1.
Central Rada
–
The Central Council of Ukraine was the All-Ukrainian council that united the political, public, cultural and professional organizations of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic. After the All-Ukrainian National Congress, the Council became the revolutionary parliament in the interbellum lasting until the Ukrainian-Soviet War, from its beginning the council directed the Ukrainian national movement and with its four Universals led the country from autonomy to full sovereignty. During the Soviet-era official ideology described the Central Council as a body of the bourgeoisie. Mykhailo Hrushevsky was elected as the Head of the Rada while Volodymyr Naumenko, Dmytro Doroshenko, on March 22,1917 the Rada published its first declaration - To the Ukrainian people - in support of the Russian Provisional Government. When Mykhailo Hrushevsky assumed his duties on March 27,1917, during the lifetime of the Central Rada nine plenary sessions took place - eight in 1917, one in 1918 - and one extended session of the Mala Rada. The Mala Rada was the Central Executive Committee of the Central Rada and it was created in June 1917 and consisted of 30 members, the members of the Councils presidium, secretaries of the Rada, and two representatives from each political block. The elected Chairman of the Small Council was Hrushevsky who also held the position in addition to his role as Chairman of the Central Rada and his deputies were Vynnychenko and Yefremov. All important matters were addressed at meetings of the Mala Rada in the first instance, after the declaration of autonomy the Central Rada elected the General Secretariat, an autonomous government of Ukraine consisting of eight secretariats. The Encyclopedia did not discuss the details and the factors upon which the Rada based its decision, according to the instruction the Secretariat was to be the representative body of the Provisional Government. Such a response disappointed Vynnychenko who protested it and dissolved his cabinet, after acknowledgment by the Central Rada of the Provisional Government Instruktsiya, it issued its Second Universal confirming the agreement between both governments. The composition of the Rada also was increased by 100 representatives elected at the I All-Ukrainian Workers Congress, then the Rada, by pulling towards Kiev the nationalist military units, overtook the government and on November 13 occupied the city. A week later it declared itself the government of the UNR. On 25 December 1917 the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviet Ukraine declared the Rada illegitimate while its participants organized a government to oppose it. By the end of July 1917 the Central Rada formally had 822 deputies, from the initiative of the Central Rada a congress of Russian nationalities took place in Kiev on 21–28 September 1917. All members of the council were proclaimed outlaws by the Soviet government of Ukraine in December 1917 as part of a national-bourgeois government, on 29 January 1918 Bolshevist troops entered Kiev and declared a Soviet Coup detat. The Kiev garrison joined with the Soviets and deposed the Rada, alexander Odoevsky attempted to form a new government but was arrested. The Bolsheviks established Kharkiv as the capital of the Soviets of the Ukraine, Записки і матеріали до історії української революції 1917—1920 pp. Vol I-II. Zolotariov, A. Із історії Української Центральної Ради, skrypnyk, M. Начерк історії пролетарської революції на Україні
Central Rada
Central Rada
–
Central Council of Ukraine Українська Центральна Рада
Central Rada
–
The Ukrainian Club Building, now the
Pedagogical Museum, a meeting place of the Little Council
Central Rada
–
A side view
2.
Shevchenko Scientific Society
–
The Shevchenko Scientific Society is a Ukrainian scientific society devoted to the promotion of scholarly research and publication that was founded in 1873. Unlike the government-funded National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the society is a public organization and it was reestablished in Ukraine in 1989 during fall of the Soviet Union. Being exiled back in 1940 it now has its branches in countries around the globe the United States, Canada, Australia. The organization is named after famous Ukrainian poet, writer, artist, public and it was established soon after another cultural society better known as Prosvita. Throughout most of its history it had three sections, history-philosophical, philological, and mathematically-medical-natural scientific, during this period, one of its most prolific contributors was the poet, folklorist, and literary historian Ivan Franko who headed the philological section. Also during that period the society created several museums, libraries, by 1914, several hundred volumes of scholarly research and notices had been published by the society including over a hundred volumes of its Zapysky. The First World War interrupted the activities, particularly during the Russian occupation in 1914-1915 when the societys collection of works. After the war and the Polish-Ukrainian conflict, the West Ukraine belonged to Poland, during that time the society lost its government subsidies, but managed to carry on a precarious existence. Its major contributors were the historians, Vasyl Shchurat, Kyryl Studynsky. One of the most important projects of the society was the publication of the first general encyclopedia in the Ukrainian language. The Soviet Union annexed the part of the Second Polish Republic including the city of Lviv. Upon their occupation of Lviv, the Soviets dissolved the society, many of its members were arrested and either imprisoned or executed. Among the perished members were such academicians as R. Zubyk, feshchenko-Chopivsky, a Ukrainian parliamentarian Petro Franko, Kyryl Studynsky, and many others. During the Nazi occupation, the society still was not able to function openly, in 1947, on the initiative of the geographer, Volodymyr Kubiyovych, it was re-founded as an émigré scholarly society in Munich, the Societys European center was later moved to Paris. Other branches were founded in New York City, Toronto and Australia. During its period in emigration, the project of the society was again an encyclopedia. The last compilation, published in Canada under the title Encyclopedia of Ukraine, is available on-line, in 1989, the society was reactivated in the Ukrainian homeland and once again undertook a large-scale research and publication program. Branches were soon founded in other Ukrainian cities and membership exceeded a thousand, the chief editor was Ivan Franko, since 1905 - Mykhailo Hrushevsky
Shevchenko Scientific Society
–
Shevchenko Scientific Society building in New York City.
Shevchenko Scientific Society
–
Entrance to the Shevchenko Scientific Society at 63 Fourth Avenue in Manhattan
3.
Congress Poland
–
Thus effectively it was little more than a puppet state of the Russian Empire. The autonomy was curtailed following uprisings in 1830–31 and 1863, as the country became governed by namestniks. Thus from the start, Polish autonomy remained little more than fiction, the territory of the Kingdom of Poland roughly corresponds to the Kalisz Region and the Lublin, Łódź, Masovian, Podlaskie and Holy Cross Voivodeships of Poland. Although the official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland, in order to distinguish it from other Kingdoms of Poland, it was sometimes referred to as Congress Poland. The Kingdom of Poland was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw, the creation of the Kingdom created a partition of Polish lands in which the state was divided among Russia, Austria and Prussia. The Congress was important enough in the creation of the state to cause the new country to be named for it, the Kingdom lost its status as a sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative divisions were reorganized. It was sufficiently distinct that its name remained in official Russian use, originally, the Kingdom had an area of roughly 128,500 km2 and a population of approximately 3.3 million. Its population reached 6.1 million by 1870 and 10 million by 1900, most of the ethnic Poles in the Russian Empire lived in the Congress Kingdom, although some areas outside it also contained a Polish majority. The Kingdom of Poland largely re-emerged as a result of the efforts of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the Kingdom of Poland was one of the few contemporary constitutional monarchies in Europe, with the Emperor of Russia serving as the Polish King. His title as chief of Poland in Russian, was Tsar, similar to usage in the fully integrated states within the Empire, theoretically the Polish Kingdom in its 1815 form was a semi-autonomous state in personal union with Russia through the rule of the Russian Emperor. Poland also had traditions and the Polish nobility deeply valued personal freedom. In reality, the Kings had absolute power and the title of Autocrat. All opposition to the Emperor of Russia was suppressed and the law was disregarded at will by Russian officials, however, in time the situation changed and he granted the viceroy, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, almost dictatorial powers. Very soon after Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them, in 1819, Alexander I abolished freedom of the press and introduced preventory censorship. Resistance to Russian control began in the 1820s, beginning in 1825, the sessions of the Sejm were held in secret. Nicholas rule promoted the idea of Official Nationality, consisting of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, in relation to Poles, those ideas meant assimilation, turning them into loyal Orthodox Russians. All of this led to discontent and resistance among the Polish population, in January 1831, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I as King of Poland in response to his repeated curtailing of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland, resulting in the November Uprising, following an 11-month military campaign, the Kingdom of Poland lost its semi-independence and was integrated much more closely with the Russian Empire
Congress Poland
–
Kingdom of Poland, 1815-1830
Congress Poland
–
Merchant Ensign
Congress Poland
–
Administrative division of the Kingdom of Poland, 1831. This map represents the period 1816-1844.
Congress Poland
–
Map (in Polish) from 1902
4.
Kislovodsk
–
Kislovodsk is a spa city in Stavropol Krai, Russia, in the North Caucasus region of Russia which is located between the Black and Caspian Seas. In 1803 Tsar Alexander I of Russia ordered the construction of the station which became Kislovodsk. The site took its name from the mineral springs around the city. The settlement gained town status in 1903, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Kislovodsk as a fashionable spa attracted many musicians, artists, and members of the Russian aristocracy. Several of the events in Mikhail Lermontovs 1840 novel A Hero of Our Time take place in Kislovodsk, as a municipal division, the city of krai significance of Kislovodsk is incorporated as Kislovodsk Urban Okrug. The most famous native of Kislovodsk was Nobel Prize winner Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, a museum is planned in the house he was born in. It is set to undergo renovations in 2011 in preparation, nikolai Yaroshenkos memorial house is open to the public. Mother Thekla was born in Kislovodsk in 1918 and she was abbess of the Monastery of the Assumption at Normanby near Whitby in North Yorkshire, England. The notable Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevskyi died when on exile to Kislovodsk in 1934, under circumstances which remain mysterious, the ceremony, attended by most of the SS and Wehrmacht officers in the area, was described in great detail. The highlight of the feast was the local tribes presentation of a horse intended for Adolf Hitler to the Germans. Постановление №63-п от4 мая2006 г, «Об утверждении реестра административно-территориальных единиц Ставропольского края», в ред. Постановления №75-п от5 марта2015 г, «О внесении изменения в пункт47 Раздела II Реестра административно-территориальных единиц Ставропольского края, утверждённый Постановлением Правительства Ставропольского края от04 мая2006 г. Вступил в силу с4 мая2006 г, Опубликован, Сборник законов и других правовых актов Ставропольского края, №17, ст. Закон №88-кз от4 октября2004 г, «О наделении муниципальных образований Ставропольского края статусом городского, сельского поселения, городского округа, муниципального района», в ред. Закона №51-кз от28 мая2015 г, Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован, Ставропольская правда, №216,6 октября2004 г, official website of Kislovodsk Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Kislovodsk
Kislovodsk
–
Panoramic view of Kislovodsk from Mount Koltso-gora
Kislovodsk
–
The 19th-century building of narzan baths
Kislovodsk
–
View of the city from the Little Saddle in the upper park at sunset
Kislovodsk
–
St. Nicholas' Orthodox Cathedral
5.
North Caucasus Krai
–
North Caucasus Krai was an administrative division within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union. It was established on 17 October 1924 and its administrative center was Rostov-on-Don until 10 January 1934, Pyatigorsk until January 1936, then Ordzhonikidze and, from 15 December 1936, Voroshilovsk. As of 1932 population of krai estimated as 10,290,000 in an area of 351,800 km2,45. 9% of the overall population was Russians, and 37. 2% of the overall population was Ukrainians. Widespread death by starvation occurred in this krai during the Soviet famine of 1932–33, as of the 1937 All-Union Census, the krai had population of 1,635,277 in a smaller territory. Currently, since January 19,2010, this region was divided between the North Caucasian Federal District and the Southern Federal District
North Caucasus Krai
–
North Caucasus Krai as of 1931 given before split on 2
krai
6.
RSFSR
–
The Republic comprised sixteen autonomous republics, five autonomous oblasts, ten autonomous okrugs, six krais, and forty oblasts. Russians formed the largest ethnic group, the capital of the Russian SFSR was Moscow and the other major urban centers included Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. The Russian Soviet Republic was proclaimed on November 7,1917 as a sovereign state, the first Constitution was adopted in 1918. In 1922 the Russian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, the economy of Russia became heavily industrialized, accounting for about two-thirds of the electricity produced in the USSR. It was, by 1961, the third largest producer of petroleum due to new discoveries in the Volga-Urals region and Siberia, trailing only the United States and Saudi Arabia. In 1974, there were 475 institutes of education in the republic providing education in 47 languages to some 23,941,000 students. A network of territorially organized public-health services provided health care, the effects of market policies led to the failure of many enterprises and total instability by 1990. On June 12,1990, the Congress of Peoples Deputies adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty, on June 12,1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected the first President. On December 8,1991, heads of Russia, Ukraine, the agreement declared dissolution of the USSR by its founder states and established the Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 12, the agreement was ratified by the Russian Parliament, therefore Russian SFSR denounced the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and de facto declared Russias independence from the USSR. On December 25,1991, following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union, on December 26,1991, the USSR was self-dissolved by the Soviet of Nationalities, which by that time was the only functioning house of the Supreme Soviet. After dissolution of the USSR, Russia declared that it assumed the rights and obligations of the dissolved central Soviet government, the new Russian constitution, adopted on December 12,1993 after a constitutional crisis, abolished the Soviet system of government in its entirety. Initially, the state did not have a name and wasnt recognized by neighboring countries for five months. Meanwhile, anti-Bolsheviks coined the mocking label Sovdepia for the nascent state of the Soviets of Workers, on January 25,1918 the third meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets renamed the unrecognized state the Soviet Russian Republic. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on March 3,1918, on July 10,1918, the Russian Constitution of 1918 renamed the country the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. By 1918, during the Russian Civil War, several states within the former Russian Empire seceded, internationally, in 1920, the RSFSR was recognized as an independent state only by Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania in the Treaty of Tartu and by the short-lived Irish Republic. On December 30,1922, with the creation of the Soviet Union, the final Soviet name for the republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, was adopted in the Soviet Constitution of 1936. By that time, Soviet Russia had gained roughly the same borders of the old Tsardom of Russia before the Great Northern War of 1700
RSFSR
–
Flag (1954–1991)
7.
USSR
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
USSR
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
USSR
–
Flag
USSR
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
USSR
8.
Ukrainians
–
Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term Ukrainians to all its citizens, also among historical names of the people of Ukraine Rusyns, Cossacks, etc. can be found. According to some definitions, a descriptive name for the inhabitants of Ukraine is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people. Belarusians and Russians are considered among the bloodline of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are another closely related group, the ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century after their territory obtained distinctive statehood in 1917. People of these territories were usually called Rus or Rusyns, the Ukrainian language appeared in the 14th – 16th centuries, but at that time, it was mostly known as Ruthenian, like its brothers. In the 16th – 17th centuries, with the establishment of the Zaporizhian Sich, however, the ethnonym Ukrainians and the linguonym Ukrainian were used only occasionally, and the people of Ukraine usually continued to call themselves and their language Ruthenian. This official name did not spread widely among the peasantry constituted the majority of the population. Ukrainian peasants still referred to their country as Ukraine and to themselves, in areas outside the control of the Russian/Soviet state until the mid-20th century, Ukrainians were known by their pre-existing names for much longer. The modern name derives from Ukrayina, a name first documented in 1187. Several scientific theories attempt to explain the etymology of the term, according to some new alternative Ukrainian historians such as Hryhoriy Pivtorak, Vitaly Sklyarenko and other scholars, translate the term u-kraine as in-land, home-land or our-country. The name in this context derives from the word u-kraina in the sense of domestic region, in the last few centuries the population of Ukraine experienced periods of Polonization and Russification, but preserved a common culture and a sense of common identity. Most ethnic Ukrainians live in Ukraine, where make up over three-quarters of the population. The inhabitants of the Kuban, for example, have vacillated among three identities, Ukrainian, Russian, and Cossack, approximately 800,000 people of Ukrainian ancestry live in the Russian Far East in an area known historically as Green Ukraine. According to some assumptions, an estimated number of almost 2.1 million people of Ukrainian origin live in North America. Large numbers of Ukrainians live in Brazil, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Poland, Argentina, Belarus, Portugal, there are also Ukrainian diasporas in the UK, Australia, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Ireland, Sweden and the former Yugoslavia. Today, large ethnic Ukrainian minorities reside in Russia, Canada, Ukrainians have one of the largest diasporas in the world. The East Slavs emerged from the undifferentiated early Slavs with the Slavic migrations in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the East Slavs were united in the Kievan Rus during the 9th to 13th centuries. East Slavic tribes cited as proto-Ukrainian include the Volhynians, Derevlianians, Polianians, and Siverianians and the less significant Ulychians, Tivertsians, the Gothic historian Jordanes and 6th-century Byzantine authors named two groups that lived in the south-east of Europe, Sclavins and Antes
Ukrainians
–
"Ethnographical Map of Ukraine" printed just after
World War II. Land inhabited by a plurality of ethnic Ukrainians is colored rose.
Ukrainians
–
Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan
Mehmed IV of Turkey. Painted by
Ilya Repin from 1880 to 1891. (Note: two
pikes on the left are wrapped in the traditional colors of Ukraine – blue/yellow and red/black)
Ukrainians
–
Traditional village fair in Ukraine, 19th century
Ukrainians
–
A girl in
Kharkiv during the
Holodomor
9.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
–
The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
–
John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
–
Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
10.
Saint Vladimir University
–
Taras Shevchenko University or officially the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, colloquially known in Ukrainian as KNU is located in Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine. It is the third oldest university in Ukraine after the University of Lviv, currently, its structure consists of fifteen faculties and five institutes. It was founded in 1834 as the Kiev Imperial University of Saint Vladimir, during the Soviet Union era, Taras Shevchenko University was one of the top-three universities in the USSR, along with Moscow State University and Leningrad State University. It is ranked as the best university in Ukraine in many rankings, Taras Shevchenko himself, banned from educational activities for political reasons, has worked for the Kyiv University as a field researcher. Taras Shevchenko University is named after Taras Shevchenko, a figure in Ukrainian literature. It is an institution of education that trains specialists in many fields of knowledge. It is considered the most prestigious university in Ukraine and a centre of advanced learning. It consists of more faculties and departments, and trains specialists in a number of academic fields. Nowadays, as it has throughout its history, the University retains its role of a major center of learning. Its academics and students follow the traditions of the highest academic standards. As training highly qualified specialists has always been the main goal, a number of faculties offer 4-year Bachelors and 2-year masters degree programs, together with traditional 5-year Specialist Degree programs. Currently the stress is on students ability to independently and meet employers requirements. Having acquired theoretical knowledge in the first and the second year, the university benefited from assets transferred from Vilnius University, which was closed in the aftermath of the November Uprising of 1831. There were new additions to the department in 1835 and 1847, the Faculty of Law. Later on, the original Faculty of Philosophy was divided two separate units, the Faculty of History and Philology and the Faculty of Natural Sciences. There were no additions to the number of departments until the 1920s. The walls of the building are painted in red while the tops. Ukrainian composer Mykola Leontovychs Shchedryk was premiered at the Kyiv University on December 26,1916 by the universitys choir directed by Oleksandr Koshyts, in 1920, Saint Vladimir University was renamed as Mykhailo Drahomanov University
Saint Vladimir University
–
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
Saint Vladimir University
–
Taras Shevchenko University's original building, the "Red Building", today.
Saint Vladimir University
–
Nicholas I of Russia, a founding father of the Saint Vladimir University in Kiev.
Saint Vladimir University
–
An early 20th-century Russian postcard picturing Saint Vladimir University in Kiev.
11.
Masterpiece
–
Historically, a masterpiece was a work of a very high standard produced in order to obtain membership of a guild or academy in various areas of the visual arts and crafts. The word masterpiece probably derives from the Dutch meesterstuk or German meisterstück via loan translation, masterprize was another early variant in English. In English, the term became used in a variety of contexts for an exceptionally good piece of creative work. Originally, the term referred to a piece of work produced by an apprentice or journeyman aspiring to become a master craftsman in the old European guild system. His fitness to qualify for membership was judged partly by the masterpiece, and if he was successful. Great care was taken to produce a fine piece in whatever the craft was, whether confectionery, painting, goldsmithing, knifemaking. In the 17th century, the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, for instance, the workhouse had been set up as part of a tightening of standards after the company became concerned that the level of skill of goldsmithing was being diluted. The same goldsmithing organization still requires the production of a masterpiece, if they failed to be admitted, then they could continue to work for other goldsmiths but not as a master themselves. In some guilds, apprentices were not allowed to marry until they had obtained full membership, the practice of producing a masterpiece has continued in some modern academies of art, where the general term for such works is now reception piece. The Royal Academy in London uses the term work and it has acquired a fine collection of diploma works received as a condition of membership. Painting the Century,101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000 Virtual Collection of Masterpieces Masterpieces at the Louvre
Masterpiece
–
In painting, the
Mona Lisa by
Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503–1506, is the archetypal masterpiece, though it was not produced for admission to a guild or academy.
Masterpiece
–
Rinaldo and Armida by
François Boucher. A masterpiece produced for admission to the
Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in Paris, 1734.
12.
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
Ukrainian language
–
Miniature of
St Luke from the
Peresopnytsia Gospels (1561).
Ukrainian language
–
Ukrainian-speaking world
Ukrainian language
–
The 1921 Soviet recruitment poster. It uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text: "Son! Enroll in the school of
Red commanders, and the defense of
Soviet Ukraine will be ensured."
Ukrainian language
–
Anti-russification protest. The banner reads "For Ukrainian Children – a Ukrainian school!".
13.
Polish language
–
Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations
Polish language
–
The oldest printed text in Polish – Statuta synodalia Episcoporum Wratislaviensis printed in 1475 in
Wrocław by Kasper Elyan.
Polish language
–
Polish
Polish language
–
The
Jakub Wujek Bible in Polish, 1599 print
14.
Ukraine
–
Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
Ukraine
–
Gold
Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal
kurgan in
Ordzhonikidze, dated to the 4th century BC
Ukraine
–
Flag
Ukraine
–
Principalities of
Kievan Rus', 1054-1132
Ukraine
–
The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in
Kievan Rus'.
15.
Soviet
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet
–
Flag
Soviet
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet
16.
Ukrainian SSR
–
The Ukrainian SSR was a founding member of the United Nations, although it was legally represented by the All-Union state in its affairs with countries outside of the Soviet Union. From the start, the city of Kharkiv served as the republics capital. However, in 1934, the seat of government was moved to the city of Kyiv. Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in Eastern Europe to the north of the Black Sea, bordered by the Soviet republics of Moldavia, Byelorussia, the Ukrainian SSRs border with Czechoslovakia formed the Soviet Unions western-most border point. According to the Soviet Census of 1989 the republic had a population of 51,706,746 inhabitants, the name Ukraine, derived from the Slavic word kraj, meaning land or border. It was first used to part of the territory of Kievan Rus in the 12th century. The name has been used in a variety of ways since the twelfth century, after the abdication of the tsar and the start of the process of the destruction of the Russian Empire many people in Ukraine wished to establish a Ukrainian Republic. During a period of war from 1917-23 many factions claiming themselves governments of the newly born republic were formed, each with supporters. The two most prominent of them were the government in Kyiv and the government in Kharkiv, the former being the Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the latter the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. This government of the Soviet Ukrainian Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917, in its publications it names itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers, Soldiers, and Peasants Deputies or the Ukrainian Peoples Republic of Soviets. The last session of the government took place in the city of Taganrog, in July 1918 the former members of the government formed the Communist Party of Ukraine, the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow. On 10 March 1919, according to the 3rd Congress of Soviets in Ukraine the name of the state was changed to the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. After the ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second, during its existence, the Ukrainian SSR was commonly referred to as Ukraine or the Ukraine. On 24 August 1991, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic declared independence, since the adoption of the Constitution of Ukraine in June 1996, the country became known simply as Ukraine, which is the name used to this day. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, the most popular faction was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks boycotted any government initiatives most of the time, instigating several armed riots in order to establish the Soviet power without any intent for consensus, immediately after the October Revolution in Petrograd, Bolsheviks instigated the Kiev Bolshevik Uprising to support the Revolution and secure Kyiv. Due to a lack of support from the local population and anti-revolutionary Central Rada, however. Most moved to Kharkiv and received the support of the eastern Ukrainian cities, later, this move was regarded as a mistake by some of the Peoples Commissars
Ukrainian SSR
–
Territories claimed by the
Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920).
Ukrainian SSR
–
Flag
Ukrainian SSR
–
Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the
Dnieper during the
Battle of the Dnieper (1943). The sign reads "To Kiev!".
Ukrainian SSR
–
"Eternally Together": a Soviet poster made for the 300th anniversary of the
Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1954.
17.
Caucasian mountains
–
The Caucasus Mountains are a mountain system in Eurasia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the Caucasus region. The Caucasus Mountains include the Greater Caucasus in the north and Lesser Caucasus in the south, the Greater Caucasus runs west-northwest to east-southeast, from the Caucasian Natural Reserve in the vicinity of Sochi on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea nearly to Baku on the Caspian Sea. The Lesser Caucasus runs parallel to the Greater about 100 km south, the Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges are connected by the Likhi Range, and to the west and east of the Likhi Range lie the Colchis Plain and the Kur-Araz Lowland. The Meskheti Range is a part of the Lesser Caucasus system, in the southeast the Aras River separates the Lesser Caucasus from the Talysh Mountains which straddle the border of southeastern Azerbaijan and Iran. The highest peak in the Caucasus range is Mount Elbrus in the Greater Caucasus, Mountains near Sochi hosted part of the 2014 Winter Olympics. Geologically, the Caucasus Mountains belong to a system that extends from southeastern Europe into Asia, the Greater Caucasus Mountains are mainly composed of Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks with the Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks in the higher regions. Some volcanic formations are found throughout the range, on the other hand, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are formed predominantly of the Paleogene rocks with a much smaller portion of the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. The Caucasus Mountains formed largely as the result of a plate collision between the Arabian plate moving northwards with respect to the Eurasian plate. As this happened, the rocks that had been deposited in this basin from the Jurassic to the Miocene were folded to form the Greater Caucasus Mountains. This collision also caused the uplift and the Cenozoic volcanic activity in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, the entire region is regularly subjected to strong earthquakes from this activity. While the Greater Caucasus Mountains have a mainly folded sedimentary structure, the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau in Georgia and the surrounding volcanic ranges which extend well into central Armenia are some of the youngest features of the region. The Kazbek is no active, but the Elbrus erupted in postglacial times. Contemporary seismic activity is a prominent feature of the region, reflecting active faulting, clusters of seismicity occur in Dagestan and in northern Armenia. Many devastating earthquakes have been documented in historical times, including the Spitak earthquake in December 1988 which destroyed the Gyumri-Vanadzor region of Armenia, europes highest mountain is Mount Elbrus 5,642 m in the Caucasus Mountains. Elbrus is 832 m higher than Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps at 4,810 m, the Caucasus Mountains are defined as the continental divide between Asia and Europe for the region between the Black and Caspian Seas. The table below lists some of the highest peaks of the Caucasus, with the exception of Shkhara, the heights are taken from Soviet 1,50,000 mapping. There are higher and more prominent, but nameless, peaks than some of the peaks included below, the climate of the Caucasus varies both vertically and horizontally. Temperature generally decreases as elevation rises, average annual temperature in Sukhumi, Abkhazia at sea level is 15 °C while on the slopes of Mt. Kazbek at an elevation of 3,700 metres, average annual temperature falls to−6.1 °C
Caucasian mountains
–
Aerial view of the Caucasus Mountains
Caucasian mountains
–
Satellite image of the Caucasus Mountains
Caucasian mountains
–
Mt Elbrus viewed from the south
Caucasian mountains
–
Komito Mountain in
Chechnya
18.
Stavropol
–
Stavropol is a city and the administrative center of Stavropol Krai, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 398,539, the name Stavropol is a Russian rendition of the Greek name, Stauropolis, meaning the City of the Cross. According to legend, soldiers found a stone cross there while building the fortress in the future location. The Cherkess call the city Shetkala meaning Shet fort and it was founded on October 22,1777 following the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 as a military encampment, and was granted city status in 1785. Prince Grigory Potemkin, who founded Stavropol as one of ten fortresses built between Azov and Mozdok at the request of Catherine the Great, played a role in the creation of the city. Don Cossacks, particularly those from the Khopersky Regiment, settled the area in and around the cities of Stavropol, alexander I in 1809 invited several Armenian families to settle by the fortress, in order to encourage trade in the region. Stavropols strategic location aided in the Russian Empires conquest of the Caucasus, by the early 19th century the city grew into a busy trade center of the North Caucasus. In 1843, an Episcopal see of the Russian Orthodox Church was established in Stavropol, during the Russian Civil War the city changed hands several times and finally was captured by the Red Army from the Volunteer Army of general Anton Denikin on January 29,1920. The city was renamed Voroshilovsk on May 5,1935, after Kliment Voroshilov, the city was recaptured by the Soviet Army in January,1943. Since 1946, natural gas has been extracted near the city, later on, Stavropol is the administrative center of the krai. As a municipal division, the city of krai significance of Stavropol is incorporated as Stavropol Urban Okrug, stavropols economy focuses on the production of automobiles, furniture, and construction equipment and materials. The city relies on air transport, rail, and highway connections to other Russian cities, stavropols population includes a significant number of refugees escaping the strife or instability of the Russian border regions and Caucasus nations to the south. Stavropol has a theatre and a football team called FC Dynamo Stavropol. The main educational institutions of the town include Stavropol State University, North-Caucasus State Technical University, Agrarian University, the area of Russia in which Stavropol resides is very mountainous, placing the city in the midst of the northern Caucasus mountain range. The city has one of the biggest city parks in Russia, the city, like many other Russian cities has its own botanical garden, which covers up to 18 hectares, including 16 hectares of natural woods. Stavropol experiences a continental climate with short but cold winters. Precipitation is rather low, with a 562 millimeters annual average, gorbachevs chief mentor, long-time friend, and predecessor Yuri Andropov was also born in Stavropol Krai. Stavropol is twinned with, Des Moines, Iowa, United States Béziers, France Pazardzhik, Bulgaria Yerevan, Armenia Zhenjiang, Решение №81 от25 апреля2008 г
Stavropol
–
Stavropol city center
19.
Vladikavkaz
–
Vladikavkaz is the capital city of the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania, Russia. It is located in the southeast of the republic at the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains, Vladikavkaz is one of the most populous cities in the North Caucasus. The city is an industrial and transportation center, manufactures include processed zinc and lead, machinery, chemicals, clothing, and food products. The city was founded in 1784 as a fortress during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus and was for years the main Russian military base in the region. Vladikavkaz has become an important industrial center for the region, with smelting, refining, chemicals, the puppet state existed from 1921-1924, and was part of and in some cases incorporated the modern day territories of Chechnya, North Ossetia, and Kabardino-Balkaria. From 1931 to 1944 and from 1954 to 1990, its name in both Russian and Ossetic languages was Ordzhonikidze, and from 1944 to 1954 it was officially called Dzawdzhikaw in Russian and. Vladikavkaz resumed its old Russian name, in 1990, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Vladikavkaz was fought over in both the Russian Civil War and World War II. In February 1919, the anti-Communist Volunteer Army under General Anton Denikin seized the city, in November 1942, the forces of Nazi Germany tried unsuccessfully to seize the city but were repelled. In 1999,2008, and 2010, Vladikavkaz was a target of bombings, on November 26,2008, Vitaly Karayev, the mayor of Vladikavkaz was killed by an unknown gunman. On December 31,2008, his successor, Kazbek Pagiyev, was killed by unknown gunmen. Vladikavkaz is the capital of the republic, as a municipal division, Vladikavkaz City Under Republic Jurisdiction is incorporated as Vladikavkaz Urban Okrug. The city is served by the bus network, there are also tram and trolleybus networks. There is also a terminal in Vladikavkaz. The city is served by Beslan Airport located about 9 km from the city, the Georgian Military Road, which is a part of European route E117, starts in Vladikavkaz and it connects the city with the South Caucasus. According to the results of the 2010 Census, city population of Vladikavkaz was 330148 men. In Vladikavkaz, there is a guyed TV mast, 198-meter tall, built in 1961, North Ossetian State University is in the city. The citys primary religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which is followed by Russians, Georgians, the rest of the Ossetian population adheres to the next largest religion, Ossetian Folk Religion, which nationwide is followed by 29% of the population. The remainder follow Protestantism, Islam, Armenian Orthodoxy, and other beliefs, Конституционного Закона №5-РКЗ от4 декабря2013 г
Vladikavkaz
–
Vladikavkaz (English) Владикавказ (Russian) Дзæуджыхъæу (Ossetic)
Vladikavkaz
–
A monument in the city
Vladikavkaz
Vladikavkaz
20.
Podolia
–
Podolia or Podilia is a historic region in Eastern Europe, located in the west-central and south-western parts of Ukraine and in northeastern Moldova. The term is derived from Old Slavic po, meaning by/next to/along, the area is part of the vast East European Plain, confined by the Dniester River and the Carpathian arc in the southwest. It comprises an area of about 40,000 km2, extending for 320 km from northwest to southeast on the bank of the Dniester. In the same direction run two ranges of low hills separated by the Southern Bug, ramifications of the Avratynsk heights. Podolia lies east of historic Red Ruthenia, i. e. the eastern half of Galicia, beyond the Seret River, in the northwest it borders on Volhynia. It is made up of the present-day Ukrainian Vinnytsia Oblast and southern, the Podolian lands further include parts of adjacent Ternopil Oblast in the west and Kiev Oblast in the northeast. In the east it consists of the parts of Cherkasy, Kirovohrad and Odessa Oblasts. The Dniester forms an important channel for trade in the areas of Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Zhvanets, in Podolia, black earth soil predominates, making it a very fertile agricultural area. Marshes occur only beside the Bug, a moderate climate predominates, with average temperatures at Kamianets-Podilskyi of 9 °C. Russian-ruled Podolia in 1906 had an population of 3,543,700. Significant minorities included Poles and Jews, as well as 50,000 Romanians, some Germans, in Moldova, the major Podolian cities are Camenca and Rîbniţa. Podolia is known for its cherries, mulberries, melons, gourds, the country has had human inhabitants since at least the beginning of the Neolithic period. Herodotus mentions it as the seat of the Graeco-Scythian Alazones and possibly Scythian Neuri, subsequently, the Dacians and the Getae arrived. The Romans left traces of their rule in Trajans Wall, which stretches through the districts of Kamianets-Podilskyi, Nova Ushytsia. During the Great Migration Period, many passed through this territory or settled within it for some time. Nestor in the Primary Chronicle mentions four apparently Slavic tribes, the Buzhans and Dulebes along the Southern Bug River, the Avars invaded in the 7th century. Prince Oleg of Kiev, extended his rule over this territory known as the Ponizie and these lowlands later became a part of the Rus principalities of Volhynia, Kiev, and Galicia. In the 13th century Bakota served as its political and administrative centre, Polish colonisation began in the 14th century
Podolia
–
Medieval fortress in
Kamianets-Podilskyi
Podolia
–
Podolians, before 1878
Podolia
–
Medieval fortress in
Letychiv.
21.
Podolia Governorate
–
The Government of Podolia was established right after the Second Partition of Poland in place of the former Podole and Bracław Voivodeships in 1793. The Podolian Governorate occupied the frontier of the former Russian empire, bordering Austria-Hungary. The administrative centre was Kamenets-Podolskiy until 1914 when it moved to Vinnytsia, Podolia Governorate was one of the three governorates of the Southwestern Krai administration. In 1917 it was recognized by the Russian Provisional Government to be governed by the General Secretariat of Ukraine as the representative of the Russian Provisional Government in the region, okruhas served as a subdivision of government until it was abolished on 1 August 1925. Together with the government of Podilia, the Haisyn okruha was dissolved as well, some territory of Tulchyn okruha were included into the newly formed Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Bold type marks languages spoken by more people than the state language, in 18973,018,299 people lived in the governorate of Podolia. The cities had 221,870 inhabitants, comprising about 7. 35% of the total population, about 46. 06% of the urban population consisted of Jews,32. 54% of Ukrainians,15. 03% of Russians, and 4. 90% of Poles
Podolia Governorate
–
Gubernia of Podolia, around 1900
Podolia Governorate
–
A market scene in Podolia, c. 1864
Podolia Governorate
–
Podolian korchma
Podolia Governorate
–
Kamenets/Podolsky
22.
Eastern Orthodox Church
–
The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
Eastern Orthodox Church
–
Orthodox liturgy
Eastern Orthodox Church
–
An
icon of
John the Baptist, 14th century, Macedonia
23.
Order of Saint Anna
–
The motto of the Order is Amantibus Justitiam, Pietatem, Fidem. Its festival day is 3 February, originally, the Order of Saint Anna was a dynastic order of knighthood, but between 1797 and 1917 it had dual status as a dynastic order and as a state order. The Head of the Imperial House of Russia always is Master of the imperial Order of Saint Anna, the Order of St. Anna continued to be awarded after the revolution by Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich, and Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna. Today, the Russian Imperial Order of St, membership of the Order was awarded for a distinguished career in civil service or for valour and distinguished service in the military. The Order of Saint Anna entitled recipients of the first class to hereditary nobility, for military recipients, it was awarded with swords. It is now awarded for meritorious service to the Imperial House of Russia. At first, the Order had but one class and was named the Order of Anna. I. P. F, the same letters also abbreviate the Latin motto. In 1742, Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke Karl Friedrichs son, was declared the Russian heir apparent, after arriving in Russia, he presented the Order to several courtiers. Emperor Alexander I added a class in 1815. Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew simultaneously received the first class of the Order of Saint Anna, the Emperor himself was the hereditary chief of the Order. The title of Chekhovs well-known story Anna on the Neck refers both to the Order and to the heroine, the medal ribbon was red with narrow yellow edging. A recipient of higher classes of the Order would not wear insignia of lower classes, alan W. Hazelton, The Russian Imperial Orders, New York, The American Numismatic Society,1932. Order of St. Anna History of the order of St. Anna
Order of Saint Anna
–
Star with crown to Order St. Anna.
Order of Saint Anna
–
Order of St. Anna, 2nd class (The example shown is "with swords", for bravery in battle, and crown)
Order of Saint Anna
–
Order of St. Anna, 3rd class
Order of Saint Anna
–
Order of St. Anna, 4th class (The insignia with imperial eagle would have been awarded to a non-Christian, for whom a Christian cross was deemed inappropriate)
24.
Russian nobility
–
The Russian nobility arose in the 14th century. Its members staffed most of the Russian government apparatus until the February Revolution of 1917, the Russian word for nobility, dvoryanstvo, derives from the Polish word dwor, meaning the court of a prince or duke and later, the court of the tsar or emperor. A nobleman is called a dvoryanin, pre-Soviet Russia shared with other countries the concept that nobility connotes a status or a social category rather than a title. The nobility arose in the 12th and 13th centuries as the lowest part of the military class. From the 14th century land ownership by nobles increased, and by the 17th century the bulk of feudal lords and they made up the Landed army —the basic military force of Russia. Peter the Great finalized the status of the nobility, while abolishing the boyar title, however, Russia’s existing economic system, which lacked a sizable middle class and which relied on forced labor, was an impassable obstacle to the development of a free market. Furthermore, the lower classes – the overwhelming majority of the Russian population – lived virtually isolated from the upper classes, thus, most of the nobility’s “western” tendencies were largely superficial and confined to a tiny portion of the populace. Ironically, by introducing the nobility to political literature from Western Europe, Catherine exposed Russia’s autocracy to them as archaic and illiberal. Although Peter the Great is considered by many to be the first westernizer of Russia, there were, in fact, ivan III, starting in 1472, sent numerous agents to Italy to study architecture. Both Michael Romanov and his son Alexis invited and sponsored European visitors – mostly military, medical, Peter the Great was, first and foremost, eager to do away with Russia’s reputation as an Asiatic land and to propel his new empire onto the political stage of Western Europe. In 1697, he began to send nobles on compulsory trips abroad to England, Holland, while the tsar primarily designed these expeditions for naval training, he also encouraged the noblemen to learn about the arts of the west. When the travelers returned to Moscow, Peter tested them on their training, insisting on further education for those whose accumulated knowledge was unsatisfactory. By 1724, he had established – for the purpose of study and discovery – the Academy of Sciences. Peter’s westernizing efforts became quite radical after 1698, when he returned from his expedition through Europe, upon arriving, Peter summoned the nobility to his court and personally shaved almost every beard in the room. In 1705 he decreed a beard tax on all ranked men in Moscow and he also reformed the clothing of the nobility, abandoning the long-sleeved, traditional Muscovite robes for European fashion. Beginning in 1699 the tsar decreed strict dress requirements borrowing from German, Hungarian, French, Peter himself, usually sporting German dress and a trimmed mustache, acted as a prime example. While the nobility universally followed Peter’s fashion preferences at court, they greatly resented these styles, away from St. Petersburg, very few noblemen followed Peter’s guidelines and enforcement was lax. Peter also demanded changes in mannerisms and language among nobles, in order to supply Russians with a basic set of “proper” morals and habits, he ordered publication of manuals on Western etiquette
Russian nobility
–
An
assembly of nobility at the time of
Catherine the Great
Russian nobility
–
Portrait of Princess Leonilla Baryatinskaya, by
Franz Xaver Winterhalter.
Russian nobility
–
Prince
Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky
Russian nobility
–
Boyar Ivan Chemodanov
25.
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
–
Taras Shevchenko University or officially the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, colloquially known in Ukrainian as KNU is located in Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine. It is the third oldest university in Ukraine after the University of Lviv, currently, its structure consists of fifteen faculties and five institutes. It was founded in 1834 as the Kiev Imperial University of Saint Vladimir, during the Soviet Union era, Taras Shevchenko University was one of the top-three universities in the USSR, along with Moscow State University and Leningrad State University. It is ranked as the best university in Ukraine in many rankings, Taras Shevchenko himself, banned from educational activities for political reasons, has worked for the Kyiv University as a field researcher. Taras Shevchenko University is named after Taras Shevchenko, a figure in Ukrainian literature. It is an institution of education that trains specialists in many fields of knowledge. It is considered the most prestigious university in Ukraine and a centre of advanced learning. It consists of more faculties and departments, and trains specialists in a number of academic fields. Nowadays, as it has throughout its history, the University retains its role of a major center of learning. Its academics and students follow the traditions of the highest academic standards. As training highly qualified specialists has always been the main goal, a number of faculties offer 4-year Bachelors and 2-year masters degree programs, together with traditional 5-year Specialist Degree programs. Currently the stress is on students ability to independently and meet employers requirements. Having acquired theoretical knowledge in the first and the second year, the university benefited from assets transferred from Vilnius University, which was closed in the aftermath of the November Uprising of 1831. There were new additions to the department in 1835 and 1847, the Faculty of Law. Later on, the original Faculty of Philosophy was divided two separate units, the Faculty of History and Philology and the Faculty of Natural Sciences. There were no additions to the number of departments until the 1920s. The walls of the building are painted in red while the tops. Ukrainian composer Mykola Leontovychs Shchedryk was premiered at the Kyiv University on December 26,1916 by the universitys choir directed by Oleksandr Koshyts, in 1920, Saint Vladimir University was renamed as Mykhailo Drahomanov University
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
–
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
–
Taras Shevchenko University's original building, the "Red Building", today.
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
–
Nicholas I of Russia, a founding father of the Saint Vladimir University in Kiev.
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
–
An early 20th-century Russian postcard picturing Saint Vladimir University in Kiev.
26.
Bar, Ukraine
–
Bar /ˈbʌr/ is a town located on the Riv River in the Vinnytsia Oblast of central Ukraine. It is the center of the Bar Raion, and is part of the historic region of Podolia. Population,16, 409 Bar was named for Bari in Italy by the Polish Queen Bona Sforza in 1537, Bar is a traditional name and a most frequently used name for the city at present time. The city was a trade outpost Rov on the Riv River from the 13th to 15th centuries. In 1540, the Polish King Sigismund I the Old granted the town city rights. The fortress was besieged several times in its history and resisted all assaults, but during the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 it was captured by the Cossacks led by Maxym Kryvonis and severely damaged. In 1672 the Town of Bar was captured by the Ottoman Empire, on November 12,1674, the town and the fortress were recaptured by the forces of John III of Poland after four days of siege. But the Ottomans recaptured the city in 1675 and retained it until 1686 and it was constantly ravaged by Turks and Poles in turn between 1686 and 1699. After the Second Partition of Poland, the town fell under Russian Empire rule and was part of Podolia Governorate, after 1922, the Town of Bar was part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Since 1991, following the fall of the Soviet Union, it has been part of independent Ukraine, the city of Bar was comprehensively described in the doctorate thesis by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Bar Community, Historical Outlines in the 15th to 18th centuries. The international conference on the Town of Bar history will be held in Bar on September 26,2014, there is a monument of Mykhailo Hrushevsky in Bar city. Bar was shortly described in a titled, Geographic Dictionary of Polish Kingdom and other Slavic places. Bar was comprehensively described in the Histrory of towns and villages of Ukrainian SSR encyclopedia dictionary by the Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences in 1972, Bar was also described in the Electronic Jewish Dictionaries and other information resources in Israel in 2016. The information on Bar was published in the digital encyclopedia dictionary in Russian Federation in 2016, the history of Bar is discussed in the Ukrainian mass media. 1565 – Wojciech Starzechowski began to build the stone fortress in Bar. The 1,000 florins from the King’s Treasury in Poland were assigned for construction, August,1648 – During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, Maxym Kryvonis captured Bar after which a power over the city was shifting from one side to another. 1672 –1699 – Bar was captured by Selim I Giray, November 12,1674 – The town and the fortress were re-captured by the forces of John III of Poland after four days of siege. 1675 –1686 – Bar was re-captured by Ottoman Empire again,1686 –1699 – Bar was re-captured by the John III of Poland and by Ottoman Empire for many times
Bar, Ukraine
–
General view of Bar.
Bar, Ukraine
–
Flag
Bar, Ukraine
–
Original Coat of Arms, History Museum, Town of Bar, Vinnytsia Region, State of Ukraine
Bar, Ukraine
–
Bona Sforza in 1517
27.
Age of Enlightenment
–
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
Age of Enlightenment
–
German philosopher
Immanuel Kant
Age of Enlightenment
–
History of
Western philosophy
Age of Enlightenment
–
Cesare Beccaria, father of classical criminal theory (1738–1794)
Age of Enlightenment
–
Like other Enlightenment philosophers,
Rousseau was critical of the
Atlantic slave trade.
28.
Romanticism
–
Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
Romanticism
–
Caspar David Friedrich,
Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, 1818
Romanticism
–
Eugène Delacroix,
Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its
Orientalist subject from a play by
Lord Byron
Romanticism
–
Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808
Romanticism
–
William Blake,
The Little Girl Found, from
Songs of Innocence and Experience, 1794
29.
Scythia
–
The Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern coast of the Black Sea. The Scythians – the Greeks name for this nomadic people – inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BC to the 2nd century AD. Its location and extent varied over time but usually extended farther to the west than is indicated on the map opposite, Scythia was a loose state that originated as early as 8th century BC. Little is known of them and their rulers, the most detailed western description is by Herodotus, though it is uncertain he ever went to Scythia. He says the Scythians own name for themselves was Scoloti, the Scythians became increasingly settled and wealthy on their western frontier with Greco-Roman civilization. It is possible that the dynasty ruled in Scythia during most of its history. The name of Koloksai, a founder of a royal dynasty, is mentioned by Alcman in the 7th century BC. Prototi and Madis, Scythian kings in the Near Eastern period of their history, Herodotus lists five generations of a royal clan that probably reigned at the end of the 7th to 6th centuries BC, prince Anacharsis, Saulius, Idanthyrsus, Gnurus, Lycus, and Spargapithes. After being defeated and driven from the Near East, in the first half of the 6th century BCE, in the second half of that century, Scythians succeeded in dominating the agricultural tribes of the forest-steppe and placed them under tribute. As a result, their state was reconstructed with the appearance of the Second Scythian Kingdom which reached its zenith in the 4th century BC, aggressive external policy intensified exploitation of dependent populations and progressed the stratification among the nomadic rulers. Trading with Greeks also stimulated sedentarization processes, accordingly, the trade became a stimulus for capture of slaves as war spoils in numerous wars. The Scythian state reached its greatest extent in the 4th century BC during the reign of Ateas, isocrates believed that Scythians, and also Thracians and Persians, are the most able to power, and are the peoples with the greatest might. In the 4th century BC, under king Ateas, the structure of the state was eliminated. The later sources do not mention three basileuses any more, strabo tells that Ateas ruled over the majority of the North Pontic barbarians. Written sources tell that expansion of the Scythian state before the 4th century BC was mainly to the west, in this respect Ateas continued the policy of his predecessors in the 5th century BC. During western expansion, Ateas fought the Triballi, an area of Thrace was subjugated and levied with severe duties. During the 90 year life of Ateas, the Scythians settled firmly in Thrace, at the same time, both the nomadic and agricultural Scythian populations increased along the Dniester river. A war with the Bosporian Kingdom increased Scythian pressure on the Greek cities along the North Pontic littoral, materials from the site near Kamianka-Dniprovska, purportedly the capital of the Ateas’ state, show that metallurgists were free members of the society, even if burdened with imposed obligations
Scythia
–
Scythia et Serica, 18th century map.
Scythia
–
Approximate extent of Scythia within the area of distribution of
Eastern Iranian languages (shown in orange) in the 1st century BC. [
citation needed]
Scythia
–
Scythian king
Skilurus, relief from
Scythian Neapolis, Crimea, 2nd century BC
