1.
Culture of Peru
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The culture of Peru was made by the relationship between European and Ameridian cultures. The ethnic diversity and rugged geography of Peru allowed diverse traditions and customs to co-exist. The coastal, European influenced Peru has passed through various intellectual stages - from colonial Hispanic culture to European Romanticism after independence, the early 20th century brought indigenismo, expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since World War II, Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals such as César Vallejo and José María Arguedas have participated in worldwide intellectual, Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian Los Comentarios Reales de los Incas, published in 1609. After independence, the monarchy wrote a book that spoke to all of the people, costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Priests. In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría, José María Arguedas, José Carlos Mariáteguis essays in the 1920s were a turning-point in the political and economic analysis of Peruvian history. During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of such as Mario Vargas Llosa. Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to the influence of indigenous imagery, two of the most well-known examples of the Early Colonial period are the Cathedral of Cusco and the Church of Santa Clara of Cuzco. After this period, the mestization reached its richer expression in the Baroque, the Independence War left a creative emptiness that was filled by the Neoclassicism of the French. The 20th century was characterized by the architecture, which has been in stark opposition to constructive functionalism. Its considerable example is San Martin Plaza in Lima, Peruvian music is an amalgamation of sounds and styles drawing on the Perus Andean music roots and influenced by Quechua, Aymara and Spanish music. Popular celebrations are the product of every towns traditions and legends and these celebrations include music, meals and typical drinks. In addition to the religious celebrations like Christmas and Corpus Christi, an example is the Marinera which is one of the main dances found in Peru. Many families find it fascinating to watch a performance and they also have a guinea pig festival each year. Football is the most popular sport in Peru, Football in Peru is governed by the Peruvian Football Federation, which organizes the mens and womens national teams. Nolberto Solano Current renowned players include defender Carlos Zambrano, midfielder Juan Manuel Vargas and strikers Claudio Pizarro, José Paolo Guerrero, alianza Lima, Sporting Cristal, and Universitario de Deportes are the biggest teams in Peru. In 2003, Cienciano won the Copa Sudamericana beating Argentinian club River Plate, Sporting Cristal was finalist in the Copa Libertadores de América 1997, South Americas most important football tournament. Also Universitario de Deportes but in 1972, achievements from the Peru national football team include competing at the FIFA World Cup, in 1930,1970,1978, and 1982. The national team won two Copa Américas in 1939 and 1975, achievements from the Peru womens national football team include finishing third place at the 1998 Sudamericano Femenino, and finishing fourth place at the 2003 Sudamericano Femenino
2.
History of Peru
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The history of Peru spans 4 million millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development in the mountain region and the coastal desert. Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the six oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire and it was conquered by the Spanish Empire in the 16th century, which established a Viceroyalty with jurisdiction over most of its South American domains. The nation declared independence from Spain in 1821, but consolidated only after the Battle of Ayacucho, hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside the caves of Pachacamac, Telarmachay, Junin and Lauricocha. Some of the oldest civilizations appeared circa 6000 BC in the provinces of Chilca and Paracas. Over the following three years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating land, as evidence from sites such as Jiskairumoko, Kotosh. Cultivation of plants such as corn and cotton began, as well as the domestication of such as the wild ancestors of the llama, the alpaca. Inhabitants practiced spinning and knitting of cotton and wool, basketry and pottery, as these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements and new societies emerged along the coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was Caral, located in the Supe Valley 200 km north of Lima and it was built in approximately 2500 BC. What is left from the civilization, also called Norte Chico, is about 30 pyramidal structures built up in receding terraces ending in a flat roof, Caral is one of the world centers of the rise of civilization. In the early 21st century, archeologists have discovered new evidence of ancient pre-Ceramic complex cultures, in 2006, Robert Benfer and a research team discovered a 4, 200-year-old observatory at Buena Vista, a site in the Andes several kilometers north of present-day Lima. They believe the observatory was related to the reliance on agriculture. The site includes the oldest three-dimensional sculptures found thus far in South America, in 2007 the archeologist Walter Alva and his team found a 4, 000-year-old temple with painted murals at Ventarrón, in the northwest Lambayeque region. The temple contained ceremonial offerings gained from exchange with Peruvian jungle societies, many other civilizations developed and were absorbed by the most powerful ones such as Kotosh, Chavin, Paracas, Lima, Nasca, Moche, Tiwanaku, Wari, Lambayeque, Chimu and Chincha, among others. The Paracas culture emerged on the southern coast around 300 BC and they are known for their use of vicuña fibers instead of just cotton to produce fine textiles—innovations that did not reach the northern coast of Peru until centuries later. These coastal cultures eventually began to decline as a result of recurring el Niño floods, in consequence, the Huari and Tiwanaku, who dwelt inland in the Andes became the predominant cultures of the region encompassing much of modern-day Peru and Bolivia. Around 700 BC, they appear to have developed systems of organization that were the precursors of the Inca civilization. Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the Incas as the Incas expanded their empire, the people of the Chachapoyas culture were an example of this, but the Inca eventually conquered and integrated them into their empire. The Incas built the largest empire and dynasty of pre-Columbian America, the Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from Quechua for The Four United Regions—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of the 16th century
3.
Peruvian cuisine
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Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are corn, potatoes and other tubers, staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat and meats. Chef Gaston Acurio has become known for raising awareness of local ingredients. The US food critic Eric Asimov has described it as one of the worlds most important cuisines and as an exemplar of fusion cuisine, due to its long multicultural history. Peru is considered an important center for the diversity of the worlds crops, Potatoes. Over 99% of all cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a single subspecies and this subspecies has developed into thousands of varieties that vary by size, shape, color, and other sensory characteristics. The much lower molecular diversity found in Peru and Ecuador suggests that the potato was introduced there from Central America. Only two varieties of potato are commonly available for sale in Peru. One has dry orange flesh and light tan skin and tastes sweet, the other has purple skin, is white and brown inside, and is only moderately sweet. Occasionally another variety, characterized by small tubers and dark skin, is available, Potatoes are available in more variety. The two most common potatoes are a white flesh type and an expensive yellow flesh type. Yacon, although an underground tuber, is used as a fruit. None of the other fruits are commercially available. From Peru, the Spanish brought back to Europe several foods that would become staples for many peoples around the world, Potatoes, Potatoes were introduced to Europe from Latin America. They were considered livestock feed in Europe until French chemist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier began serving dishes made from the tubers at his lavish banquets and his guests were immediately convinced that potatoes were fit for human consumption. Parmentiers introduction of the potato is still discussed in Europe today, the varieties used in Europe and most of the world, however, derive from a subspecies indigenous to south-central Chile, namely Solanum tuberosum. Beans, Several varieties of the bean are native to Latin America including the lima bean. The varieties of chili peppers, potatoes, tomatoes and maize that the Spanish brought back to Europe, however, were not native to Peru, Peppers, the varieties most commonly used around the world, however, derive from Mexico and Central America
4.
Peruvian literature
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The artistic production of the pre-Hispanic period, especially art produced under the Incan Empire, is largely unknown. It consisted of two main forms, harawis --- a form of lyrical poetry---and hayllis--- a form of epic poetry. Both forms described the life and rituals of the time. Orally transmitted folktales expressed the cosmology of the Andean world, and their inclusion in the official canon was a slow process, as they were not viewed with seriousness. It was resurrected from obscurity in the 20th century, by a number of scholars and anthropologists who compiled and rescued Pre-Hispanic myths. Escritura y conflicto étnico-cultural en América Latina and he speaks of a great tradition of enormous textual mass which was marginalized and sidelined by the Western scriptural system. Luis Alberto Sánchez, on the hand, employed elements of the Pre-Hispanic tradition to illustrate his theory of a racially mixed Creole literature of both indigenous and Iberian parentage. To this end, he cited chronicles by authors such as Cieza, Betanzos, the literature of Perus discovery and conquest includes all works produced in the region during its discovery and conquest by Spain. It can also refer to literature produced roughly around this time, the period begins on November 15,1532 in Cajamarca with the capture of the last Inca lord, Atahualpa, it ends with the complete dismantling of the Incan Empire and the founding of the city of Lima. The principal literary manifestations of this period are in the form of chronicles of discovery, according to Francisco Carrillo, the early chroniclers could be divided into various groups. The first is the group of chroniclers detailing the conquest, the majority of these were writers and soldiers who were responsible for producing official transcripts of military expeditions. There was also a group of non-official chroniclers or personal diarists who provided unique personal insights on the effort to subdue. Both groups coexisted during the first period of the Peruvian conquest, for the most part, these chroniclers all wrote from the perspective of the conqueror, whose mission was to civilize and reveal the true faith to the native peoples of Peru. Therefore, many of their descriptions and the motivations they ascribe to the peoples of the region are distorted. He is also responsible for Relación Sámano-Xerez of 1528, which details Pizarros first expeditions of 1525 and 1527 and his historical accounts are reiterated by Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, in his La Conquista de Peru, also of 1534. There were a number of indigenous and mestizo chroniclers in Peru, many of the indigenous chroniclers, such as Titu Cusi Yupanqui, were of royal Incan bloodlines. After familiarizing himself with Spanish culture, Yupanqui wrote Relación de cómo los españoles entraron en Pirú y el subceso que tuvo Mango Inca en el tiempo en que entre ellos vivió in 1570. In it, he presents a vision of his own history, juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti also writes a chronicle in which he crudely attempts to explain the Inca cosmogony in rudimentary Spanish
5.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
6.
Music of Spain
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The music of Spain has a long history and has played an important role in the development of Western music and has greatly influenced Latin American music. Spanish music is associated with traditional styles such as flamenco. While these forms of music are common, there are many different traditional musical, for example, music from the north-west regions is heavily reliant on bagpipes, the jota is widespread in the centre and north of the country, and flamenco originated in the south. Spanish music played a part in the early developments of western classical music. The Iberian peninsula has had a history of receiving different musical influences from around the Mediterranean Sea, hence, there have been more than two thousand years of internal and external influences and developments that have produced a large number of unique musical traditions. Isidore of Seville wrote about the music in the 6th century. His influences were predominantly Greek, and yet he was an original thinker, as the Christian reconquista progressed, these chants were almost entirely replaced by the Gregorian standard, once Rome had regained control of the Iberian churches. In the royal Christian courts of the reconquistors, music like the Cantigas de Santa Maria, other important medieval sources include the Codex Calixtinus collection from Santiago de Compostela and the Codex Las Huelgas from Burgos. The so-called Llibre Vermell de Montserrat is an important devotional collection from the 14th century, in the early Renaissance, Mateo Flecha el Viejo and the Castilian dramatist Juan del Encina ranked among the main composers in the post-Ars Nova period. Renaissance song books included the Cancionero de Palacio, the Cancionero de Medinaceli, the Cancionero de Upsala, the Cancionero de la Colombina, the organist Antonio de Cabezón stands out for his keyboard compositions and mastery. An early 16th-century polyphonic vocal style developed in Spain was closely related to that of the Franco-Flemish composers, Music composed for the vihuela by Luis de Milán, Alonso Mudarra and Luis de Narváez was one of the main achievements of the period. The Aragonese Gaspar Sanz authored the first learning method for guitar, Spanish composers of the Renaissance included Francisco Guerrero, Cristóbal de Morales, and Tomás Luis de Victoria, all of whom spent a significant portion of their careers in Rome. The latter was said to have reached a level of perfection and expressive intensity equal or even superior to Palestrina. Most Spanish composers returned home from travels abroad late in their careers to spread their knowledge in their native land. By the end of the 17th century the musical culture of Spain was in decline. Classicism in Spain, when it arrived, was inspired by Italian models, some outstanding Italian composers such as Domenico Scarlatti and Luigi Boccherini were appointed to the Madrid royal court. The short-lived Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga is credited as the beginner of Romantic sinfonism in Spain. Although symphonic music was never too important in Spain, chamber, solo instrumental vocal, zarzuela, a native form of opera that includes spoken dialogue, is a secular musical genre which developed in the mid-17th century, flourishing most importantly in the century after 1850
7.
Music of Africa
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The traditional music of Africa, given the vastness of the continent, is historically ancient, rich and diverse, with different regions and nations of Africa having many distinct musical traditions. Traditional music in most of the continent is passed down orally and is not written, the music and dance of the African diaspora, formed to varying degrees on African musical traditions, include American music and many Caribbean genres, such as soca, calypso and zouk. Latin American music genres such as the rumba, conga, bomba, cumbia and samba were also founded on the music of enslaved Africans, and have in turn influenced African popular music. North Africa is the seat of ancient Egypt and Carthage, civilizations with strong ties to the ancient Near East, eventually, Egypt fell under Persian rule followed by Greek and Roman rule, while Carthage was later ruled by Romans and Vandals. North Africa was later conquered by the Arabs, who established the region as the Maghreb of the Arab world, like the musical genres of the Nile Valley and the Horn of Africa, its music has close ties with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes. North African music has a range, from the music of ancient Egypt to the Berber. The regions art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabic and Andalusian classical music, with these may be grouped the music of Sudan and of the Horn of Africa, including the music of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. Somali music is pentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic scale such as the major scale. The music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet, of which there are four modes, tezeta, bati, ambassel. Three additional modes are variations on the above, tezeta minor, bati major, some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. The ethnomusicological pioneer Arthur Morris Jones observed that the shared rhythmic principles of Sub-Saharan African music traditions constitute one main system, similarly, master drummer and scholar C. K. Ladzekpo affirms the profound homogeneity of sub-Saharan African rhythmic principles. African traditional music is frequently functional in nature, performances may be long and often involve the participation of the audience. None of this is performed outside its intended context and much of it is associated with a particular dance. Some of it, performed by musicians, is sacral music or ceremonial. The southern region includes the music of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia, the central region includes the music of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, including Pygmy music. Southern, Central and West Africa are similarly in the broad Sub-Saharan musical tradition, besides vocalisation, which uses various techniques such as complex hard melisma and yodel, a wide array of musical instruments are used. Additionally, string instruments are used, with the lute-like oud. Other percussion instruments include many rattles and shakers, such as the kosika, rain stick, bells, also, Africa has lots of other types of drums, and lots of flutes, and lots of stringed and wind instruments
8.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
9.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
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