally operated to a level between the two platforms, with stairs up or down to the platforms as necessary, a high-level access passageway is visible at the lowest level leading to the disused lift lobby. During the Second World War the electricity grid control room for London, the station entrances are located around the junction of Newgate Street, Cheapside and St Martins Le Grand. St Pauls Cathedral is a distance to the south. Visitors should note that the entrance to the cathedral is at its western end. St. Pauls is also the nearest Underground station to the London Stock Exchange, other notable sites in the vicinity include the Old Bailey, Museum of London and the church of St Mary-le-Bow. London Buses routes 4,8,25,56,100,172,242,521 and night route N8 serve the station
6.
Prehistory
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Prehistory means literally before history, from the Latin word for before, præ, and Greek ιστορία. Neighbouring civilisations were the first to follow, most other civilisations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no records from human prehistory. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century and this article is concerned with human prehistory as defined here above. There are separate articles for the history of the Earth. However, for the race as a whole, prehistory ends when recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC. For example, in Egypt it is accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently. The three-age system is the periodization of prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies, Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. The notion of prehistory began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word primitive to describe societies that existed before written records, the first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history, human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology, restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, and begins with the first use of stone tools, the Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Yaakov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic
7.
Barbican Centre
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The Barbican Centre is a performing arts centre in the City of London and the largest of its kind in Europe. The Centre hosts classical and contemporary concerts, theatre performances, film screenings. It also houses a library, three restaurants, and a conservatory, the Barbican Centre is member of the Global Cultural Districts Network. The London Symphony Orchestra and the BBC Symphony Orchestra are based in the Centres Concert Hall, in 2013, it once again became the London-based venue of the Royal Shakespeare Company following the companys departure in 2001. The Barbican Centre is owned, funded, and managed by the City of London Corporation and it was built as The Citys gift to the nation at a cost of £161 million and was officially opened to the public by Queen Elizabeth II on 3 March 1982. The Barbican Centre is also known for its brutalist architecture, Barbican Hall, capacity 1,943, home of the London Symphony Orchestra and the BBC Symphony Orchestra. It is one of the largest public libraries in London and has an arts library, a large music library. The Barbican Library houses the London Collection of historical books and resources, some of which date back 300 years, the library presents regular literary events and has an art exhibition space for hire. The music library has two free practice pianos for public use, the Barbican Centre had a long development period, only opening long after the surrounding Barbican Estate housing complex had been built. It is situated in an area which was bombed during World War II. The Barbican Centre, designed by Chamberlin, Powell and Bon in the Brutalist style, has a complex layout with numerous entrances. Lines painted on the ground help would-be audience members avoid getting lost on the walkways of the Barbican Housing Estate on the way to the centre, the Barbican Centres design – a concrete ziggurat – has always been controversial and divides opinion. It was voted Londons ugliest building in a Grey London poll in September 2003, in September 2001, arts minister Tessa Blackstone announced that the Barbican Centre complex was to be a Grade II listed building. It has been designated a site of architectural interest for its scale, its cohesion. The same architectural practice also designed the Barbican Housing Estate and the nearby Golden Lane Estate, project architect John Honer later worked on the British Library at St Pancras – a red brick ziggurat. In the mid-1990s, an improvement scheme by Theo Crosby, of the Pentagram design studio, added statues. That improvement scheme added a bridge linking the Silk Street foyer area with the lakeside foyer area. The centres Silk Street entrance, previously dominated by an access for vehicles, was modified to give pedestrian access
8.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
9.
St Paul's Cathedral
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St Pauls Cathedral, London, is an Anglican cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of London and the mother church of the Diocese of London. It sits on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade 1 listed building and its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD604. The present church, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren and its construction, completed in Wrens lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the City after the Great Fire of London. The cathedral is one of the most famous and most recognisable sights of London and its dome, framed by the spires of Wrens City churches, dominated the skyline for 300 years. At 365 feet high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1967, the dome is among the highest in the world. St Pauls is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom after Liverpool Cathedral, St Pauls Cathedral occupies a significant place in the national identity. It is the subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke. St Pauls Cathedral is a church with hourly prayer and daily services. The entry fee is £18 for adults, the location of Londiniums original cathedral is unknown. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 5th century building on Tower Hill was excavated, the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Pauls Cathedral. Wren reported that he had no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire. Bede records that in AD604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberhts uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a dedicated to St Paul in London. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the site as the later medieval. On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his sons expelled Mellitus from London. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown and this building, or a successor, was destroyed by fire in 962, but rebuilt in the same year. King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016, the cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The fourth St Pauls, generally referred to as Old St Pauls, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire, a further fire in 1136 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240
10.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
11.
Greater London Authority
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The Greater London Authority is a top-tier administrative body for Greater London, England. It consists of an elected executive Mayor of London, currently Sadiq Khan. The authority was established in 2000, following a referendum, and derives most of its powers from the Greater London Authority Act 1999. It is a regional authority, with powers over transport, policing, economic development. Three functional bodies — Transport for London, the Mayors Office for Policing and Crime, the planning policies of the Mayor of London are detailed in a statutory London Plan that is regularly updated and published. The Greater London Authority is mostly funded by government grant and it is also a precepting authority. The GLA is unique in the British local government system, in terms of structure, elections, the GLA is responsible for the strategic administration of the 1579 km² of Greater London. It shares local government powers with the councils of 32 London boroughs and it was created to improve the co-ordination between the local authorities in Greater London, and the Mayor of Londons role is to give London a single person to represent it. The Mayor proposes policy and the GLAs budget, and makes appointments to the capitals strategic executive such as Transport for London, the primary purpose of the London Assembly is to hold the Mayor of London to account by scrutiny of his or her actions and decisions. The assembly must also accept or amend the Mayors budget on an annual basis, the GLA is based at City Hall, a new building on the south bank of the River Thames, next to Tower Bridge. The GLA is different from the Corporation of the City of London with its largely ceremonial Lord Mayors, in 1986, the Greater London Council was abolished by the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher. On abolition, the functions of the GLC were transferred to bodies controlled by central government or joint boards nominated by the London Borough councils. Some of the service functions were transferred down to the councils themselves. For the next 14 years there was no single elected body for the whole of London, the Labour Party never supported the abolition of the GLC and made it a policy to re-establish some form of citywide elected authority. After the Labour party won the 1997 general election, the policy was outlined in a White paper entitled A Mayor and Assembly for London. Simultaneously with the elections to the London Borough councils, a referendum was held on the establishment of the GLA in May 1998, the Greater London Authority Act 1999 passed through Parliament, receiving the Royal Assent in October 1999. In a controversial campaign, the then Prime Minister, Tony Blair, attempted to block Livingstones nomination. In reaction, Livingstone stood as an independent candidate, resulting in his expulsion from the Labour Party, following an interim period in which the Mayor and Assembly had been elected but had no powers, the GLA was formally established on 3 July 2000
12.
Guildhall, London
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Guildhall is a Grade I-listed building in the City of London, England. It is situated off Gresham and Basinghall streets, in the wards of Bassishaw, the building has been used as a town hall for several hundred years, and is still the ceremonial and administrative centre of the City of London and its Corporation. It should not be confused with Londons City Hall, the centre for Greater London. The term Guildhall refers both to the building and to its main room, which is a medieval great hall. The building is referred to as Guildhall, never the Guildhall. The nearest London Underground stations are Bank, St Pauls and Moorgate, the great hall is believed to be on a site of an earlier Guildhall. Possible evidence for this derivation may be in a reference to John Parker, the first documentary reference to a London Guildhall is dated 1128 and the current halls west crypt may be part of a late-13th century building. Legendary British history made Guildhalls site the site of the palace of Brutus of Troy, the current building began construction in 1411 and completed in 1440, and it is the only non-ecclesiastical stone building in the City to have survived through to the present day. The complex contains several other historic interiors besides the hall, including the large medieval crypts, the old library, and it also played a part in Jack Cades 1450 rebellion. The 1783 hearing of the infamous Zong case, the outcome of which focused public outrage about the slave trade. On 16 November 1848, the pianist Frédéric Chopin made his last public appearance on a platform here. Guildhall contains memorials to Pitt the Elder, Pitt the Younger, Admiral Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, William Beckford, the Great Hall did not completely escape damage in the Great Fire of London in 1666, it was partially restored in 1670. The present grand entrance, in Hindoostani Gothic, was added in 1788 by George Dance, a more extensive restoration than that in 1670 was completed in 1866 by the City of London architect Sir Horace Jones, who added a new timber roof in close keeping with the original. This replacement was destroyed during the Second Great Fire of London on the night of 29/30 December 1940 and it was replaced in 1954 during works designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott. Guildhall Art Gallery was added to the complex in the 1990s, Guildhall Library, a public reference library with specialist collections on London, which include material from the 11th century onwards, is also housed in the complex. The Clockmakers Museum was previously located at Guildhall but as of 2015 has been relocated to the Science Museum, the marathon route of the 2012 Summer Olympics passed through Guildhall Yard. Two giants, Gog and Magog, are associated with Guildhall, legend has it that the two giants were defeated by Brutus and chained to the gates of his palace on the site of Guildhall. Carvings of Gog and Magog are kept in Guildhall and 7-foot high wicker effigies of them donated by the Worshipful Company of Basketmakers in 2007 lead the procession in the annual Lord Mayors Show, early versions of Gog and Magog were destroyed in Guildhall during the Great Fire of London
13.
Kensington Palace
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Kensington Palace is a royal residence set in Kensington Gardens, in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in London, England. Today, the State Rooms are open to the public and managed by the independent charity Historic Royal Palaces, the offices and private accommodation areas of the Palace remain the responsibility of the Royal Household and are maintained by the Royal Household Property Section. The palace also displays paintings and other objects from the Royal Collection. Kensington Palace was originally a two-storey Jacobean mansion built by Sir George Coppin in 1605 in the village of Kensington, the mansion was purchased in 1619 by Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham and was then known as Nottingham House. In the summer of 1689, William and Mary bought Nottingham House from Secretary of State Daniel Finch and they then instructed Sir Christopher Wren, Surveyor of the Kings Works to begin an immediate expansion of the house. In order to time and money, Wren kept the structure intact and added a three-story pavilion at each of the four corners, providing more accommodation for the King and Queen. The Queen’s Apartments were in the north-west pavilion and the King’s in the south-east, Wren then re-oriented the house to face west, building north and south wings to flank the approach, made into a proper cour dhonneur that was entered through an archway surmounted by a clock tower. The palace was surrounded by straight cut solitary lawns, and formal gardens, laid out with paths and flower beds at right angles. Jamess Palace, which has not been the royal residence in London since the 17th century. William had constructed the South Front, to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor, after William IIIs death, the palace became the residence of Queen Anne. These were primarily used by the Queen to give access between the apartments and gardens. Queen Annes most notable contribution to the palace were the gardens and she commissioned the Hawksmoor designed Orangery, modified by John Vanbrugh, that was built for her in 1704. The level of decoration of the interior, including carved detail by Grinling Gibbons, reflects its use, not just as a greenhouse. Also, a magnificent 30 acre baroque parterre, with sections of clipped scrolling designs punctuated by trees formally clipped into cones, was out by Henry Wise. Kensington Palace was also the setting of the argument between Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough and Queen Anne. The Duchess, who was known for being outspoken and manipulative, was jealous of the attention the Queen was giving to Abigail Masham, Queen Anne died at Kensington Palace on 1 August 1714. George I spent lavishly on new royal apartments, creating three new state known as the Privy Chamber, the Cupola Room and the Withdrawing Room. He hired the unknown William Kent in 1722 to decorate the state rooms, the Cupola Room was Kents first commission for the King
14.
Barbican Estate
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The Barbican Complex is a prominent example of British brutalist architecture and is Grade II listed as a whole with the exception of the late Milton Court. The main fort of Roman London was built between 90 and 120 AD southeast of where the Museum of London now stands at the corner of London Wall and Aldersgate Street. Around 200 AD walls were built around the city incorporated the old fort. The Normans called it the Basse-cour or Base Court, synonymous with the modern word bailey and still applied to the outer courtyard of Hampton Court Palace. The Base Court continued to serve a military function during the reign of Edward I, by the 16th century it had passed to Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. The original Base court seems to have destroyed and the large building that replaced it was called Willoughby House. During World War II, the City suffered serious damage and loss of life, the Cripplegate ward was virtually demolished and by 1951 the resident population of the City stood at 5,324 of whom 48 lived in Cripplegate. Discussions began in 1952 about the future of the site, the estate was built between 1965 and 1976, on a 35-acre site that had been bombed in World War II. The complex was designed by architects Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, the estate of 40 acres was officially opened in 1969 and is now home to around 4,000 people living in 2,014 flats. The flats reflect the use in Britain in the 1960s and 1970s of concrete as the visible face of the building. The Minister for the Arts, Tessa Blackstone, announced in September 2001 that the Barbican complex was to be Grade II listed and it has been designated a site of special architectural interest for its scale, its cohesion and the ambition of the project. The complex is important as it is one of Londons principal examples of concrete brutalist architecture. The residential estate consists of three blocks,13 terrace blocks, two mews and The Postern, Wallside and Milton Court. These are grouped around a lake and green squares, the main buildings rise up to seven floors above a podium level, which links all the facilities in the Barbican, providing a pedestrian route above street level. Some maisonettes are built into the podium structure, there is no vehicular access within the estate, but there are some car parks at the periphery of the estate. Public car parks are located within the Barbican Centre, the top two or three floors of each block comprise three penthouse flats. Once the tallest residential towers in London, they were surpassed by the Pan Peninsula development on the Isle of Dogs. The Barbican Estate also contains the Barbican Centre, the Barbican public library, the City of London School for Girls, the Museum of London, a YMCA building was constructed between 1965 and 1971 to link the Barbican and Golden Lane Estate, it is also listed
15.
Philip Powell (architect)
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Sir Arnold Joseph Philip Powell CH OBE RA FRIBA, usually known as Philip Powell, was an English post-war architect. He was educated at Epsom College and then the Architectural Association and he was the father of Humane modernism, and is famous for designing the main stage at the Chichester Festival Theatre. He also designed the Skylon and the Churchill Gardens apartment complex in Pimlico and he founded a practice with Hidalgo Moya, Powell & Moya Architect Practice. Peter Skinner joined the practice in 1948 and later became a partner and they won a competition to build Churchill Gardens, Pimlico, a complex that houses 5,000 people in 1,800 flats. They were aged 24 and 23 respectively and they were then invited by Frederick Gibberd to design a housing project in Harlow New Town. Northbrooks sits imposingly above a valley to the south of the centre, affording good views from. However, arguments with Harlow Design Corporation over the use of flat roofs led to the pair terminating their involvement prior to completion and they undertook no more work in the town, much to the disappointment of Gibberd, who had lectured them at the Architects Association School. They designed the Skylon Installation at the 1951 Festival of Britain, in 1974, Powell and Moya became the first to win the RIBA Gold Medal for architecture as a Practice. Powell was knighted in 1975 after years of dedicated work as a member of the Royal Fine Arts Commission
16.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
17.
Great Fire of London
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The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday,2 September to Wednesday,5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall and it threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles IIs Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses,87 parish churches, St Pauls Cathedral and it is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the Citys 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small, a melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane, where the fire started, shows that the temperature reached 1250 °C. The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday,2 September, by the time that large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm that defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City, order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the focused on the French and Dutch, Englands enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War. The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming, evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire, by the 1660s, London was by far the largest city in Britain, estimated at half a million inhabitants. By inartificial, Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift, the result of organic growth, London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall. It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch, Holborn, and Southwark, the City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived. The City was then, as now, the heart of the capital. The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the suburbs, or in the exclusive Westminster district. The relationship was tense between the City and the Crown. The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War and they were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son, and when the Great Fire threatened the City, they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources. Even in such an emergency, the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite, by the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor, the fire was already out of control. The City was essentially medieval in its plan, an overcrowded warren of narrow, winding. It had experienced major fires before 1666, the most recent in 1632
18.
WilkinsonEyre
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WilkinsonEyre is one of the UKs leading architectural practices, based in London, England. After gaining experience in a number of top UK practices, Chris Wilkinson set up Chris Wilkinson Architects in 1983 and he formed a partnership with Jim Eyre in 1987, with the practice registered as Wilkinson Eyre Architects in 1999. Following an internal restructuring, the company was re-registered under the name in April 2006. Chris Wilkinson is the founder of WilkinsonEyre and he has been an external examiner for the Mackintosh School of Art, Westminster University and the Bartlett School of Architecture and has been a Commissioner of English Heritage. He is Patron of the Civic Trust Awards and currently chairs the Client Committee at the Royal Academy and he is also the author of Supersheds and co-author of Bridging Art & Science, Exploring Boundaries, Tectonics and Works. Jim Eyre is a director of the London-based architecture practice WilkinsonEyre where he has led the design on many of the practice’s cultural, commercial. Jim was awarded an OBE in the 2003 Honours list for services to architecture and was made Honorary Doctor of Laws at Liverpool University in 2009 and he has taught at Harvard’s Graduate School of Design and the Illinois Institute of Technology. His publications include The Architecture of Bridge Design and the practice’s Exploring Boundaries and he has lectured at home and internationally, including at Yale, Berkeley, the Bauhaus, the Soane Museum, the RIBA and at the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford. In 2015 Jim was awarded The Bodley Medal for his contribution to the transformation of the New Bodleian into a library for special collections. In 2013, they were appointed as architects for the redevelopment of the Battersea Power Station in London, south Quay Footbridge, London Docklands Suzhou-Nantong Crossing Swansea Sail Bridge Tensegrity Bridge, National Building Museum, Washington, D. C
19.
Lord Mayor's Show
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The Lord Mayors Show is one of the best-known annual events in London as well as one of the longest-established, dating back to the 16th century. The Lord Mayor after whom the show is named is the Lord Mayor of the City of London, a city and ceremonial county within Greater London, the City is also Londons main modern financial district, widely known informally as the Square Mile. A new lord mayor is appointed every year and the parade that takes place as his or her inauguration ceremony reflects that this was once one of the most prominent offices in England. The position of Lord Mayor has a role within the City and is distinct from the position of Mayor of London, namely the elected head of the Greater London Authority. The Lord Mayors Show is centred on a parade which in its modern form is a light-hearted combination of traditional British pageantry. Until 1882 the procession went to Westminster Hall, originally this journey was mostly made by barge on the River Thames, the usual method of transport for this route in those days. In London, the show occurred annually on 29 October, in 1751, Great Britain replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian calendar, the Lord Mayors Show was then moved to 9 November. In 1959, another change was made, the Lord Mayors Show is now held on the second Saturday in November. The Lord Mayors Show has regularly held on the scheduled day, it has not been moved since 1852. The show was not interrupted by the Second World War, the Lord Mayor has been making that journey every year for 477 years, surviving plague and fire and countless wars and insurrections. The modern Lord Mayors procession is a descendant of that first journey to Westminster. See also Lord Mayor of Londons State Coach Formerly, the route was varied each year so that the procession could pass through the Lord Mayors home ward, since 1952, however, the route has been fixed. The Lord Mayor rode on horseback or went on a barge via the River Thames, the river transport for the Lord Mayors Show gave rise to the word float when used in the context of parades. More recently, Sir Murray Fox in 1974 had a model of a fox in the procession. Lord Mayor Gilbert Heathcote was unseated from his horse by a flower girl in 1710. A stand-in coach was used for years until 1856, the last occasion on which barges were used. In 1757 Sir Charles Asgill, a banker who became the next Lord Mayor, equates to around £120,000, but the replacement value has been estimated at £2 million. The side panels of the Lord Mayors State Coach were painted by Cipriani and it is pulled by six horses, two fewer than the Queens
20.
Georgian architecture
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Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The style of Georgian buildings is very variable, but marked by a taste for symmetry and proportion based on the architecture of Greece and Rome. Ornament is also normally in the tradition, but typically rather restrained. In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession, before the mid-century the high-sounding title and this contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny published editions in America as well as Britain, mail-order kit homes were also popular before World War II. The architect James Gibbs was a figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking worlds equivalent of European Rococo. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke, regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. In Britain brick or stone are almost invariably used, brick is often disguised with stucco, in America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture, Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided, in grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. A single block was typical, with a perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid, this was partly to minimize window tax and their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable
21.
Pleasure garden
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A pleasure garden is usually a garden that is open to the public for recreation and entertainment. Pleasure gardens differ from other public gardens by serving as venues for entertainment, variously featuring such attractions as concert halls, bandstands, amusement rides, zoos, public pleasure gardens have existed for many centuries. In Ancient Rome, the landscaped Gardens of Sallust were developed as a garden by the historian Sallust. The gardens were acquired by the Roman Emperor Tiberius for public use, containing many pavilions, a temple to Venus, and monumental sculptures, the gardens were open to the public for centuries. Many contained large concert halls, or hosted promenade concerts, some lesser discussed pleasure gardens were home to haberdasheries, a smaller version of a pleasure garden is a tea garden, where visitors may drink tea and stroll. The pleasure garden also forms one of the six parts of the 18th century perfect garden, the others being the garden, an orchard, a park, an orangery or greenhouse. Melanie Doderer-Winkler, Magnificent Entertainments, Temporary Architecture for Georgian Festivals, the London Pleasure Gardens of the Eighteenth Century. Media related to pleasure gardens at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Debtors' prison
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A debtors prison is a prison for people who are unable to pay debt. Through the mid 19th century, debtors prisons were a way to deal with unpaid debt in Western Europe. Increasing access and lenience throughout the history of law have made prison terms for unaggravated indigence illegal over most of the world. In this case the crime is not indigence, but disobeying the order to appear before the court. During Europes Middle Ages, debtors, both men and women, were locked up together in a single, large cell until their families paid their debt, debt prisoners often died of diseases contracted from other debt prisoners. Conditions included starvation and abuse from other prisoners, if the father of a family was imprisoned for debt, the family business often suffered while the mother and children fell into poverty. Unable to pay the debt, the father often remained in prison for many years. Some debt prisoners were released to become serfs or indentured servants until they paid off their debt in labor, article 1 of Protocol 4 of the European Convention on Human Rights prohibits the imprisonment of people for breach of a contract. Turkey and the United Kingdom have signed but never ratified Protocol 4, greece and Switzerland have neither signed nor ratified this protocol. In the late Middle Ages, and at the beginning of the modern era and this served to standardize the coercive arrest, and got rid of the many arbitrary sanctions that were not universal. In some areas the debtor could sell or redistribute their debt, in most of the cities, the towers and city fortifications functioned as jails. For certain sanctions there were designated prisons, hence some towers being called debtors prison, the term Schuldturm, outside of the Saxon constitution, became the catchword for public law debtor’s prison. In the early era, the debtor’s detainment or citizen’s arrest remained valid in Germany. This practice was particularly disgraceful to an identity, but had different rules than criminal trials. It was more similar to the enforcement of sentences e. g. the debtor would be able to work off their debt for a certain amount of days. The North German Confederation eliminated debtors prisons on May 29,1868, in England during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,10,000 people were imprisoned for debt each year. A prison term did not alleviate a persons debt, however, in the Kingdom of Great Britain and the later United Kingdom, debtors prisons varied in the amount of freedom they allowed the debtor. Life in these prisons, however, was far from pleasant, some debtor prisoners were even less fortunate, being sent to prisons with a mixture of vicious criminals and petty criminals, and many more were confined to a single cell
23.
Selfridges
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Selfridges, also known as Selfridges & Co. is a chain of high end department stores in the United Kingdom. It was founded by Harry Gordon Selfridge, the flagship store on Londons Oxford Street is the second largest shop in the UK and opened 15 March 1909. Other Selfridges stores opened in the Trafford Centre, Exchange Square in Manchester, Lewiss and Selfridges were then taken over in 1965 by the Sears Group owned by Charles Clore. Expanded under the Sears group to include branches in Manchester and Birmingham, the shops early history was dramatised in ITVs 2013 series Mr Selfridge. The basis of Selfridges success was his innovative marketing, which was elaborately expressed in his Oxford Street store. Originally from America himself, Selfridge attempted to dismantle the idea that consumerism was strictly an American phenomenon and these techniques have been adopted by modern department stores around the world. Either Selfridge or Marshall Field is popularly held to have coined the phrase the customer is always right, in 1909, after the first cross-Channel flight, Louis Blériots monoplane was put on display at Selfridges, where it was seen by 12,000 people. John Logie Baird made the first public demonstration of moving images by television from the first floor of Selfridges from 1 to 27 April 1925. In the 1920s and 1930s, the roof of the store hosted terraced gardens, cafes, a golf course. The roof, with its views across London, was a popular place for strolling after a shopping trip and was often used for fashion shows. During the Second World War the store was bombed but survived comparatively unscathed besides the famous roof gardens, a Milne-Shaw seismograph was set up on the Oxford Street stores third floor in 1932 attached to one of the buildings main stanchions, where it remained unaffected by traffic or shoppers. It successfully recorded the Belgian earthquake of 11 June 1938, which was felt in London. In 1947, it was given to the British Museum, in 1926 Selfridges set up the Selfridge Provincial Stores company which had expanded over the years to include sixteen provincial stores, but these were sold to the John Lewis Partnership in 1940. The Liverpool-based Lewiss chain of department stores acquired the remaining Oxford Street Shop in 1951 until it was taken over in 1965 by the Sears Group owned by Charles Clore. Under the Sears group, branches in Ilford and Oxford opened, in 1990, Sears Holdings split Selfridges from Lewiss and placed Lewiss in administration a year later. In March 1998, Selfridges acquired its current logo in tandem with the opening of the Manchester Trafford Centre store, in September 1998, Selfridges expanded and opened a department store in the newly-opened Trafford Centre in Greater Manchester. Following its success, Selfridges announced they would open an additional 125, 000-square-foot store in Exchange Square, the Exchange Square store opened in 2002 as Manchester city centre started to return to normal following the 1996 Manchester bombing. A260, 000-square-foot store opened in 2003 in Birminghams Bull Ring, anne Pitcher is the Managing Director of Selfridges, while Irish retailer, Paul Kelly, who has worked for the Weston organisation since the mid-1980s is Managing Director of Selfridges Group
24.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
25.
Andy Pandy
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Andy Pandy is a British childrens television series that premiered on BBC TV in summer 1950. Originally live, a series of 13 filmed programmes was shown in 1970, a reboot of the show was made in 2001. The show was the basis for a strip of the same name in the childrens magazines Robin and Pippin. The original version of Andy Pandy premiered on BBC TV in 1950, on either 11 July or 20 June, initially the programmes were transmitted live, but it was realised that if the programmes were filmed, they could be repeated. Twenty-six episodes of fifteen minutes duration were filmed on 16mm, and were produced around 1952 and this version had narration by Maria Bird. In one episode Andy Pandy sees how high he can go on a swing, all the filmed black and white 1950s original transmissions were narrated by Maria Bird, who was to become a co-producer, with Freda Lingstrom, who worked for the BBC. Bird was a writer of books for the very young, notably Andy Pandy. A marionette who lived in a basket, Andy was later joined by Teddy, a teddy bear, and Looby Loo, a rag doll. Looby Loo had her own special song Here we go Looby Loo, all three lived in the same picnic basket. Each episode ended with a variation on the song, Time to go home, Time to go home and it is claimed that the design for the character was based on Paul Atterbury, the then young son of puppeteer Audrey Atterbury. A comic-strip version was published in Robin, the production staff for the original series were, Producer, Freda Lingstrom. Narrator, Maria Bird Writer/composer, Freda Lingstrom and Maria Bird, singers, Gladys Whitred, Julia Williams Puppeteers, Audrey Atterbury, Molly Gibson, Martin Grainger. By 1970, the black and white films were almost worn out, the 13 Episodes of the 1970 series are 1. Sailing Boats Another set of 52 episodes was made in 2001, whereas the emphasis of the original series was on music and movement, the emphasis of the 2001 series was on making and doing. Here are the episodes and songs in order, the numbers means its an episode and the word song means its a song. Hide and Seek SONG, Hopscotch 2, the Man From The Moon SONG, Musical Chairs 6. Tiffo and his Stick SONG, Painting 8, a Flying Feather SONG, Boxes 10. The Birthday Cake SONG, Gardening 12, Andy Pandys Musical Box SONG, Looby Loo 14
26.
Flower Pot Men
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The Flower Pot Men is a British childrens programme, produced by BBC television, first transmitted in 1952, and repeated regularly for more than twenty years. The show was the basis for a strip of the same name in the childrens magazine Robin. A reboot of the show called Bill and Ben was produced in 2001, originally, the programme was part of a BBC childrens television series titled Watch with Mother, with a different programme each weekday, most of them involving string puppets. The Flower Pot Men was the story of Bill and Ben, the characters were devised by Freda Lingstrom and Maria Bird. Three later stories were written by Hilda Brabban, the puppeteers were Audrey Atterbury and Molly Gibson. The voices and other noises were produced by Peter Hawkins, Gladys Whitred, the narration for all episodes was done by Maria Bird. The plot changed little in each episode, the programme always took place in a garden, behind a potting shed. The third character was Little Weed, of species, somewhat resembling a sunflower or dandelion with a smiling face. The three were sometimes visited by a tortoise called Slowcoach, and in one particular episode. While the man who worked in the garden was away having his dinner the two Flower Pot Men, Bill and Ben, emerged from the two flowerpots, after a minor adventure a minor mishap occurs, someone is guilty. Which of those two flower pot men, was it Bill or was it Ben, the final punch-line was, and I think the little house knew something about it. The Flower Pot Men spoke their own, highly inflected version of English, called Oddle Poddle, which was invented by Peter Hawkins. At the end of each adventure, they would say bye-bye to each other and this language, like that of the Teletubbies in the 1990s, was criticised for hindering children from learning proper English. Amongst fans there is controversy about whether they actually said Flobbalob and this reboot features the voices of John Thomson, Jimmy Hibbert and Eve Karpf. The series aired in Ireland on RTEjr and formerly aired on CBeebies in 2002-2008, many additions were implemented, A mean female rosebush with two talking buds in the neighbours garden named Rose. A mischievous female prickly plant named Thistle, a female magpie named Pry, obsessed by shiny treasures, often just bottle caps. Slowcoach remains in the series, with few changes to his characteristics and he gets angry at Bill & Ben for ruining his things. A male baby squirrel named Scuff, a male talking tomato named Ketchup
27.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
28.
West End theatre
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West End theatre is a common term for mainstream professional theatre staged in the large theatres of Theatreland in and near the West End of London. Along with New York Citys Broadway theatre, West End theatre is considered to represent the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world. Seeing a West End show is a common tourist activity in London, in 2013, ticket sales reached a record 14.4 million, making West End the largest English speaking audience in the world. Famous screen actors frequently appear on the London stage, helen Mirren received an award for her performance as the Queen on the West End stage, and then stated, theatre is such an important part of British history and British culture. Theatre in London flourished after the English Reformation, the first permanent public playhouse, known simply as The Theatre, was constructed in 1576 in Shoreditch by James Burbage. It was soon joined by The Curtain, both are known to have been used by William Shakespeares company. In 1599, the timber from The Theatre was moved to Southwark and these theatres were closed in 1642 due to the Puritans who would later influence the interregnum of 1649. After the Restoration, two companies were licensed to perform, the Dukes Company and the Kings Company, performances were held in converted buildings, such as Lisles Tennis Court. The first West End theatre, known as Theatre Royal in Bridges Street, was designed by Thomas Killigrew and built on the site of the present Theatre Royal and it opened on 7 May 1663 and was destroyed by a fire nine years later. It was replaced by a new designed by Christopher Wren and renamed the Theatre Royal. Outside the West End, Sadlers Wells Theatre opened in Islington on 3 June 1683. Taking its name from founder Richard Sadler and monastic springs that were discovered on the property, it operated as a Musick House, with performances of opera, as it was not licensed for plays. In the West End, the Theatre Royal Haymarket opened on 29 December 1720 on a site north of its current location. The Patent theatre companies retained their duopoly on drama well into the 19th century, by the early 19th century, however, music hall entertainments became popular, and presenters found a loophole in the restrictions on non-patent theatres in the genre of melodrama. Melodrama did not break the Patent Acts, as it was accompanied by music, initially, these entertainments were presented in large halls, attached to public houses, but purpose-built theatres began to appear in the East End at Shoreditch and Whitechapel. The West End theatre district became established with the opening of small theatres and halls. South of the River Thames, the Old Vic, Waterloo Road, the next few decades saw the opening of many new theatres in the West End. It abbreviated its name three years later, the theatre building boom continued until about World War I
29.
Suffragette
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Suffragettes were members of womens organizations in the late-19th and early-20th centuries which advocated the extension of the franchise, or the right to vote in public elections, to women. It particularly refers to militants in the United Kingdom such as members of the Womens Social and Political Union, suffragist is a more general term for members of the suffrage movement. The term suffragette is particularly associated with activists in the British WSPU, led by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst, Women in South Australia achieved the same right and became the first to obtain the right to stand for parliament in 1895. Women in Britain over the age of 30, meeting certain property qualifications, were given the right to vote in 1918, opinion amongst historians today is divided as to whether the militant tactics of the suffragettes helped or hindered their cause. British suffragettes were mostly women from upper and middle-class backgrounds, frustrated by their social, mill introduced the idea of womens suffrage on the platform he presented to the British electorate in 1865. He was subsequently joined by men and women fighting for the same cause. The term suffragette was first used as a term of derision by the journalist Charles E, hands in the London Daily Mail to describe activists in the movement for womens suffrage, in particular members of the Womens Social and Political Union. But the women he intended to ridicule embraced the term saying suffraGETtes implied not only that they wanted the vote, the National Union of Womens Suffrage Societies, founded in 1897, was formed from local suffrage societies. The union was led by Millicent Fawcett, who believed in constitutional campaigning, issuing leaflets, organising meetings and presenting petitions, in 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded a new organisation, the Womens Social and Political Union. She thought the movement would have to become radical and militant if it was going to be effective, the Daily Mail gave them the name Suffragettes. Some radical techniques used by the suffragettes, especially hunger strikes, were learned from Russian exiles from tsarism who had escaped to England, many suffragists at the time, and most historians since, have argued that the actions of the militant suffragettes damaged their cause. Opponents at the time saw evidence that women were too emotional, from 1909, the Pank-A-Squith board game was sold by the WSPU to raise awareness of their campaign and raise money. The name is derived from Pankhurst the surname of the leaders of the WSPU, and Asquith, the surname of the Prime Minister at the time and a largely hated figure by the movement. The Peoples History Museum in Manchester has a Pank-A-Squith board game on display in the main galleries, one suffragette, Emily Davison, died under the Kings horse Anmer at the Epsom Derby of 4 June 1913. It is debated whether she was trying to pin a Votes for Women banner on the Kings horse or not, many of her fellow suffragettes were imprisoned and refused food as a scare tactic against the government. The Liberal government of the day led by Asquith responded with the Cat, another prominent British Suffragette, Sophia Duleep Singh was almost forgotten for 70 years. In the early-20th century until the First World War, approximately one thousand suffragettes were imprisoned in Britain, most early incarcerations were for public order offences and failure to pay outstanding fines. The first suffragettes to be imprisoned were Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney in October 1905 and this cause was taken up by the Womens Social and Political Union, a large organisation in Britain, that lobbied for womens suffrage led by militant suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst
30.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
31.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
32.
Mary Quant
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Dame Barbara Mary Quant, Mrs Plunket Greene, DBE, FCSD, RDI is a Welsh fashion designer and British fashion icon. She became a figure in the 1960s London-based Mod and youth fashion movements. In recent fashion there are three, Chanel, Dior, and Mary Quant, Quant was born in Blackheath, London on 11 February 1934, the daughter of Welsh teachers. Her parents, Jack and Mildred Quant, were both from mining families and they had been awarded scholarships to grammar school and had both attained first-class degrees at Cardiff University before they moved to London to work as schoolteachers. She went to Blackheath High School, then studied illustration at Goldsmiths College, after gaining a Diploma in Art Education from Goldsmiths, Quant began an apprenticeship at Erik, a high-end Mayfair milliner on Brook Street next door to Claridges hotel. She met her husband and business partner, Alexander Plunket Greene in 1953. They were married from 1957 until his death in 1990, and had a son, in 1957, they opened the second branch of Bazaar, which was designed by Terence Conran. Following this, Quant decided to design and make more of the clothes she stocked, initially working solo, she was soon employing a handful of machinists, and by 1966 she was working with eighteen manufacturers concurrently. For a while in the late 1950s and very early 1960s, the other was Kiki Byrne, who opened her boutique on the Kings Road in direct competition with Quant. The miniskirt, described as one of the fashions of the 1960s, is one of the garments most widely associated with Quant. While she is cited as the inventor of the style. Others credit Courrèges with the invention of the style, however, skirts had been getting shorter since the 1950s—a development Quant considered practical and liberating, allowing women the ability to run for a bus. Quant later said It was the girls on the Kings Road who invented the mini, I was making easy, youthful, simple clothes, in which you could move, in which you could run and jump and we would make them the length the customer wanted. I wore them short and the customers would say, Shorter, shorter. She enjoys being noticed, but wittily, in the late 1960s, Quant popularised hot pants and became a British fashion icon. Through the 1970s and 1980s she concentrated on household goods and make-up, rather than just her clothing lines, in 1988, Quant designed the interior of the Mini Designer. It featured black and white striped seats with red trimming, the seatbelts were red, and the driving and passenger seats had Quants signature on the upper left quadrant. The steering wheel had Quants signature daisy and the badge had Mary Quant written over the signature name
33.
Punk fashion
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Punk fashion is the clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, jewellery, and body modifications of the punk subculture. Punk fashion varies widely, ranging from Vivienne Westwood designs to styles modeled on bands like The Exploited to the look of North American hardcore. The distinct social dress of other subcultures and art movements, including rock, skinheads, rude boys, greasers. Punk fashion has likewise influenced the styles of groups, as well as those of popular culture. Many punks use clothing as a way of making a statement, Punk clothing, which was initially handmade, became mass-produced and sold in record stores and some smaller specialty clothing stores by the 1980s. Many fashion magazines and other glamour-oriented media have featured classic punk hairstyles, Punk rock was an intentional rebuttal of the perceived excess and pretension found in mainstream music, and early punk artists fashion was defiantly anti-materialistic. Generally unkempt, often short hairstyles replaced the long-hair hippie look, in the United Kingdom, a great deal of punk fashion from the 1970s was based on the designs of Vivienne Westwood and Malcolm McLaren and the Bromley Contingent. Mainstream punk style was influenced by clothes sold in Malcolm McLarens shop, McLaren has credited this style to his first impressions of Richard Hell, while McLaren was in New York City working with New York Dolls. Deliberately offensive T-shirts were popular in the punk scene, such as the DESTROY T-shirt sold at SEX, which featured an inverted crucifix. These T-shirts, like other punk clothing items, were torn on purpose. Other items in early British punk fashion included, leather jackets, customised blazers, and dress shirts randomly covered in slogans, blood, patches and controversial images. Musician PJ Harvey was noted as appear immersed in rock n roll around the time of her album Dry in 1992, due in part to her leather apparel, hair in a bun, Punk clothing sometimes incorporated everyday objects for aesthetic effect. Purposely ripped clothes were held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape, black bin liners became dresses, other items added to clothing or as jewellery included razor blades and chains. Tapered jeans, tight pants, trousers with leopard patterns. Other early punks imitated the Droogs from A Clockwork Orange by wearing bowler hats, hair was cropped and deliberately made to look messy, and was often dyed bright unnatural colours. Although provocative, these hairstyles were not as extreme as later punk hairstyle, in the 1980s, new fashion styles developed as parallel resurgences occurred in the United States and United Kingdom. What many recognize as typical punk fashions today emerged from the 1980s British scene, when punk underwent its Oi. /street punk, the US scene was exemplified by hardcore bands such as Black Flag, Minor Threat, and Fear. The 1980s American scene spawned a utilitarian anti-fashion that was raw, angry
34.
Alexander McQueen
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Lee Alexander McQueen, CBE was a British fashion designer and couturier. He is known for having worked as designer at Givenchy from 1996 to 2001. His achievements in fashion earned him four British Designer of the Year awards, McQueen committed suicide in 2010 at the age of forty. Born on 17 March 1969 in Lewisham, London, to Scottish taxi driver Ronald and social science teacher Joyce and he reportedly grew up in a council flat, but, in fact, the McQueens moved to a terraced house in Stratford in his first year. He attended Carpenters Road Primary School, started making dresses for his three sisters at an age, and announced his intention to become a fashion designer. While serving his apprenticeship, McQueen attended the Rosetta Art Centre led by Yvonne Humble, the skills he learned as an apprentice on Savile Row helped earn him a reputation in the fashion world as an expert in creating an impeccably tailored look. While on Savile Row, McQueens clients included Mikhail Gorbachev and Prince Charles, at the age of 20, he spent a period of time working for Koji Tatsuno before travelling to Milan, Italy and working for Romeo Gigli. McQueen returned to London and applied to Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and it was during this period that McQueen relocated to Hoxton, which housed other new designers, including Hussein Chalayan and Pauric Sweeney. He promptly asked her to him for his third collection, The Birds at Kings Cross. Katy England continued to work with McQueen thereafter, greatly influencing his work – his second opinion, McQueen designed the wardrobe for David Bowies tours in 1996-1997, as well as the Union Jack coat worn by Bowie on the cover of his 1997 album Earthling. Icelandic singer Björk sought McQueens work for the cover of her album Homogenic in 1997, McQueen also directed the music video for her song Alarm Call from the same album and later contributed the iconic topless dress to her video for Pagan Poetry. McQueen also collaborated with dancer Sylvie Guillem, director Robert Lepage and choreographer Russell Maliphant, designing wardrobe for theater show Eonnagata, McQueens early runway collections developed his reputation for controversy and shock tactics, with trousers aptly named bumsters and a collection titled Highland Rape. In 2004, journalist Caroline Evans also wrote of McQueens theatrical staging of cruelty, in 032c magazine, referring to his dark, McQueens bumsters spawned a trend in low rise jeans, on their debut they attracted many comments and debate. Michael Oliveira-Salac, the director of Blow PR and a friend of McQueens said, McQueen also became known for using skulls in his designs. A scarf bearing the motif became a celebrity must-have and was copied around the world, McQueen has been credited with bringing drama and extravagance to the catwalk. He used new technology and innovation to add a different twist to his shows, the silhouettes that he created have been credited for adding a sense of fantasy and rebellion to fashion. McQueen became one of the first designers to use Indian models in London, the president of LVMH, Bernard Arnault, caused a stir when he appointed McQueen head designer at Givenchy in 1996, succeeding John Galliano. Upon arrival at Givenchy, McQueen insulted the founder by calling him irrelevant and his first couture collection with Givenchy was unsuccessful, with even McQueen telling Vogue in October 1997 that the collection was crap
35.
LED
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
36.
Film London
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Film London is Londons film and media agency - sustaining, promoting and developing London as a major international film-making and film cultural capital. This includes all the industries based in London - film, television, video, commercials. Film London is one of nine regional screen agencies throughout the United Kingdom, the not-for-profit organisation is supported by the BFI and the Mayor of London. Film London also receives significant support from Arts Council England London, Film London aims to ensure London has a thriving film sector that enriches the capital’s businesses and its people. Film London was formed on 17 March 2003 under the aegis of the UK Film Council and the London Development Agency, sandy Lieberson was appointed as Chairman of the Board in March 2003 and Chief Executive Adrian Wootton joined in May that year. The agency was launched in April 2004. In 2005, Film London in partnership with Arts Council England, Film London Artists Moving Image Network works in partnership with various organisations to provide, funding, events, seminars, advice, surgeries, residencies, training and workshops. The FLAMIN website provides information and listings tailored to meet the needs of working with the moving image. Film London Microwave, a feature film fund, launched in 2006. The scheme challenges film-makers to shoot a feature film for up to £100,000 with cash. Microwave is open to working in documentary, fiction, animation. Accompanying the scheme is a web-based resource – Microwave Online, the website outlines the details of all projects supported through Film London Microwave, and also offers current news in the independent film-making sector, as well as educational resources
37.
Museum of London Docklands
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The Museum of London Docklands is a museum on the Isle of Dogs, east London that tells the history of Londons River Thames and the growth of Docklands. The museum is part of the Museum of London jointly funded by the City of London Corporation and the Greater London Authority. Lots of the collection is from the museum and archives of the Port of London Authority which became part of the port. These were put into storage by the Museum of London in 1985, visitors are directed through the displays in chronological order. The Museum of London Docklands has a theatre and meeting rooms and hosts talks. Several workers who worked on the docks in the 1960s take part in these events, the reading room and Sainsburys Study Centre house the archives. In 2007, the museum celebrated the bicentenary of the British abolition of slavery by opening a £14 million Heritage Lottery Funded exhibition entitled London, Sugar, in March 2016, the museum opened an exhibit relating to the building itself. The building was originally called No.1 Warehouse, and was built in 1802 during the expansion of West India Docks, in September, the museum displayed Dick Moores George Cross medal for bravery during the London Blitz. In 2017, the museum is aiming to open an exhibit displaying archaeological findings found during Crossrail work, Museum of London Museum of London Archaeology Island History Trust Culture of London Robert Milligan Official website of the Museum of London Docklands Official website of the Museum of London
38.
Canary Wharf
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Canary Wharf is a major business district located in Tower Hamlets, East London. Canary Wharf contains around 16,000,000 square feet of office and retail space, Morgan, KPMG, MetLife, Moodys, Morgan Stanley, RBC, S&P Global, Skadden, State Street, and Thomson Reuters. Canary Wharf is located on the West India Docks on the Isle of Dogs, from 1802 to 1939, the area was one of the busiest docks in the world. After the 1960s, the industry began to decline, leading to all the docks being closed by 1980. Canary Wharf itself takes its name from No.32 berth of the West Wood Quay of the Import Dock and this was built in 1936 for Fruit Lines Ltd, a subsidiary of Fred Olsen Lines for the Mediterranean and Canary Islands fruit trade. The Canary islands were so named after the dogs found there by the Spanish and as it is located on the Isle of Dogs. The Canary Wharf of today began when Michael von Clemm, former chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston, further discussions with G Ware Travelstead led to proposals for a new business district. The first buildings were completed in 1991, including One Canada Square, which became the UKs tallest building at the time, by the time it opened, the London commercial property market had collapsed, and Olympia and York Canary Wharf Limited filed for bankruptcy in May 1992. Initially, the City of London saw Canary Wharf as an existential threat and it modified its planning laws to expand the provision of new offices in the City of London, for example, creating offices above railway stations and roads. The resulting oversupply of office space contributed to the failure of the No 1 Canada Square project, in 1997, some residents living on the Isle of Dogs launched a lawsuit against Canary Wharf Ltd for private nuisance because the tower interfered with television signals. In December 1995 an international consortium, backed by the owners of Olympia & York and other investors. The new company was called Canary Wharf Limited, and later became Canary Wharf Group, recovery in the property market generally, coupled with continuing demand for large floorplate Grade A office space, slowly improved the level of interest. A critical event in the recovery was the start of work on the Jubilee Line Extension. At the peak of property prices in 2007, the HSBC building sold for a record £1.1 billion, in March 2014 planning permission was granted for the second residential building on the Canary Wharf estate, a 58-storey tower including 566 apartments plus shops and a health club. In July 2014 Canary Wharf Group was granted planning permission for a major expansion of the Canary Wharf estate. The plans include the construction of 30 buildings comprising a total of 4.9 million square feet, construction is planned to commence in autumn 2014 with the first buildings to be occupied at the end of 2018. In 2014, Singapore listed Oxley Holdings, together with developer Ballymore UK, have a joint venture to set up a new waterfront township of Royal Wharf with 3385 new homes housing over 10,000 people. This table lists completed buildings in Canary Wharf that are over 60 metres tall, the Canary Wharf developers played a pro-active role in improving transport links, which they recognised as essential to the success of the project
39.
Isle of Dogs
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The Isle of Dogs is an area in the East End of London that is bounded on three sides by one of the largest meanders in the River Thames. The soil is alluvial and silty in nature, underlaid by clay or mud, the first known written mention of the Isle of Dogs is in the ‘Letters & Papers of Henry VIII’. Some say it is a corruption of the Isle of Ducks, Jonson was imprisoned for a year, Nashe avoided arrest by fleeing the area. Samuel Pepys referred to the unlucky Isle of Dogs, the presence of Dutch engineers reclaiming the land from a disastrous flood. The presence of gibbets on the foreshore facing Greenwich, a yeoman farmer called Brache, this being an old word for a type of hunting dog. The original docks located here were used for firewood importation and the phrase is linked to fire dogs, the dogs of a later king, Henry VIII, who also kept deer in Greenwich Park. Again it is thought that his hunting dogs might have kept in derelict farm buildings on the Island. Isle of Dykes, which then got corrupted over the years, the whole area was once simply known as Stepney Marsh, Anton van den Wyngaerdes Panorama of London dated 1543 depicts and refers to the Isle of Dogs. Records show that ships preparing to carry the English royal household to Calais in 1520 docked at the bank of the Island. The name Isle of Dogges occurs in the Thamesis Descriptio of 1588, the name is next applied to the Isle of Dogs Fam shown on a map of 1683. At the same time, the area was known as Isle of Dogs or the Blackwell levels. By 1855, it was incorporated within the parish of Poplar under the aegis of the Poplar Board of Works and this was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Poplar on its formation in 1900. After the building of the Docks, and with an increasing population and this area includes Millwall, Cubitt Town, and Blackwall. The south of the isle opposite Greenwich was once known as North Greenwich, between 1986 and 1992 it enjoyed a brief formal existence, as the name Isle of Dogs was applied to one of seven neighbourhoods to which power was devolved from the council. It was the site of the highest concentration of housing in England but is now best known as the location of the Canary Wharf office complex. One Canada Square, also known as the Canary Wharf Tower, is the second tallest habitable building in Britain at 244 metres, the Isle of Dogs is situated some distance downriver from the City of London. The area was sparsely populated marshland before its drainage and planting in the 13th century. A catastrophic flood occurred in 1488, resulting in the returning to its previous marshy condition
40.
Billingsgate
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Billingsgate is one of the 25 Wards of the City of London. The modern Ward extends south to the Thames, west to Lovat Lane and Rood Lane, north to Fenchurch Street and Dunster Court, and east to Mark Lane and St Dunstans Hill. Billingsgates most ancient historical reference is as a gate to the city of Trinovantum. Until boundary changes in 2003, the Ward included Pudding Lane, Billingsgate Fish Market was formally established by an Act of Parliament in 1699 to be a free and open market for all sorts of fish whatsoever. Oranges, lemons, and Spanish onions were also landed there, alongside the main commodities, coal. In 1849, the market was moved off the streets into its own riverside building. In 1982, Billingsgate Fish Market was relocated to its present location close to Canary Wharf in east London, the original riverside market building was then refurbished to provide office accommodation and an entertainment venue. The raucous cries of the fish vendors gave rise to Billingsgate as a synonym for profanity or offensive language, within the Ward are the Customs House and the Watermens Hall, built in 1780 and the Citys only surviving Georgian Livery company hall. Centennium House in Lower Thames Street has Roman baths within its basement foundations, within the Ward remain two churches, St Mary-at-Hill and St Margaret Pattens, after the demolition of St George Botolph Lane in 1904. Billingsgate is one of the Citys 25 Wards returning an Alderman, lord Blackadder, the titular hero of Blackadder II, is said to have resided at Billingsgate, and in Thackerays Vanity Fair, Mr. Sedley has brought home the best turbot in Billingsgate
41.
Shoreditch
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Shoreditch is an inner city district in the historic East End of London and modern Central London within the London Borough of Hackney, lying immediately to the north of the City of London. The districts of Hoxton and Haggerston are part of Shoreditch, but the Shoreditch High Street railway station, lies just outside, the etymology of Shoreditch is debated. One legend holds that the place was originally named Shores Ditch, after Jane Shore, the mistress of Edward IV, however, the area was known as Soersditch long before Jane Shores life. A more plausible origin for the name is Sewer Ditch, in reference to a drain or watercourse in what was once a boggy area and it may have referred to the headwaters of the river Walbrook, which rose in the Curtain Road area. In a further theory, antiquarian John Weever claimed that the derived from Sir John de Soerdich. Shoreditch High Street and Kingsland road are a small sector of the Roman Ermine Street, known also as the Old North Road, it was a major coaching route to the north, exiting the City at Bishopsgate. The east–west course of Old Street–Hackney Road was also originally a Roman Road, connecting Silchester with Colchester. Shoreditch Church is of ancient origin and features in the line when I grow rich say the bells of Shoreditch, from the nursery rhyme Oranges. Shoreditch was the site of a house of canonesses, the Augustinian Holywell Priory and this priory was located between Shoreditch High Street and Curtain Road to east and west and Batemans Row and Holywell Lane to north and south. In 1576 James Burbage built the first playhouse in England, known as The Theatre, some of Shakespeares plays were performed here and at the nearby Curtain Theatre, built the following year and 200 yards to the south. It was here that Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet gained Curtain plaudits, in 1599 Shakespeares Company literally upped sticks and moved the timbers of The Theatre to Southwark at expiration of the lease to construct The Globe. The Curtain continued performing plays in Shoreditch until at least 1627, the suburb of Shoreditch was attractive as a location for these early theatres because it was outside the jurisdiction of the somewhat puritanical City fathers. During the 17th century, wealthy traders and Huguenot silk weavers moved to the area, by the 19th century Shoreditch was also the locus of the furniture industry, now commemorated in the Geffrye Museum on Kingsland Road. However the area declined along with textile and furniture industries and by the end of the 19th century Shoreditch was a byword for crime, prostitution. This situation was not improved by extensive devastation of the stock in the Blitz during World War II. In the late 19th century this was one of the largest theatres in London, in 1926 it was converted into a cinema called The New Olympia Picturedrome. The building was demolished in 1940, sims Reeves, Mrs Marriott and James Anderson all appeared here, also performed were programmes of classical opera and even Shakespeare, with such luminaries as Henry Irving. There was considerable rivalry with the West End theatres, with real rain, a real flood, and a real balloon
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Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport
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The department was also responsible for the delivery of the 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games and the building of a Digital Economy. The DCMS originates from the Department of National Heritage, which itself was created on 11 April 1992 out of other departments. The former Ministers for the Arts and for Sport had previously located in other departments. The DNH was renamed as the Department for Culture, Media and Sport on 14 July 1997, the June 2007 Cabinet reshuffle led to Tessa Jowell MP taking on the role of Paymaster General and then Minister for the Cabinet Office while remaining Minister for the Olympics. Ministerial responsibility for the Olympics was shared with Ms Jowell in the Cabinet Office, following the 2010 general election, ministerial responsibility for the Olympics returned to the Secretary of State. Although Jeremy Hunts full title was Secretary of State for Culture, Olympics, Media and Sport, on 4 September 2012, Hunt was appointed Health Secretary in a cabinet reshuffle and replaced by Maria Miller. Maria Miller later resigned due to controversy over her expenses and her replacement was announced later that day as Sajid Javid. After the 2015 general election, John Whittingdale was appointed as Secretary of State, DCMS received full responsibility for the digital economy policy, formerly jointly held with BIS, and sponsorship of the Information Commissioners Office from the Ministry of Justice. The department also gained two additional ministers, Baroness Shields and Baroness Neville-Rolfe, Whittingdale was replaced by Karen Bradley after the referendum on the UKs membership of the EU in July 2016. The Secretary of State has responsibility for the maintenance of the land, DCMS continues to make a separate small grant to the Royal Household for the maintenance of Marlborough House The Department also has responsibility for state ceremonial occasions and royal funerals. However, responsibility for the Civil List element of Head of State expenditure, DCMS organises the annual Remembrance Day Ceremony at the Cenotaph and has responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance in the event of a disaster. In the Governments response to the 7 July 2005 London bombings the department coordinated humanitarian support to the relatives of victims, the main offices are at 100 Parliament Street, occupying part of the building known as Government Offices Great George Street. The DCMS Ministers are as follows, The Permanent Secretary is Sue Owen CB, the DCMS has policy responsibility for three statutory corporations and two public broadcasting authorities. These bodies and their operation are largely independent of Government policy influence, the Museum of London transferred to the Greater London Authority from 1 April 2008. DCMS formerly sponsored eight Regional Cultural Consortiums with NDPB status, media-related policy is generally reserved to Westminster i. e. not devolved. United Kingdom budget Digital Economy Act 2010 Culture, Media and Sport Committee Official website DCMS YouTube channel
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