1.
Lacquer
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The term lacquer is used for a number of hard and potentially shiny finishes applied to materials such as wood. These fall into a number of different groups. This dries to a hard and smooth surface layer which is durable, waterproof. Asian lacquer is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved, as well as dusted with gold and given other further decorative treatments. In modern techniques, lacquer means a range of clear or coloured wood finishes that dry by solvent evaporation or a process that produces a hard. The finish can be of any level from ultra matte to high gloss. It is also used for paint, which is a paint that typically dries better on a hard. Lacquer is more durable than shellac and these ultimately derive from Sanskrit lākshā, which was used for both the Lac insect and the scarlet resinous secretion it produces that was used as wood finish. Lac resin was once imported in quantity into Europe from India along with Eastern woods. Lacquer sheen is a measurement of the shine for a given lacquer, different manufacturers have their own names and standards for their sheen. The most common names from least shiny to most shiny are, flat, matte, egg shell, satin, semi-gloss, urushiol-based lacquers differ from most others, being slow-drying, and set by oxidation and polymerization, rather than by evaporation alone. In order for it to set properly it requires a humid, the phenols oxidize and polymerize under the action of an enzyme laccase, yielding a substrate that, upon proper evaporation of its water content, is hard. These lacquers produce very hard, durable finishes that are beautiful and very resistant to damage by water, acid, alkali or abrasion. The active ingredient of the resin is urushiol, a mixture of various phenols suspended in water, the resin is derived from a tree indigenous to China, species Toxicodendron vernicifluum, commonly known as the Lacquer Tree. The fresh resin from the T. vernicifluum trees causes urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, the Chinese treated the allergic reaction with crushed shellfish, which supposedly prevents lacquer from drying properly. Lacquer skills became very highly developed in Asia, and many highly decorated pieces were produced, the earliest extant lacquer object, a red wooden bowl, was unearthed at a Hemudu culture site in China. By the Han Dynasty, many centres of production became firmly established. The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the process spread from China during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties, eventually it was introduced to Korea, Japan, Southeast
2.
Nail (anatomy)
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A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the tips of the fingers and toes in humans, most non-human primates, and a few other mammals. Nails are similar to claws in other animals, fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called keratin. This protein is found in the hooves and horns of different animals. The nail consists of the plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it. The matrix, sometimes called the matrix unguis, keratogenous membrane, nail matrix and it is the part of the nail bed that is beneath the nail and contains nerves, lymph and blood vessels. The matrix is responsible for producing cells that become the nail plate. The width and thickness of the plate is determined by the size, length. The matrix will continue to grow as long as it receives nutrition, as new nail plate cells are made, they push older nail plate cells forward, and in this way older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink color, the lunula is the visible part of the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger, the nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate. The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal grooves called matrix crests, in old age, the nail plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible. The nail sinus is where the root is, i. e. the base of the nail underneath the skin. It originates from the actively growing tissue below, the matrix, the nail plate is the hard part of the nail, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, compacted cells cause the nail to be strong and its shape is determined by the form of the underlying bone. In common usage, the word often refers to this part only. The free margin or distal edge is the margin of the nail plate corresponding to the abrasive or cutting edge of the nail. The hyponychium is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed, the onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the hyponychium
3.
Zhou dynasty
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The Zhou dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang dynasty and preceded the Qin dynasty. This period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making, the dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its almost-modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period. He even received sacrifice as a harvest god, the term Hòujì was probably an hereditary title attached to a lineage. Jus son Liu, however, led his people to prosperity by restoring agriculture and settling them at a place called Bin, tai later led the clan from Bin to Zhou, an area in the Wei River valley of modern-day Qishan County. Taibo and Zhongyong had supposedly fled to the Yangtze delta. Jilis son Wen bribed his way out of imprisonment and moved the Zhou capital to Feng, the Zhou enfeoffed a member of the defeated Shang royal family as the Duke of Song, which was held by descendants of the Shang royal family until its end. This practice was referred to as Two Kings, Three Reverences, according to Nicholas Bodman, the Zhou appear to have spoken a language not basically different in vocabulary and syntax from that of the Shang. A recent study by David McCraw, using lexical statistics, reached the same conclusion, the Zhou emulated extensively Shang cultural practices, perhaps to legitimize their own rule, and became the successors to Shang culture. At the same time, the Zhou may also have connected to the Xirong, a broadly defined cultural group to the west of the Shang. According to the historian Li Feng, the term Rong during the Western Zhou period was used to designate political and military adversaries rather than cultural. The proto-Zhou were first located in the Shaanxi-Shanxi highland, where they absorbed elements from the Guangshe culture, King Liu moved his people to the lower Fen Valley and to the western bank of the Yellow River, where they resumed agriculture. His son Qing Jie, led the Zhou to the valley of the Jing River. They stayed there until Dan Fu moved again to the Wei Valley in order to avoid incursion by the Rongdi nomads. During this period, the Zhou mingled with the Qiang people, in all these stages, the advanced Shang bronze culture constantly imparted its influence on the Zhou. The Qi area was the region in all these influences would come to fruition. The contact among the proto-Zhou, the native Shaanxi Longshan, the Qiang, King Wu maintained the old capital for ceremonial purposes but constructed a new one for his palace and administration nearby at Hao. Although Wus early death left a young and inexperienced heir, the Duke of Zhou assisted his nephew King Cheng in consolidating royal power. Wary of the Duke of Zhous increasing power, the Three Guards, Zhou princes stationed on the eastern plain, to maintain Zhou authority over its greatly expanded territory and prevent other revolts, he set up the fengjian system
4.
Ming dynasty
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The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
5.
Beeswax
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Beeswax is a natural wax produced by honey bees of the genus Apis. The wax is formed into scales by eight wax-producing glands in the segments of worker bees. The hive workers collect and use it to cells for honey-storage. Chemically, beeswax consists mainly of esters of fatty acids and various long-chain alcohols, Beeswax has long-standing applications in human food and flavoring. For example, it is used as an agent, a sweetener. It is edible, in the sense of having similar negligible toxicity to plant waxes, and is approved for use in most countries. However, the wax monoesters in beeswax are poorly hydrolysed in the guts of humans and other mammals, some birds, such as honeyguides, can digest beeswax. Beeswax is the diet of Wax moth larvae. The wax is formed by worker bees, which secrete it from eight wax-producing mirror glands on the sides of the sternites on abdominal segments 4 to 7. The sizes of these wax glands depend on the age of the worker, and after many daily flights, the new wax is initially glass-clear and colourless, becoming opaque after mastication and adulteration with pollen by the hive worker bees. Also, the wax becomes progressively more yellow or brown by incorporation of pollen oils, the wax scales are about 3 mm across and 0.1 mm thick, and about 1100 are required to make a gram of wax. Honey bees use the beeswax to build cells in which their young are raised with honey. For the wax-making bees to secrete wax, the ambient temperature in the hive must be 33 °C to 36 °C, the amount of honey used by bees to produce wax has not been accurately determined. The book, Beeswax Production, Harvesting, Processing and Products, suggests 1 pound of beeswax is used to store 22 pounds honey, according to Whitcombs 1946 experiment,6.66 to 8.80 pounds of honey yields 1 pound of wax. Another study estimated that 24 to 30 pounds of honey is produced per pound of wax, when beekeepers extract the honey, they cut off the wax caps from each honeycomb cell with an uncapping knife or machine. Its color varies from white to brownish, but most often a shade of yellow, depending on purity, the region. Wax from the comb of the honey bee hive tends to be darker than wax from the honeycomb. Impurities accumulate more quickly in the brood comb, due to the impurities, the wax must be rendered before further use
6.
Egg white
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Albumen is the name for the clear liquid contained within an egg. In chickens it is formed from the layers of secretions of the section of the hens oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around fertilized or unfertilized egg yolks, the primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo. Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved about 10% proteins, unlike the yolk, which is high in lipids, egg white contains almost no fat, and carbohydrate content is less than 1%. Egg whites contain just over 50% of the protein in the egg, Egg white has many uses in food and also many other uses. Egg white makes up around two-thirds of an egg by weight. Water constitutes about 90% of this, with protein, trace minerals, fatty material, vitamins, and glucose contributing the remainder. A raw U. S. large egg contains around 33 grams of egg white with 3.6 grams of protein,0.24 grams of carbohydrate and 55 milligrams of sodium and it contains no cholesterol and the energy content is about 17 Calories. Egg white is a solution and contains around 148 proteins. The table below lists the major proteins in egg whites by percentage, ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in albumen. Classed as phosphoglycoprotein, during storage, it converts into s-ovalbumin, Denaturation temperature is around 84°C, but it can be easily denatured by physical stresses. Conalbumin/ovotransferrin is a glycoprotein which has the capacity to bind the bi-, at its isoelectric pH, it can bind two cations and assume a red or yellow color. These metal complexes are more stable than the native state. Ovomucoid is the major allergen from egg white and is a heat-resistant glycoprotein found to be a trypsin inhibitor, ovomucin is a glycoprotein which may contribute to the gel-like structure of thick albumen. The amount of ovomucin in the thick albumen is four times greater than in the thin albumen, the physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam. Two types of stress are caused by beating them with a whisk. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, when beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted, soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse, Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk
7.
Gelatin
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Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, brittle, flavorless food derived from collagen obtained from various animal body parts. It is commonly used as an agent in food, pharmaceutical drugs, vitamin capsules, photography. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a way are called gelatinous. It is found in most gummy candy, as well as other such as marshmallows, gelatin desserts, and some ice creams, dips. Gelatin for recipe use comes in the form of sheets, granules, instant types can be added to the food as they are, others need to be soaked in water beforehand. During hydrolysis, the molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from beef bones, Gelatin readily dissolves in hot water and sets to a gel on cooling. When added directly to water, it does not dissolve well. Gelatin also is soluble in most polar solvents, Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. Solubility is determined by the method of manufacture, typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. The mechanical properties of gelatin gels are very sensitive to variations, the previous thermal history of the gels. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor that is important for mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin, the viscosity of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C. The gel strength is quantified using the Bloom test, the worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375, 000–400,000 tonnes per year. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat, recently, fish by-products also have been considered suitable because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption. Gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork, and cattle bones, the raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products
8.
Gum arabic
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Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree. Producers harvest the gum commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia—though it is cultivated in Arabia. Gum arabic is a mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. It is the source of the sugars arabinose and ribose. Gum arabic is used primarily in the industry as a stabilizer. It is edible and has E number E414, while gum arabic is now produced throughout the African Sahel, it is still harvested and used in the Middle East. For example, Arab populations use the gum to make a chilled, sweetened. Gum arabics mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins gives it the properties of a glue, other substances have replaced it where toxicity is not an issue, and as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic vary widely and make it unpredictable. Still, it remains an important ingredient in soft drink syrup, hard gummy candies such as gumdrops, marshmallows, for artists, it is the traditional binder in watercolor paint, in photography for gum printing, and it is used as a binder in pyrotechnic compositions. Pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics also use the gum as a binder, emulsifying agent, wine makers have used gum arabic as a wine fining agent. It is an important ingredient in shoe polish, and can be used in making homemade incense cones and it is also used as a lickable adhesive, for example on postage stamps, envelopes, and cigarette papers. Lithographic printers employ it to keep the areas of the plate receptive to water. This treatment also helps to stop oxidation of aluminium printing plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a printing press. Also called acacia after the source, gum arabic is used as an emulsifier. Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the gum in varying amounts. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint, when all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers. If little water is used, after evaporation the acacia gum functions as a binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity
9.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
10.
Henna
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Henna is a flowering plant and the sole species of the Lawsonia genus. The English name henna comes from the Arabic حِنَّاء or, colloquially حنا, the name henna also refers to the dye prepared from the plant and the temporary body art based on those dyes. Henna has been used since antiquity to dye skin, hair and fingernails, as well as fabrics including silk, wool and leather. Historically, henna was used in the Arabian Peninsula, South Asia, parts of South East Asia, Carthage, other parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The name is used in skin and hair dyes, such as black henna and neutral henna. Henna was originally made from the feces of the dromedary, or one-humped camel, which inhabits the Middle East and it is glabrous and multi-branched, with spine-tipped branchlets. The leaves grow opposite each other on the stem and they are glabrous, sub-sessile, elliptical, and lanceolate, acuminate, and have depressed veins on the dorsal surface. Henna flowers have four sepals and a 2 mm calyx tube and its petals are obvate, with white or red stamens found in pairs on the rim of the calyx tube. The ovary is four-celled,5 mm long, and erect, Henna fruits are small, brownish capsules, 4–8 mm in diameter, with 32–49 seeds per fruit, and open irregularly into four splits. The henna plant is native to northern Africa, western and southern Asia and it produces the most dye when grown in temperatures between 35 and 45 °C. During the onset of precipitation intervals, the plant grows rapidly, the leaves gradually yellow and fall during prolonged dry or cool intervals. It does not thrive where minimum temperatures are below 11 °C, temperatures below 5 °C will kill the henna plant. Whole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin, Henna will not stain skin until the lawsone molecules are made available from the henna leaf. Dried henna leaves will stain the skin if they are mashed into a paste, the lawsone will gradually migrate from the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin and bind to the proteins in it, creating a fast stain. Since it is difficult to form intricate patterns from coarse crushed leaves, the dry powder is mixed with one of a number of liquids, including water, lemon juice, or strong tea, and other ingredients, depending on the tradition. Many artists use sugar or molasses in the paste to improve consistency, the henna mix must rest for 1 to 48 hours before use, to release the lawsone from the leaf matter. The timing depends on the crop of henna being used, essential oils with high levels of monoterpene alcohols, such as tea tree, cajeput, or lavender, will improve skin stain characteristics. Other essential oils, such as eucalyptus and clove, are useful but are too irritating
11.
Lavender oil
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Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Like all essential oils, it is not a compound, it is a complex mixture of naturally occurring phytochemicals, including linalool. Kashmir Lavender oil is famous for being produced from lavender at the foothills of the Himalayas, as of 2011, the biggest lavender oil producer in the world is Bulgaria. Lavender oil has long used in the production of perfume. Oil of spike lavender was used as a solvent in oil painting, Lavender oil appears to be an endocrine disruptor, exhibiting anti-androgenic activity in vitro. The exact composition of lavender essential oil varies from species to species, of these linalool and linalyl acetate dominate, with moderate levels of lavandulyl acetate, terpinen-4-ol and lavandulol. 1, 8-cineole and camphor are also present in low to moderate qualities, in all lavender oil typically contains many more than 100 compounds, although a great many of these are present at very low concentrations. The composition of lavender essential oil as obtained by chromatography, Lavender Essential oil
12.
Carmine
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Carmine, also called cochineal, cochineal extract, crimson lake or carmine lake, natural red 4, C. I. 75470, or E120, is a pigment of a bright-red color obtained from the salt of carminic acid. The pigment is produced from some scale insects such as the cochineal scale, the English word carmine is derived from the French word carmin, from Medieval Latin carminium, from Arabic qirmiz, which itself derives from Middle Persian carmir. The Persian term carmir might come from Sanskrit krimiga, from krmi The term may also be influenced in Latin by minium, purity of color is ensured by the absence of iron. Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum, thus, Carmine may be prepared from cochineal, by boiling dried insects in water to extract the carminic acid and then treating the clear solution with alum. Other common substances such as cream of tartar, stannous chloride, or potassium hydrogen oxalate can also be used to effect the precipitation, use of these chemicals causes the coloring and animal matters present in the liquid to be precipitated to give a lake pigment. Aluminum from the alum gives the traditional color to carminic acid precipitates. This color is degraded by the presence of iron salts, addition of lime can give carminic acid lakes a purple cast. Other methods for the production of dye are in use, in which egg white, fish glue. The quality of carmine is affected by the temperature and the degree of illumination during its preparation and it also differs according to the amount of alumina present in it. It is sometimes adulterated with cinnabar, starch and other materials, from these, good carmine should crumble readily between the fingers when dry. Carmine can be used as an agent in histology, as a Bests carmine to stain glycogen, mucicarmine to stain acidic mucopolysaccharides. In these applications, it is applied together with a mordant, Carmine was used in dyeing textiles and in painting since antiquity. It is not very stable in oil paint, and its use ceased after new, jacopo Tintoretto used carmine in several of his paintings, including Portrait of Vincenzo Morosini and Christ Washing the Feet of the Disciples. Carmine is used as a dye in many different products such as juices, ice cream, yogurt, and candy. Although principally a red dye, it is found in foods that are shades of red, pink. As a food dye it has known to cause severe allergic reactions
13.
Bergamot essential oil
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Bergamot essential oil is a cold-pressed essential oil produced by cells inside the rind of a bergamot orange fruit. It is a top note in perfumes. Bergamot essential oil is a component of the original Eau de Cologne composed by Farina at the beginning of the 18th century. The first record of oil as a fragrance ingredient is from 1714. One hundred bergamot oranges yield about three ounces of bergamot oil. The scent of bergamot oil is similar to a sweet light orange peel oil with a floral note. Earl Grey tea is a type of tea that contains bergamot essential oil as a flavouring. The sfumatura or slow-folding process was the technique for manually extracting the bergamot oil. A clear liquid in color from green to yellow, bergamot essential oil consists for the most part of a volatile fraction. The main compounds in the oil are limonene, linalyl acetate, linalool, γ-terpinene and β-pinene, linalyl acetate and linalool are qualitatively the most important components of the bergamot oil. The main compounds are coumarins and furanocoumarins, the bergamot essential oil is particularly subject to adulteration being an essential oil produced in relatively small quantities. Gas chromatography with columns having a chiral stationary phase allows to analyze mixtures of enantiomers, the GC-C-IRMS technique, the most recently used, allows to obtain similar results. This is a property shared by many other citrus fruits, Citrus bergamia, Bergamot and its Derivatives. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants – Industrial Profiles, costa, Rosaria, Dugo, Paola, Navarra, Michele, Raymo, Vilfredo, Dugo, Giovanni, Mondello, Luigi. Study on the chemical composition variability of some processed bergamot essential oils, carlo Mangiola, Enrico Postorino, Francesco Gionfriddo, Maurizio Catalfamo, Renato Manganaro, Giuseppe Calabrò. Evaluation of the Genuineness of Cold-pressed Bergamot Oil, alp Kunkar and Ennio Kunkar, Bergamotto e le sue essenze, Edizioni A Z A. Kunkar, C. Kunkar, Supercritical CO2 extraction of oil from peel, Int. Medicinal plants and essential oils- Anadolu üniversıtesi-Eskişehir Turkey Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products, assessment report on Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau, aetheroleum Final
14.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
15.
Nitrocellulose
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Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a propellant or low-order explosive, it was known as guncotton. Partially nitrated cellulose has found uses as a film and in inks. In 1862 the first man-made plastic, nitrocellulose, was created by Alexander Parkes from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. Celluloid was used by Kodak, and other suppliers, from the late 1880s as a base in photography, X-ray films, and motion picture films. After numerous fires caused by unstable nitrate films, safety film started to be used from the 1930s in the case of X-ray stock and from 1948 for motion picture film. Henri Braconnot discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible explosive material, a few years later in 1838, another French chemist, Théophile-Jules Pelouze, treated paper and cardboard in the same way. Jean-Baptiste Dumas obtained a material, which he called nitramidine. These substances were highly unstable and were not practical explosives, however, around 1846 Christian Friedrich Schönbein, a German-Swiss chemist, discovered a more practical solution. As he was working in the kitchen of his home in Basel and he reached for the nearest cloth, a cotton apron, and wiped it up. He hung the apron on the door to dry, and, as soon as it was dry. His preparation method was the first to be widely imitated—one part of cotton wool to be immersed in 15 parts of an equal blend of sulfuric and nitric acids. After two minutes, the cotton was removed and washed in water to set the esterification level. It was then dried at a temperature below 40 °C. Schönbein collaborated with the Frankfurt professor Rudolf Christian Böttger, who had discovered the process independently in the same year. By coincidence, a third chemist, the Brunswick professor F. J. Otto had also produced guncotton in 1846 and was the first to publish the process, much to the disappointment of Schönbein and Böttger. The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water, 3HNO3+ C6H10O5 → C6H73O5 + 3H2O The sulfuric acid is present as a catalyst to produce the nitronium ion, the reaction is first order and proceeds by electrophilic substitution at the C-OH centers of the cellulose. The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting, as a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating
16.
Butyl acetate
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N-Butyl acetate, also known as butyl ethanoate, is an ester which is a colorless flammable liquid at room temperature. Butyl acetate is found in types of fruit, where along with other chemicals it imparts characteristic flavors and has a sweet smell of banana or apple. It is used as a synthetic fruit flavoring in foods such as candy, ice cream, cheeses, butyl acetate is often used as a high-boiling solvent of moderate polarity. The other three isomers of butyl acetate are, isobutyl acetate, tert-butyl acetate, and sec-butyl acetate, the alarm pheromones emitted by the Koschevnikov gland of honey bees contain butyl acetate. Ethylene and other chemicals in fruit Material Safety Data Sheet CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
17.
Ethyl acetate
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Ethyl acetate is the organic compound with the formula CH3–COO–CH2–CH3, simplified to C4H8O2. This colorless liquid has a sweet smell and is used in glues, nail polish removers, decaffeinating tea and coffee. Ethyl acetate is the ester of ethanol and acetic acid, it is manufactured on a scale for use as a solvent. The combined annual production in 1985 of Japan, North America, in 2004, an estimated 1.3 million tonnes were produced worldwide. Ethyl acetate is synthesized in industry mainly via the classic Fischer esterification reaction of ethanol and this method is more cost effective than the esterification but is applied with surplus ethanol in a chemical plant. Typically, dehydrogenation is conducted with copper at an elevated temperature, the copper may have its surface area increased by depositing it on zinc, promoting the growth of snowflake-like fractal structures. Surface area can be increased by deposition onto a zeolite. Traces of rare earth and alkali metals are beneficial to the process, byproducts of the dehydrogenation include diethyl ether, which is thought to arise primarily due to aluminum sites in the catalyst, acetaldehyde and its aldol products, higher esters, and ketones. These azeotropes are broken by pressure swing distillation or membrane distillation, ethyl acetate is used primarily as a solvent and diluent, being favored because of its low cost, low toxicity, and agreeable odor. For example, it is used to clean circuit boards. Coffee beans and tea leaves are decaffeinated with this solvent and it is also used in paints as an activator or hardener. Ethyl acetate is present in confectionery, perfumes, and fruits, in perfumes, it evaporates quickly, leaving only the scent of the perfume on the skin. In the laboratory, mixtures containing ethyl acetate are used in column chromatography. Ethyl acetate is rarely selected as a solvent because it is prone to hydrolysis. Ethyl acetate is volatile at room temperature and has a boiling point of 77 °C. Due to these properties, it can be removed from a sample by heating in a hot water bath and providing ventilation with compressed air. Ethyl acetate is the most common ester in wine, being the product of the most common organic acid – acetic acid. The aroma of ethyl acetate is most vivid in younger wines and contributes towards the general perception of fruitiness in the wine, sensitivity varies, with most people having a perception threshold around 120 mg/L
18.
Dibutyl phthalate
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Dibutyl phthalate is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks and it is soluble in various organic solvents, e. g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide, DBP is also a putative endocrine disruptor The use of this substance in cosmetics, including nail polishes, is banned in the European Union under Directive 76/768/EEC1976. The use of DBP has been restricted in the European Union for use in childrens toys since 1999, an EU Risk Assessment has been conducted on DBP and the final outcome has now been published in the EU Official Journal. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 list of suspected teratogens in November 2006 and it is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in nail polishes, all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. DBP was permanently banned in childrens toys, in concentrations of 1000 ppm or greater, under section 108 of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008, DBP is produced by the reaction of n-butanol with phthalic anhydride. It is or was produced in the United States by Eastman Chemical Company, the white rot fungus Polyporus brumalis degrades DBP
19.
Prussian blue
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Prussian blue is a dark blue pigment with the idealized chemical formula Fe 718. To better understand the situation in this complex compound the formula can also be written as Fe 43 · xH 2O. Another name for the color is Berlin blue or, in painting, Turnbulls blue is the same substance, but is made from different reagents, and its slightly different color stems from different impurities. Prussian blue was the first modern synthetic pigment and it is employed as a very fine colloidal dispersion, as the compound itself is not soluble in water. It is famously complex, owing to the presence of variable amounts of other ions, the pigment is used in paints, and it is the traditional blue in blueprints. In medicine, Prussian blue is used as an antidote for certain kinds of metal poisoning, e. g. by thallium. In particular it was used to absorb 137Cs+ from those poisoned in the Goiânia accident, the therapy exploits Prussian blues ion exchange properties and high affinity for certain soft metal cations. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Prussian blue lent its name to prussic acid, which was derived from it. In Germany, hydrogen cyanide is called Blausäure, and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac gave cyanide its name, from the Greek word κυανός, because it is easily made, cheap, nontoxic, and intensely colored, Prussian blue has attracted many applications. It was adopted as a pigment very soon after its invention and was almost immediately used in oil, watercolor. The dominant uses are for pigments, about 12,000 tonnes of Prussian blue are produced annually for use in black, a variety of other pigments also contain the material. Engineers blue and the pigment formed on cyanotypes—giving them their common name blueprints, certain crayons were once colored with Prussian blue. It is also a popular pigment in paints, similarly, Prussian blue is the basis for laundry bluing. Prussian blues ability to incorporate monocations makes it useful as a agent for certain heavy metal poisons. Pharmaceutical-grade Prussian blue in particular is used for people who have ingested thallium or radioactive caesium, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency, an adult male can eat at least 10 g of Prussian blue per day without serious harm. The U. S. Prussian blue is a common stain used by pathologists to detect the presence of iron in biopsy specimens. The original stain formula, known historically as Perls Prussian blue after its inventor, German pathologist Max Perls, used separate solutions of potassium ferrocyanide, iron deposits in tissue then form the purple Prussian blue dye in place, and are visualized as blue or purple deposits. The formula is known as Perls Prussian blue and as Perls Prussian blue
20.
Tin dioxide
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Tin dioxide, also known as stannic oxide, is the inorganic compound with the formula SnO2. The mineral form of SnO2 is called cassiterite, and this is the ore of tin. With many other names, this oxide of tin is the most important raw material in tin chemistry and it is a colourless, diamagnetic, amphoteric solid. It crystallises with the rutile structure, as such the tin atoms are six coordinate and the oxygen atoms three coordinate. SnO2 is usually regarded as an oxygen-deficient n-type semiconductor, hydrous forms of SnO2 have been described as stannic acid. Such materials appear to be hydrated particles of SnO2 where the composition reflects the particle size, synthetic tin oxide is produced by burning tin metal in air. Annual production is in the range of 10 kilotons, SnO2 is reduced industrially to the metal with carbon in a reverberatory furnace at 1200-1300 °C. Although SnO2 is insoluble in water, it is amphoteric, dissolving in base, stannic acid refers to hydrated tin oxide, SnO2, which is also called stannic hydroxide. Halogen acids attack SnO2 to give hexahalostannates, such as 2−, one report describes reacting a sample in refluxing HI for many hours. Dissolving the solidified SnO2/NaOH melt in water gives Na22, preparing salt, in conjunction with vanadium oxide, it is used as a catalyst for the oxidation of aromatic compounds in the synthesis of carboxylic acids and acid anhydrides. Tin oxide has long used as an opacifier and as a white colorant in ceramic glazes. This has probably led to the discovery of the pigment lead-tin-yellow, the use of tin oxide has been particularly common in glazes for earthenware, sanitaryware and wall tiles, see the articles tin-glazing and Tin-glazed pottery. The degree of dissolution increases with the temperature, and hence the extent of opacity diminishes. Although dependent on the other constituents the solubility of tin oxide in glaze melts is generally low and its solubility is increased by Na2O, K2O and B2O3, and reduced by CaO, BaO, ZnO, Al2O3, and to a limited extent PbO. SnO2 has been used as pigment in the manufacture of glasses, enamels, pure SnO2 gives a milky white colour, other colours are achieved when mixed with other metallic oxides e. g. V2O5 yellow, Cr2O3 pink, and Sb2O5 grey blue. Tin oxide can be used as a powder, sometimes in mixtures also with lead oxide, for polishing glass, jewelery, marble. Tin oxide for use is sometimes called as putty powder or jewelers putty. SnO2 coatings can be applied using chemical vapor deposition, vapour deposition techniques that employ SnCl4 or organotin trihalides e. g. butyltin trichloride as the volatile agent
21.
Titanium dioxide
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Titanium dioxide, also known as titanium oxide or titania, is the naturally occurring oxide of titanium, chemical formula TiO2. When used as a pigment, it is called white, Pigment White 6. Generally it is sourced from ilmenite, rutile and anatase and it has a wide range of applications, from paint to sunscreen to food coloring. When used as a coloring, it has E number E171. World production in 2014 exceeded 9 million metric tons, one of these is known as akaogiite and should be considered as an extremely rare mineral. It is mainly sourced from ilmenite ore and this is the most widespread form of titanium dioxide-bearing ore around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant and contains around 98% titanium dioxide in the ore, the metastable anatase and brookite phases convert irreversibly to the equilibrium rutile phase upon heating above temperatures in the range 600–800 °C. Dubrovinsky and co-authors to be the hardest known oxide with the Vickers hardness of 38 GPa, however, later studies came to different conclusions with much lower values for both the hardness and bulk modulus. The oxides are commercially important ores of titanium, the metal can also be mined from other minerals such as ilmenite or leucoxene ores, or one of the purest forms, rutile beach sand. Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from rutile impurities present in them, Titanium dioxide is found as a mineral in magmatic rocks and hydrothermal veins, as well as weathering rims on perovskite. TiO2 also forms lamellae in other minerals, spectral lines from titanium oxide are prominent in class M stars, which are cool enough to allow molecules of this chemical to form. The production method depends on the feedstock, the most common method for the production of titanium dioxide utilizes the mineral ilmenite. Ilmenite is mixed with sulfuric acid and this reacts to remove the iron oxide group in the ilmenite. The by-product iron sulfate is crystallized and filtered-off to yield only the salt in the digestion solution. This product is called synthetic rutile and this is further processed in a similar way to rutile to give the titanium dioxide product. Synthetic rutile and titanium slags are made especially for titanium dioxide production, the use of ilminite ore usually only produces pigment grade titanium dioxide. Another method for the production of synthetic rutile from ilmenite utilizes the Becher Process, rutile is the second most abundant mineral sand. Rutile found in primary rock cannot be extracted hence the deposits containing rutile sand can be mined meaning a reduced availability to the high concentration ore, crude titanium dioxide is purified via converting to titanium tetrachloride in the chloride process
22.
Iron oxide
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Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. All together, there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, common rust is a form of iron oxide. Iron oxides are used as inexpensive, durable pigments in paints, coatings. Colors commonly available are in the end of the yellow/orange/red/brown/black range. When used as a coloring, it has E number E172. Limonite Iron oxide nanoparticles List of inorganic pigments Information from Nano-Oxides, http, //chemed. chem. purdue. edu/demos/demosheets/12.3. html http, //minerals. usgs. gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/iron_oxide/ CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards de
23.
Ultramarine
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Ultramarine is a deep blue color and a pigment which was originally made by grinding lapis lazuli into a powder. The name comes from the Latin ultramarinus, literally beyond the sea, Ultramarine was the finest and most expensive blue used by Renaissance painters. It was often used for the robes of the Virgin Mary and it remained an extremely expensive pigment until a synthetic ultramarine was invented in 1826. The pigment consists primarily of a mineral containing small amounts of polysulfides. It occurs in nature as a component of lapis lazuli containing a blue cubic mineral called lazurite. The pigment color code is P, the major component of lazurite is a complex sulfur-containing sodium-silicate, which makes ultramarine the most complex of all mineral pigments. Some chloride is present in the crystal lattice as well. The blue color of the pigment is due to the S−3 radical anion, the preparation is typically made in steps. The first part of the takes place at 700 to 750 °C in a closed furnace, so that sulphur, carbon. This yields a yellow-green product sometimes used as a pigment, in the second step air or sulphur dioxide at 350 to 450 °C is used to oxidise sulphide sulphur in the intermediate product to S2 and Sn chromophore molecules, resulting in the blue pigment. The mixture is heated in a kiln, sometimes in brick-sized amounts, the resultant solids are then ground and washed as per any other insoluble pigment manufacturing process. The chemical reaction produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide, meaning that flue-gas desulfurization is an part of its manufacture to comply with pollution regulations. Large chimneys were used to disperse sulfur dioxide produced in the process, resulting in ultramarine tinting the surrounding ground surfaces, Ultramarine poor in silica is obtained by fusing a mixture of soft clay, sodium sulfate, charcoal, sodium carbonate and sulfur. The product is at first white, but soon turns green green ultramarine when it is mixed with sulfur, the sulfur burns, and a fine blue pigment is obtained. Ultramarine rich in silica is obtained by heating a mixture of pure clay, very fine white sand, sulfur. A blue product is obtained at once, but a red tinge often results, the different ultramarines—green, blue, red and violet—are finely ground and washed with water. Its color is unaffected by light nor by contact with oil or lime as used in painting, hydrochloric acid immediately bleaches it with liberation of hydrogen sulfide. Even a small addition of oxide to the reddish varieties especially causes a considerable diminution in the intensity of the color
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Manganese violet
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Manganese violet is the inorganic compound called ammonium manganese pyrophosphate. The formula indicates that pyrophosphate, ammonium, and manganese make up this solid and it is prepared by heating a mixture of Mn 2O3, diammonium phosphate and phosphoric acid. This material is an inorganic pigment. Two polymorphs are known, referred to as the α- and β-forms, the Mn centres occupy distorted octahedral sites, being surrounded by six oxygens provided by the pyrophosphate ligands. IR-spectra, reflectance and fluorescence spectra can be found at ColourLex
25.
Mica
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The mica group of sheet silicate minerals includes several closely related materials having nearly perfect basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical composition, the nearly perfect cleavage, which is the most prominent characteristic of mica, is explained by the hexagonal sheet-like arrangement of its atoms. The word mica is derived from the Latin word mica, meaning a crumb, and probably influenced by micare, to glitter. Chemically, micas can be given the general formula X2Y4–6Z8O204 in which X is K, Na, or Ca or less commonly Ba, Rb, or Cs, Y is Al, Mg, or Fe or less commonly Mn, Cr, Ti, Li, etc. Z is chiefly Si or Al, but also may include Fe3+ or Ti, structurally, micas can be classed as dioctahedral and trioctahedral. If the X ion is K or Na, the mica is a common mica, whereas if the X ion is Ca, mica is widely distributed and occurs in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary regimes. Large crystals of mica used for various applications are typically mined from granitic pegmatites, until the 19th century, large crystals of mica were quite rare and expensive as a result of the limited supply in Europe. However, their price dramatically dropped when large reserves were found and mined in Africa, the largest documented single crystal of mica was found in Lacey Mine, Ontario, Canada, it measured 10 ×4.3 ×4.3 m and weighed about 330 tonnes. Similar-sized crystals were found in Karelia, Russia. The British Geological Survey reported that as of 2005, Koderma district in Jharkhand state in India had the largest deposits of mica in the world. China was the top producer of mica with almost a third of the share, closely followed by the US, South Korea. Large deposits of mica were mined in New England from the 19th century to the 1970s. Large mines existed in Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine, scrap and flake mica is produced all over the world. In 2010, the producers were Russia, Finland, United States, South Korea, France. The total production was 350,000 t, although no data were available for China. Most sheet mica was produced in India and Russia, flake mica comes from several sources, the metamorphic rock called schist as a byproduct of processing feldspar and kaolin resources, from placer deposits, and from pegmatites. Sheet mica is considerably less abundant than flake and scrap mica, the most important sources of sheet mica are pegmatite deposits. Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than $1 per kilogram for low-quality mica to more than $2,000 per kilogram for the highest quality, the mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture
26.
Bismuth oxychloride
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Bismuth oxychloride is an inorganic compound of bismuth with the formula BiOCl. It is a white solid used since antiquity, notably in ancient Egypt. Light wave interference from its plate-like structure gives a pearly iridescent light reflectivity similar to nacre, the structure of bismuth oxychloride can be thought of as consisting of layers of Cl−, Bi3+ and O2− ions. These ions are ordered as Cl-Bi-O-Bi-Cl-Cl-Bi-O-Bi-Cl, i. e. with alternating anions and cations, the layered structure gives rise to the pearlescent properties of this material. Focusing on the environment of the individual ions, the bismuth centers adopt a distorted square antiprismatic coordination geometry. The oxygen atoms are coordinated by four bismuth atoms. It has been used in cosmetics since the days of ancient Egypt and it is part of the pearly pigment found in eye shadow, hair sprays, powders, nail polishes, and other cosmetic products. Owing to the structure of the BiOCl, its suspensions exhibit optical properties like nacre. In cosmetic its name is C. I, BiOCl exists in nature as the rare mineral bismoclite, which is part of the matlockite mineral group. An analogous compound, bismuth oxynitrate is used as a white pigment also
27.
Resin
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In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. They are often mixtures of compounds, principally terpenes. Many plants, particularly woody plants, produce resin in response to injury, the resin acts as a bandage protecting the plant from invading insects and pathogens. Plants secrete resins and rosins for their protective benefits, the resin produced by most plants is composed mainly of terpenes and derivatives. Some resins also contain a proportion of resin acids. The individual components of resin can be separated by fractional distillation, rosins on the other hand are less volatile and consist, inter alia, of diterpenes. Amber is fossil resin from coniferous and other tree species, copal, kauri gum, dammar and other resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such as acetone or chloroform is placed on it, african copal and the kauri gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil condition. Solidified resin from which the volatile terpene components have been removed by distillation is known as rosin, typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odor and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, and softens and melts under the influence of heat, rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids named the resin acids. These are closely related to the terpenes, and derive from them through partial oxidation, Resin acids can be dissolved in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the purified resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid, C20H30O2, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, C20H30O2, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol, it crystallizes in leaflets, pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum, it has been supposed to consist of three isomers. Rosin is obtained from pines and some plants, mostly conifers. Propolis, consisting largely of resins collected from such as poplars and conifers, is used by honey bees to seal gaps in their hives. Shellac and lacquer are examples of insect-derived resins, asphaltite and Utah resin are petroleum bitumens, not a product secreted by plants, although it was ultimately derived from plants. These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in religious rites. The word resin has been applied in the world to nearly any component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like finish
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Pigment
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A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
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Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
30.
Nail art
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Nail art is a creative way to paint, decorate, enhance, and embellish the nails. It is a type of artwork that can be done on fingernails and toenails, a manicure and a pedicure are beauty treatments that trim, shape, and polish the nail. Often these procedures remove the cuticles and soften the skin around the nails, the exact origin of nail treatments is unclear, since it appears to have originated in different parts of the world around the same time. In ancient Egypt, from 5000 B. C. to 3000 B. C. women would dye their nails with henna to indicate social status, women of the lower class wore pastel and neutral shades, while the upper classes wore deep, bright shades. In Babylonia,3200 B. C. men, not women, painted their nails with black and green kohl, to prepare for war, warriors of Babylon spent hours having their nails prepared, hair curled and had other similar beauty treatments. As in ancient Egypt, nail color indicated ones status, black for noblemen and green for the common man, around the same time,3000 B. C. the first nail polish originated in ancient China. It was made from beeswax, egg whites, gelatin, vegetable dyes, chinese dipped their nails in this mixture for several hours or left it on to dry. Colors ranged from pink to red, depending on the mixture of the ingredients, during the Zhou Dynasty,600 B. C. royalty used this simple nail polish with gold and silver dust on their nails to show their social status. The Ming dynasty was known for extremely long nails, sometimes these nails were protected by gold and jewel-encrusted nail guards. Servants preformed personal chores for the royals so their nails did not break or become damaged, empress Dowager Cixi of China, who ruled from 1835 to 1908, was known for her outrageous nails. There are many photos showing the empress with 6-inch-long gold guards protecting her long nails, all of the aforementioned did not use nail art as it is widely known today, only stained, dyed, or dusted the finger and toenails. First actual record of art was from the short-lived Inca Empire. Incas would decorate their nails by painting eagles on them, in 1770 the first fancy gold and silver manicure sets were created. French King Louis XVI who ruled from 1774 until his deposition in 1792, in the early 1800s, the modern manicure developed with the invention of the orange stick, a thin wooden stick with one pointy end, usually made from orange wood. It was invented in 1830, by Dr. Sitts, a European podiatrist, previous to this invention people used acid, a metal rod, and scissors to shape and trim the nails. In 1892, Dr. Sitts niece invented a nail care line for women of any social class, prior to then women had short, almond shaped nails and often used oils for additional shine or tint. Not long after, in 1907, the first liquid nail polish was invented, soon thereafter, it was available in variety of different colors. In 1925, the Lunar manicure was seen everywhere, reds and pinks were used on the nail bed while avoiding the area around the cuticles
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Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
32.
Pink
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Pink is a pale red color which takes its name from the flower of the same name. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most often associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, childhood, femininity, when combined with white, it is associated with innocence. When combined with violet or black, it is associated with eroticism, Pink was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. The color pink is named after the flowers called pinks, flowering plants in the genus Dianthus, the name derives from the frilled edge of the flowers—the verb to pink dates from the 14th century and means to decorate with a perforated or punched pattern. The color pink has been described in literature since ancient times, in the Odyssey, written in approximately 800 BCE, Homer wrote Then, when the child of morning, rosy-fingered dawn appeared. Roman poets also described the color, roseus is the Latin word meaning rosy or pink. Lucretius used the word to describe the dawn in his epic poem On the Nature of Things, Pink was not a common color in the fashion of the Middle Ages, nobles usually preferred brighter reds, such as crimson. However, it did appear in fashion, and in religious art. In the 13th and 14th century, in works by Cimabue and Duccio, the Christ child was sometimes portrayed dressed in pink, in the high Renaissance painting the Madonna of the Pinks by Raphael, the Christ child is presenting a pink flower to the Virgin Mary. The pink was a symbol of marriage, showing a spiritual marriage between the mother and child, during the Renaissance, pink was mainly used for the flesh color of faces and hands. John’s white, as it is called in Florence, and this white is made from thoroughly white, and when these two pigments have been thoroughly mulled together, make little loaves of them like half walnuts and leave them to dry. When you need some, take much of it seems appropriate. And this pigment does you great credit if you use it for painting faces, hands, the golden age of the color pink was the Rococo Period in the 18th century, when pastel colors became very fashionable in all the courts of Europe. Pink was particularly championed by Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of King Louis XV of France. Who wore combinations of blue and pink, and had a particular tint of pink made for her by the Sevres porcelain factory, created by adding nuances of blue, black. In this painting, it symbolized childhood, innocence and tenderness, sarah Moulton was just eleven years old when the picture was painted, and died the following year. In 19th century England, pink ribbons or decorations were worn by young boys, boys were simply considered small men. In fact the clothing for children in the 19th century was almost always white, since, before the invention of chemical dyes, queen Victoria was painted in 1850 with her seventh child and third son, Prince Arthur, who wore white and pink
33.
Purple
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Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a composite color made by combining red. According to surveys In Europe and the U. S. purple is the color most often associated with royalty, magic, mystery, when combined with pink, it is associated with eroticism, femininity and seduction. Purple was the color worn by Roman magistrates, it became the color worn by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Similarly in Japan, the color is associated with the Emperor. The complementary color of purple is yellow, the first recorded use of the word purple in the English language was in the year 975 AD. In heraldry, the word purpure is used for purple, in the traditional color wheel used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue. Purple occupies the space closer to red, between crimson and violet, violet is closer to blue, and is usually less saturated than purple. While the two look similar, from the point of view of optics there are important differences. There is no such thing as the wavelength of purple light, monochromatic violet light cannot be produced by the red-green-blue color system, the method used to create colors on a television screen or computer display. This means that when light strikes the eye, the S-cone should be stimulated strongly. The resulting color has the same hue as pure violet, however, one curious psychophysical difference between purple and violet is their appearance with an increase in luminance. Violet, as it brightens, looks more and more blue, the same effect does not happen with purple. This is the result of what is known as the Bezold–Brücke shift, while the scientific definitions of violet and purple are clear, the cultural definitions are more varied. The color known in antiquity as Tyrian purple ranged from crimson to a deep bluish-purple, in France, purple is defined as a dark red, inclined toward violet. The color called purple by the French, pourpre, contains red and half the amount of blue of the color called purple in the United States. In German, this color is sometimes called Purpurrot to avoid confusion, Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC, as early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex
34.
Rhinestone
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A rhinestone, paste or diamante is a diamond simulant originally made from rock crystal but since the 19th century from crystal glass or polymers such as acrylic. Hence, rhinestones are called strass in many European languages, rhinestones can be used as imitations of diamonds, and some manufacturers even manage to partially reproduce the glistening effect real diamonds have in the sun. Typically, crystal rhinestones have been used on costumes, apparel, Crystal rhinestones are produced mainly in Austria by Swarovski and in the Czech Republic by Preciosa and a few other glassworks in northern Bohemia. In the US, these are sometimes called Austrian Crystal, the rhinestone-studded Nudie suit was invented by Nudie Cohn in the 1940s, an Americanization of the matadors suit of lights. Rhinestone material is used as an alternative to sequin. Liberal use of rhinestones was associated with country singers, as well as with singer Elvis Presley. In 1974 David Allan Coe released the album The Mysterious Rhinestone Cowboy, in 1975 Glen Campbell had a top hit with the song Rhinestone Cowboy, and became known as the Rhinestone Cowboy. That song served as the basis for the 1984 movie Rhinestone, starring Sylvester Stallone, gorillaz has also released a single by the name of Rhinestone Eyes. Rhinestones are sized by using the term ss, or stone size, SS is more commonly used for apparel means, while PP is used for jewelry. Hot fix rhinestones, also called heat transfer rhinestones, are used for apparel. The flat bottom of the stone has a backing and when heated melts onto the surface of the clothing
35.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
36.
Social media
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Social media are computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks. User-generated content, such as posts or comments, digital photos or videos. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the media organization. Social media facilitate the development of social networks by connecting a users profile with those of other individuals or groups. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between businesses, organizations, communities and individuals, Social media changes the way individuals and large organizations communicate. These changes are the focus of the field of technoself studies. In America, a reported that 84 percent of adolescents in America have a Facebook account. Over 60% of 13 to 17-year-olds have at least one profile on social media, according to Nielsen, Internet users continue to spend more time on social media sites than on any other type of site. For content contributors, the benefits of participating in social media have gone beyond simply social sharing to building a reputation and bringing in career opportunities and monetary income. Social media differ from paper-based or traditional media such as TV broadcasting in many ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy. Social media operate in a Dialogic transmission system and this is in contrast to traditional media which operates under a monologic transmission model, such as a paper newspaper which is delivered to many subscribers. Some of the most popular social media websites are Baidu Tieba, Facebook, Gab, Google+, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Reddit, Snapchat, Tumblr, Twitter, Viber, WeChat, Weibo, WhatsApp, and YouTube. These social media websites have more than 100,000,000 registered users, observers have noted a range of positive and negative impacts of social media use. At the same time, concerns have been raised about possible links between social media use and depression, and even the issues of cyberbullying, online harassment. Currently, about half of adults have been cyberbullied and of those,20 percent said that they have been cyberbullied on a regular basis. Another survey was carried out among 7th grade students in America which is known as the Precaution Process Adoption Model, according to this study,69 percent of 7th grade students claim to have experienced cyberbullying and they also said that it is worse than face to face bullying. The variety and evolving stand-alone and built-in social media services introduces a challenge of definition, the terminology is unclear, with some referring to social media as social networks. A2015 paper reviewed the prominent literature in the area and identified four commonalities unique to then-current social media services, in 2016, Merriam-Webster defined social media as Forms of electronic communication through which people create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, etc
37.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
38.
Pinterest
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Pinterest is a web and mobile application company that operates a photo sharing website. The site was founded by Ben Silbermann, Paul Sciarra and Evan Sharp, Pinterest CEO Ben Silbermann summarized the company as a catalog of ideas, rather than as a social network, that inspires users to go out and do that thing. Development of Pinterest began in December 2009, and the site launched as a beta in March 2010. The site proceeded to operate in open beta. Pinterest allows users to save images and categorize them on different boards and they can follow other users boards if they have similar tastes. The evolution of Pinterest is based on the shared interest of its users, the most popular categories, as of March 2012, were home, arts and crafts, style/fashion, and food. Silbermann said he wrote to the sites first 5,000 users offering his personal phone number. Pinterests early growth wasnt as Silbermann has expected, four months after being launched, Pinterest only had a few thousand users. Comparing to Instagram which had about 1 million users after that same amount of time, Silbermann and a few programmers operated the site out of a small apartment until the summer of 2011. Nine months after the launch the website had 10,000 users, the launch of an iPhone app in early March 2011, brought in a more than expected number of downloads. The app would later be updated in March 2013, the Pinterest iPad app was launched August 2011. Pinterest Mobile, launched the following month, is a version of the website for non-iPhone users, on August 10,2011, Time magazine listed Pinterest in its 50 Best Websites of 2011 article. In December 2011, the site one of the top 10 largest social network services, according to Hitwise data. The next month, it drove more referral traffic to retailers than LinkedIn, YouTube, the same month, the company was named the best new startup of 2011 by TechCrunch. In January 2012, comScore reported the site had 11.7 million unique users, Pinterests wide reach helped it to achieve an average of 11 million visits each week in December 2011. Most of the users are female. At the South By Southwest Interactive conference in March 2012, Silbermann announced revamped profile pages were being developed, on 23 March 2012, Pinterest unveiled updated terms of service that eliminated the policy that gave it the right to sell its users content. The terms would go into effect April 6, according to Experian Hitwise, the site became the third largest social network in the United States in March 2012, behind Facebook and Twitter
39.
Instagram
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In August 2015, version 7.5 was released for mobile devices, allowing users to upload media captured in any aspect ratio, but not at full size. Users can also apply various digital filters to their images, the service rapidly gained popularity, with over 100 million active users as of April 2012 and over 300 million as of December 2014. Support for the app is available for iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch, Windows 10 devices and Android handsets, while third-party Instagram apps are available for BlackBerry 10, the service was acquired by Facebook in April 2012 for approximately US$1 billion in cash and stock. In 2013, Instagram grew by 23%, while Facebook, as the parent company, Instagram began development in San Francisco, when Systrom and Brazilian Krieger chose to focus their multi-featured HTML5 check-in project, Burbn, on mobile photography. As Krieger reasoned, Burbn became too similar to Foursquare, and for that, Burbn pivoted to become more focused. The word Instagram is a portmanteau of instant camera and telegram, on March 5,2010, Systrom closed a $500,000 seed funding round with Baseline Ventures and Andreessen Horowitz while working on Burbn. Josh Riedel then joined the company as Community Manager, shayne Sweeney joined in November 2010 as an engineer and Jessica Zollman was hired as a Community Evangelist in August 2011. In January 2011, Instagram added hashtags to help users discover both photographs and each other, Instagram encourages users to make tags both specific and relevant, rather than tagging generic words like photo, to make photographs stand out and to attract like-minded Instagram users. In September, version 2.0 went live in the App Store and included new and live filters, instant tilt–shift, high resolution photographs, optional borders, one-click rotation, the deal valued Instagram at around $25 million. On April 3,2012, Instagram was released for Android phones running the 2.2 Froyo version of the OS and that same week, Instagram raised $50 million from venture capitalists for a share of the company, the process valued Instagram at $500 million. Facebook made an offer to purchase Instagram, along with its 13 employees, for approximately $1 billion in cash and stock in April 2012, with a plan to keep the company independently managed. Britains Office of Fair Trading approved the deal on August 14,2012, and on August 22,2012, on September 6,2012, the deal between Instagram and Facebook was officially closed. On April 12,2012, Facebook acquired Instagram for approximately $1 billion in cash, the deal, which was made just prior to Facebooks scheduled IPO, cost about a quarter of Facebooks cash-on-hand, according to figures documented at the end of 2011. Mark Zuckerberg noted that Facebook was committed to building and growing Instagram independently, according to multiple reports, the deal netted Systrom $400 million based on his ownership stake in the business. The exact purchase price was $300 million in cash and 23 million shares of stock, on December 17,2012, Instagram updated its Terms of Service, granting itself the right—starting on January 16, 2013—to sell users photos to third parties without notification or compensation. In January 2013, it was confirmed that Instagram had asked for identification as a form of verification due to unspecified violations. In September 2013, Instagram reaffirmed its commitment to free and open access to its app for users. On October 3,2013, Instagram announced that it would be adding advertising to its platform
40.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
41.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
42.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
43.
Corset
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A corset is a garment worn to hold and train the torso into a desired shape for aesthetic or medical purposes. Both men and women are known to wear corsets, though this item was for years an integral part of womens wardrobes. Since the late 20th century, the industry has borrowed the term corset to refer to tops which, to varying degrees. While these modern corsets and corset tops often feature lacing or boning and generally imitate a historical style of corsets, they have little, if any. Genuine corsets are made by a corsetmaker and are frequently fitted to the individual wearer. The word corset is derived from the Old French word corps and the diminutive of body, the craft of corset construction is known as corsetry, as is the general wearing of them. Someone who makes corsets is a corsetier or corsetière, or sometimes simply a corsetmaker, in 1828, the word corset came into general use in the English language. The word was used in The Ladies Magazine to describe a quilted waistcoat that the French called un corset and it was used to differentiate the lighter corset from the heavier stays of the period. The most common and well-known use of corsets is to slim the body, for women, this most frequently emphasizes a curvy figure by reducing the waist and thereby exaggerating the bust and hips. However, in some periods, corsets have been worn to achieve a tubular straight-up-and-down shape, for men, corsets are more customarily used to slim the figure. An overbust corset encloses the torso, extending from just under the arms toward the hips, an underbust corset begins just under the breasts and extends down toward the hips. A longline corset – either overbust or underbust – extends past the iliac crest, a longline corset is ideal for those who want increased stability, have longer torsos, or want to smooth out their hips. A standard length corset will stop short of the iliac crest and is ideal for those who want increased flexibility or have a shorter torso, some corsets, in very rare instances, reach the knees. A shorter kind of corset that covers the waist area, is called a waist cincher, a corset may also include garters to hold up stockings, alternatively, a separate garter belt may be worn for that. Traditionally, a corset supports the visible dress and spreads the pressure from large dresses, such as the crinoline, at times, a corset cover is used to protect outer clothes from the corset and to smooth the lines of the corset. The original corset cover was worn under the corset to provide a layer between it and the body. Corsets were not worn next to the skin, possibly due to difficulties with laundering these items during the 19th century, as they had steel boning, the corset cover was generally in the form of a light chemise, made from cotton lawn or silk. Modern corset wearers may wear corset liners for many of the same reasons and those who lace their corsets tightly use the liners to prevent burn on their skin from the laces
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