1.
Bugsworth Basin
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Bugsworth Basin is a canal basin at the terminus of the Peak Forest Canal. It is located at Buxworth in the valley of the Black Brook and it was once a busy interchange with the Peak Forest Tramway, for the transport of limestone and burnt lime. Work on the restoration of the derelict Bugsworth Basin, a Scheduled Ancient Monument since 1977, volunteers of the Inland Waterways Protection Society helped by the Waterway Recovery Group and many locals restored parts of this important site over three decades. The IWPS obtained a 50-year lease in 1992, which allowed them to restore, manage, funding for the improvements came from British Waterways, the European Regional Development Fund and a Derelict Land Grant from Derbyshire County Council. The basin was reopened to boats at Easter 1999, and a significant increase in the use of the canal occurred, however, this was the first time that powered boats had used the basin, and the dry-stone walling with clay puddling deteriorated rapidly. Walls collapsed, there were several near breaches, and a breach resulted in the basin closing again in October 1999, British Waterways restored pedestrian access to the basin by carrying out emergency repairs. In 2005 the basin reopened to traffic after a £1.2 million restoration. Work included sealing the bottom of the basin to stop leakage, stonework repair, although restoration and reopening of the basin has been achieved, waterways enthusiasts want to make future improvements and developments. These include an exhibition about Bugsworths history and reopening part of the tramway. Bugsworth Basin was officially reopened on 26 March 2005 when 94 narrowboats attended the opening ceremony, the opening was performed by Tom Levitt, the then member of parliament for High Peak. The basin is situated on the fringe of the Peak District National Park and the purpose of the restoration was to develop this industrial heritage site as a tourist centre
2.
Buxworth
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Buxworth is a village in the High Peak of Derbyshire, England. The area, which was once an important centre for the limestone industry and its pub, the Navigation Inn, was once owned by Coronation Street actress Pat Phoenix. The village lies almost two miles from Whaley Bridge and about eighteen miles southeast of Manchester, as a result of the efforts of these two residents, Bugsworth officially became Buxworth on 16 April 1930. No regard was paid to the ancient origins of the village name, in 1999 the local High Peak Borough Council spent £350 to organise a ballot of the 600 members of the local population. The result was 233 to 139 to keep the name as Buxworth, however, the village is still generally referred to as Buggy by locals. It is used entirely for recreational purposes, the canal never reached Peak Forest but limestone from quarries near Dove Holes was, between 1796 and 1922, transported to the basin by way of the Peak Forest Tramway – a distance of some six miles. Its trackbed can still be discerned in places, a main railway line passes north of the village. Almost as soon as it was built a landslip destroyed the viaduct, some four hundred men made drainage channels and built a new timber viaduct, which served until 1885 when the present one was built. A tunnel to the north of the station collapsed during building, trapping a gang of navvies, in 1903, when the line upgraded to four tracks, the tunnel was opened out into a cutting. There was a station at Buxworth, also originally called Bugsworth, renamed on 4 June 1930 and this closed on 15 September 1958, but the building and parts of the platforms remain to this day. All through the stations existence it has experienced an anomaly in that reconstructing the collapsed viaduct also involved realigning the railway line a little way to the north. The village is split into two by the Whaley Bridge–Chapel-en-le-Frith bypass, constructed in the 1980s, john Cotton, the last man to be hanged in Derby Gaol in 1898, murdered his wife in Bugsworth basin after drinking heavily in the Rose & Crown at Bugsworth. Buxworth cricket team, which was founded around 1848, play in the Derbyshire & Cheshire League, former Buxworth player Alan Hill went on to play for Derbyshire for over fourteen seasons, scoring more than 12,000 first-class runs at an average of 30.89. Buxworth Football Club, nicknamed the Canal Men, play in the division of the Hope Valley Amateur League. Brierley Green adjoins Buxworth and in the early 19th century it was the home of the Clayton family, the eldest son, Joel Henry Clayton, emigrated to the USA to live with an uncle at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Other members of the Clayton family followed him and eventually settled in a valley at the foot of Mount Diablo, some 30 miles from San Francisco. Buxworth and Clayton are now twinned, Navigation Inn website Parish council website
3.
Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
4.
Boat
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A boat is a watercraft of a large range of sizes designed to float, plane, work or travel on water. Small boats are found on inland waterways or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment, in naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel. Another less restrictive definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water, some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters 1,000 feet long on the Great Lakes are called oreboats. For reasons of tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than ships, regardless of their size. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their size, shape. Boats have a variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose. Canoe-type boats have used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation. Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to local conditions. Pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats, house boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo to and from large ships, lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by power, wind power and motor power. Dugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists, the earliest boats are thought to have been logboats, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7, 000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe and this canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered, rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years. A7, 000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait, boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean. Boats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia, evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites. Uru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala and this type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes
5.
History of the British canal system
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The UK was the first country to acquire a nationwide canal network. The canal system grew rapidly at first, and became an almost completely connected network covering the South, Midlands, there were canals in Scotland, but they were not connected to the English canals or, generally, to each other. Some 29 river navigation improvements took place in the 16th and 17th centuries starting with the Thames locks, the 19th century saw some major new canals such as the Caledonian Canal and the Manchester Ship Canal. After this, the less successful canals failed quickly, the 20th century brought competition from road haulage, and only the strongest canals survived until the Second World War. After the war, there was a decline in trade on all the remaining canals. In the 1960s the infant canal leisure industry was only just sufficient to prevent the closure of the remaining canals, from the 1970s, increasing numbers of closed canals were restored by enthusiast volunteers. Restoration projects by volunteer-led groups continue, there is now a substantial network of interconnecting, fully navigable canals across the country. See Roman Britain and list of Roman canals, a spate of building projects, such as castles, monasteries and churches, led to the improvement of rivers for the transportation of building materials. Various Acts of Parliament were passed regulating transportation of goods, tolls and these included the rivers Severn, Witham, Trent and Yorkshire Ouse. The first Act for navigational improvement in England was in 1425, for improvement of the river Lea, in the post-medieval period, some natural waterways were canalised or improved for boat traffic in the 16th century. The transport system that existed before the canals were built consisted of shipping and horses. There was also an amount of traffic carried along navigable rivers. In the 17th century, as early industry started to expand, the restrictions of coastal shipping and river transport were obvious, and horses and carts could only carry one or two tons of cargo at a time. The poor state of most of the roads meant that they could often become unusable after heavy rain, because of the small loads that could be carried, supplies of essential commodities such as coal and iron ore were limited, and this kept prices high and restricted economic growth. One horse-drawn canal barge could carry about thirty tonnes at a time, faster than road transport, some 29 river navigation improvements took place in the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1635 Sir Richard Weston was appointed to develop the River Wey Navigation, in 1670 the Stamford Canal opened, indistinguishable from 18th century examples with a dedicated cut and double-door locks. In 1699 legislation was passed to permit the Aire & Calder Navigation which was opened 1703, subsequently, the Kennet built by John Hore opened in 1723, the Mersey and Irwell opened in 1725, and the Bristol Avon in 1727. The net effect of these was to bring most of England, with the exceptions of Birmingham and Staffordshire
6.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
7.
Towpath
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A towpath is a road or trail on the bank of a river, canal, or other inland waterway. The purpose of a towpath is to allow a vehicle, beasts of burden, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat. This mode of transport was common where sailing was impractical due to tunnels and bridges, unfavourable winds, after the Industrial Revolution, towing became obsolete when engines were fitted on boats and when railway transportation superseded the slow towing method. Since then, many of these towpaths have been converted to multi-use trails and they are still named towpaths — although they are now only occasionally used for the purpose of towing boats. As river banks were privately owned, such teams worked their way along the river banks as best they could. On British rivers such as the River Severn, the situation was improved by the creation of towing path companies in the late 1700s. The companies built towing paths along the banks of the river and they were not universally popular, however, as tolls were charged for their use, to recoup the capital cost, and this was resented on rivers where barge traffic had previously been free. With the advent of canals, most of them were constructed with towpaths suitable for horses. Many rivers were improved by artificial cuts, and this gave an opportunity to construct a towing path at the same time. Even so, the River Don Navigation was improved from Tinsley to Rotherham in 1751, on the River Avon between Stratford-upon-Avon and Tewkesbury, a towpath was never provided, and bow-hauling continued until the 1860s, when steam tugs were introduced. While towing paths were most convenient when they stayed on one side of a canal, there were occasions where it had to change sides and this had the benefit that the rope did not have to be detached while the transfer took place. The rope passed through a gap at the centre of the bridge between its two halves. One problem with the horse towing path where it passed under a bridge was abrasion of the rope on the bridge arch. This resulted in deep grooves being cut in the fabric of the bridge, and in many cases and these too soon developed deep grooves, but could be more easily replaced than the stonework of the bridge. In more recent times, this has provided difficulties for walkers, where an attractive river-side walk cannot be followed because the towpath changes sides, not all haulage was by horses, and an experiment was carried out on the Middlewich Branch of the Shropshire Union Canal in 1888. The locomotive ran on 18 in gauge tracks, and was similar to Pet and it pulled trains of two and four boats at 7 mph, and experiments were also tried with eight boats. The mules which assist ships through the locks of the Panama Canal are an example of the concept. Towpaths are popular with cyclists and walkers, and some are suitable for equestrians, in snowy winters they are popular in the USA with cross-country skiers and snowmobile users
8.
Canal & River Trust
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The Canal & River Trust is a charitable trust set up to manage the navigable waterways of England and Wales. Transfer of ownership from British Waterways, took place on 2 July 2012 and those navigable inland waterways currently managed by the Environment Agency were scheduled for transfer to the trust in 2015 but this has been postponed indefinitely. The Canal & River Trust was born of the managerial and financial short-comings of its predecessor, British Waterways as a statutory corporation was regulated latterly by the 1995 British Waterways Act and financed by government but deemed to be run inefficiently and wastefully. It came under increasing scrutiny of a government and, when its budget deficit hit £30m in 2009 British Waterways was tasked with producing a workable solution. BW began to look at devolving to a charitable trust, a concept which gained momentum when the 2010 Budget, in August 2009, BW was listed on a leaked list of quangos to be abolished. BWs future demotion was sealed in October 2010, the BW board decided that a volunteering element would be desirable, an operating environment seen to be fit for purpose necessary and a secure income stream essential. These elements were most likely to be enabled by re-invention of BW as a charitable trust. In October 2011, BW announced a name and logo for a charitable trust which would inherit its English and Welsh operations, – the Canal & River Trust for England, C&RT received charitable status in April and received parliamentary approval in June. The change, originally set for 1 April 2012, was later delayed, in July 2012 all BW assets, liabilities and responsibilities in England and Wales were transferred to the Canal & River Trust, launched officially on 12 July 2012. BWML, a company limited by guarantee, is wholly owned by the Canal & River Trust. It involves retail sales, moorings and services and also acts as a front in the issue of e. g. short-term licences. In Scotland British Waterways continues to operate as a public corporation under the trading name Scottish Canals. The trust is headed by a board of 10 trustees with a Chairman, the trust has a 35-member council which referees the business of the trust and whose construction is supposed to ensure that all waterways users, in all areas, have a representative voice. Finally, a management board of seven directors are collectively concerned with the running of the trust. The Canal & River Trust has a council of 35 members. Members of the first council included a mix of nominated and elected individuals, council advises on shaping policy, raising and debating issues, providing guidance, perspective and a sounding board for the trustees. For each of the trust’s waterway areas there is a regional partnership drawn from local communities, in addition an all-Wales partnership will consider issues relating to Welsh waterways and a separate partnership exists for the trusts museums and attractions. The trustees are legally responsible for ensuring that the trust meets its charitable objectives, trustees are the unpaid board directors of the trust, they take collective decisions on policy and overarching strategy and provide oversight of the executive directors
9.
Tiller
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A tiller or till is a lever attached to a rudder post or rudder stock of a boat that provides leverage in the form of torque for the helmsman to turn the rudder. The tiller can be used by the helmsman directly pulling or pushing it, rapid or excessive movement of the tiller results in an increase in drag and will result in braking or slowing the boat. In steering a boat, the tiller is moved in the direction opposite of which the bow of the boat is to move. If the tiller is moved to side, the bow will turn to starboard. If the tiller is moved to starboard, the bow will turn port, sailing students often learn the alliterative phrase Tiller Towards Trouble to remind them of how to steer. Since the tiller is forward of the pivot point, and the rudder aft of it. For example, to turn a ship to port, the helmsman would be given the order starboard helm or x degrees starboard, the ships tiller was then moved to starboard, turning the rudder to the vessels port side, producing a turn to port. The opposite convention applied in France, but Austria and Italy kept to the English system, there was no standardisation in vessels from Scandinavian countries, where the practice varied from ship to ship. Most French vessels with steering wheels had their steering chains reversed, when large steamships appeared in the late 19th century with telemotors hydraulically connecting the wheel on the bridge to the steering gear at the stern, the practice continued. However the helmsman was now no longer controlling the tiller. Tiller Orders remained however, although many maritime nations had abandoned the convention by the end of the 19th century, Britain retained it until 1933, during the transition period the wording of the order was changed, to specify Wheel to starboard or Wheel to port. A well-known and often-depicted example occurred on the RMS Titanic in 1912 just before she collided with an iceberg. When the iceberg appeared directly in front of the ship, her officer-of-the-watch, First Officer William Murdoch and he ordered Hard-a-Starboard, which was a Tiller Order directing the helmsman to turn the wheel to port as far as it would go. The Titanics steering gear then pushed the tiller toward the side of the ship, swinging the rudder over to port. These actions are portrayed in the 1997 film of the disaster. Although frequently described as an error, the order was given, however, according to the granddaughter of the highest-ranking officer to survive the sinking, Second Officer Charles Lightoller, the order was not correctly executed. Quartermaster Hitchins, who had trained under Rudder Orders, mistakenly turned the wheel to starboard. It took two minutes to recognise and correct the error, by time it was too late to avoid collision with the iceberg
10.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
11.
Barge
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A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. Some barges are not self-propelled and must be towed or pushed by towboats, Barge is attested from 1300, from Old French barge, from Vulgar Latin barga. The word originally could refer to any small boat, the modern meaning arose around 1480, bark small ship is attested from 1420, from Old French barque, from Vulgar Latin barca. The more precise meaning three-masted ship arose in the 17th century, both are probably derived from the Latin barica, from Greek, βάρις, translit. Egyptian boat, from Coptic, ⲃⲁⲁⲣⲉ bāri small boat, hieroglyphic Egyptian, by extension, the term embark literally means to board the kind of boat called a barque. The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying I wouldnt touch that with a barge pole. On the British canal system, the barge is used to describe a boat wider than a narrowboat. In the United States, deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman or the mate, the captain and pilot steer the towboat, which pushes one or more barges held together with rigging, collectively called the tow. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the river system or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line-haul boats, poles are used on barges to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These are often called pike poles, barges are used today for low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low. Barges are also used for heavy or bulky items, a typical American barge measures 195 by 35 feet. The most common European barge measures 76.5 by 11.4 metres, as an example, on June 26,2006, a 565-short-ton catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled onsite, of the reactors 700-mile journey, only about 40 miles were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery. Canal barges are made for the particular canal in which they will operate. Many barges, primarily Dutch barges, which were designed for carrying cargo along the canals of Europe, are no longer large enough to compete in this industry with larger newer vessels. Many of these barges have been renovated and are now used as hotel barges carrying holidaymakers along the same canals on which they once carried grain or coal. This holds true today, for areas of the world
12.
Longboat
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In the days of sailing ships, a vessel would carry several ships boats for various uses. One would be a longboat, a boat to be rowed by eight or ten oarsmen. The longboat was double banked, its rowing benches were designed to accommodate two men each pulling an oar on opposite sides, other boats sometimes embarked on a sailing ship included the cutter, whaleboat, gig, jolly boat, launch, dinghy, and punt. Unlike the dinghy or the cutter, the longboat would have fairly fine lines aft to permit its use in steep waves such as surf or wind against tide where need be, like other ships boats, the longboat could be rigged for sailing but was primarily a pulling boat. It had the arrangement in common with the cutter. This was possible as it had a similar to a cutters but broader than that of a gig. The longboat was generally more seaworthy than the cutter, which had a fuller stern for such load-carrying work as laying out an anchor, in a seaway or surf therefore, the cutter was more prone to broaching. The Oxford English Dictionary notes uses of the word from 1515 to 1867, in later years, particularly in the Royal Navy, the longboat tended to be replaced by the whaler. The cutter was still in use in the 1950s but had largely replaced by the 32 foot and 25 foot motor cutters. In some places such as Tristan da Cunha and Pitcairn Island, the Tristan da Cunha boats are single banked. The French link is to chaloupe, which in context is a cutter. Longboat racing is a sport in Brazil, Laos and Thailand, archived from the original on 2011-06-29
13.
Ship prefix
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A ship prefix is a combination of letters, usually abbreviations, used in front of the name of a civilian or naval ship. Prefixes for civilian vessels may either identify the type of propulsion, such as PS for paddle steamer, or purpose, civilian prefixes are often used inconsistently, and frequently not at all. Sometimes a slash is used to separate the letters, as in M/S, Naval prefixes came into use as abbreviations for longer titles, such as His/Her Majestys Ship in the British Royal Navy, abbreviated H. M. S. and then HMS. Earlier uses often included the type of vessel, as for instance U. S. F, today the common practice is to use a single prefix for all warships of a nations navy, and other prefixes for auxiliaries and ships of allied services, such as coast guards. The use of ship prefixes is not universal, in neither the German Kriegsmarine nor the Imperial Japanese Navy used ship prefixes. Some English-language writers use prefixes like DKM and HIJMS or IJN for consistency with HMS, other writers follow the practice of the navy and omit any prefix. From the 20th century onwards, most navies identify ships by hull numbers —identification codes typically painted on the side of the ship. Each navy has its own system, the United States Navy uses hull classification symbols, and the Royal Navy and other navies of Europe and these tables list both current and historical prefixes known to have been used. These prefixes are used for merchant vessels of any nationality. The designations for United Kingdom ships applied at the time of the British Empire, before the establishment of separate navies for the Dominions. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, HNLMS is the prefix in English, Hr. Ms. should preferably not be used in English-language documents, nevertheless it is often seen on the World Wide Web. Until the moment a Dutch naval ship officially enters active service in the fleet, since King Willem-Alexander succeeded Queen Beatrix on 30 April 2013, Hr. Ms. is replaced by Zr. Ms. In Australia, the prefix NUSHIP is used to ships that have yet to be commissioned into the fleet. In the United States, all other than USS, USNS, USNV. USRC was replaced by USCGC when the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the United States Lifesaving Service to become the United States Coast Guard in 1915. USLHT also was replaced by USCGC when the United States Lighthouse Service became a part of the U. S. Coast Guard in 1939. USC&GS was replaced by NOAAS when the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey merged with other U. S. Government scientific agencies to form the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in 1970. A United States Navy ship that is not in active commission does not hold the title of United States Ship with simply the name without prefix used before and after commissioned service
14.
Lock (water navigation)
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A lock is a device used for raising and lowering boats, ships and other watercraft between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal waterways. Locks are used to make a more easily navigable, or to allow a canal to cross land that is not level. Later canals used more and larger locks to allow a direct route to be taken. Since 2016 the largest lock worldwide is the Kieldrecht Lock in the Port of Antwerp, a pound lock is a type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on canals and rivers. A pound lock has a chamber with gates at both ends that control the level of water in the pound, in contrast, an earlier design with a single gate was known as a flash lock. Pound locks were first used in medieval China during the Song Dynasty, having been pioneered by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue in 984. The gates were hanging gates, when they were closed the water accumulated like a tide until the level was reached. The water level could differ by 4 feet or 5 feet at each lock, in medieval Europe a sort of pound lock was built in 1373 at Vreeswijk, Netherlands. This pound lock serviced many ships at once in a large basin, yet the first true pound lock was built in 1396 at Damme near Bruges, Belgium. A famous civil engineer of pound locks in Europe was the Italian Bertola da Novate, who constructed 18 of them on the Naviglio di Bereguardo between the years 1452 and 1458. When a stretch of river is navigable, a lock is sometimes required to bypass an obstruction such as a rapid, dam. In large scale river navigation improvements, weirs and locks are used together, a river improved by these means is often called a Waterway or River Navigation. Sometimes a river is made entirely non-tidal by constructing a sea lock directly into the estuary, in more advanced river navigations, more locks are required. Where a longer cut bypasses a stretch of river, the upstream end of the cut will often be protected by a flood lock. The longer the cut, the greater the difference in level between start and end of the cut, so that a very long cut will need additional locks along its length. At this point, the cut is, in effect, a canal, Early completely artificial canals, across fairly flat countryside, would get round a small hill or depression by simply detouring around it. However, locks continued to be built to supplement these solutions, all pound locks have three elements, A watertight chamber connecting the upper and lower canals, and large enough to enclose one or more boats. The position of the chamber is fixed, but its level can vary
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Subsidence
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Subsidence is the motion of a surface as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea level. The opposite of subsidence is uplift, which results in an increase in elevation, ground subsidence is of concern to geologists, geotechnical engineers and surveyors. Subsidence frequently causes problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface causes the creation of voids. If the roof of these voids becomes too weak, it can collapse and this type of subsidence can result in sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep. Several types of mining, and specifically methods which intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse will result in surface subsidence. Mining-induced subsidence is relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, mining-induced subsidence is nearly always very localized to the surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside. Where mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders and this is accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning, the taking of preventive measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining. If natural gas is extracted from a gas field the initial pressure in the field will drop over the years. The gas pressure also supports the soil layers above the field, if the pressure drops, the soil pressure increases and this leads to subsidence at the ground level. Since exploitation of the Slochteren gas field started in the late 1960s the ground level over a 250 km² area has dropped by a current maximum of 30 cm, the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported immediate subsidence caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. In Northern Japan, subsidence of 0.50 m was observed on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Miyako, Tōhoku, while Rikuzentakata, in the south at Sōma, Fukushima,0.29 m was observed. The maximum amount of subsidence was 1.2 m, coupled with horizontal diastrophism of up to 5.3 m on the Oshika Peninsula in Miyagi Prefecture, the habitation of lowlands, such as coastal or delta plains, requires drainage. The resulting aeration of the leads to the oxidation of its organic components, such as peat. This applies especially when water levels are periodically adapted to subsidence, in order to maintain desired unsaturated zone depths. In addition to this, drained soils consolidate as a result of increased effective stress, in this way, land subsidence has the potential of becoming self-perpetuating, having rates up to 5 cm/yr. Water management used to be tuned primarily to such as crop optimisation but, to varying extents. When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by geological faulting in the brittle crust, or by flow in the hotter. Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the wall of normal faults
16.
Salterhebble
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Salterhebble is an area of Halifax, a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale, in West Yorkshire, England. The town falls within the Skircoat ward of Calderdale Council, Salterhebble is located where the Hebble Brook flows into the River Calder. It is on the route into Halifax from Huddersfield and Brighouse. Salterhebble is the home of Calderdale Royal Hospital, a school, a fast food restaurant, some former pubs in the village included The Punch Bowl, The Falcon and The Stafford Arms. The place-name Salterhebble means the salt-sellers foot-bridge, Calderdale Royal Hospital is located in Salterhebble. It has specialist departments and Calderdales A&E department and the Calderdale Birth Centre, the hospital was built and opened in 2001, on the site of the original Halifax General Hospital, following the merger with the Royal Halifax Infirmary. The Calder and Hebble Navigation has a branch at Salterhebble. This is officially called the Halifax Arm, but is called the Salterhebble Arm. The branch terminates at Salterhebble Basin, jesse Ramsden - Eighteenth-century scientific instrument-maker. The main road in Salterhebble is the A629 Huddesfield Road/Salterhebble Hill
17.
Calder and Hebble Navigation
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The Calder and Hebble Navigation is a Broad inland waterway in West Yorkshire, England, which has remained navigable since it was opened. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Aire and Calder Navigation had made the River Calder navigable as far upstream as Wakefield, the aim of the Calder and Hebble Navigation was to extend navigation west from Wakefield to Sowerby Bridge near Halifax. The first attempt to obtain an Act of Parliament was made in 1740, as a result of a petition by the people of Halifax, Ripponden and Elland. It included the construction of 24 locks,21 on the Calder, the second attempt followed a meeting of the Union Club in Halifax on 2 September 1756, which considered how to improve the import of wool and corn to the town. A committee raising subscriptions for the project in Rochdale insisted that the plans should be amended to include an extension to Sowerby Bridge, despite opposition from the Halifax committee. An Act was obtained on 9 June 1758, for this route, and created Commissioners. Any nine of the Commissioners could make decisions, construction started in November 1759, with Smeaton acting as engineer. By November 1764, the navigation was open as far as Brighouse, the second option gained most support, and a new committee was set up, who asked James Brindley to take over from Smeaton in 1765. The work was completed by 1767, but serious floods in October caused some damage. Brindley appears to have left by mid-1766, and the Commissioners re-appointed Smeaton in 1768, banks were repaired and floodgates built at the start of some of the cuts. The work was just complete when a flood caused so much damage that the only option was to close the navigation again. By this time, £64,000 had been spent on the scheme, of which £8,100 had come from tolls and this consisted of all of the 81 people who had loaned money to the original scheme, and these loans were converted into £100 shares. Additional shares could be issued, and the Company could borrow up to £20,000, before the Act, the scheme had been known as the Calder Navigation or Upper Calder Navigation, and this was the first use of the Calder and Hebble title. The Act was the first navigation act to include a clause which limited dividends, construction of the initial phase was finished in 1770, at a total cost of around £75,000. There were initial problems with the supply to the Sowerby Bridge pound. He suggested a tunnel from Hollins Mill, similar to those used for draining collieries, construction began in June 1772, and was completed in March 1794. A new cut at Brighouse was added in 1780, while the two locks at Salterhebble and the single lock at Brooksmouth were replaced at Smeatons suggestion by three new locks in 1782. The Navigation prospered, with dividends rising steadily from 5 per cent in 1771 to 13 per cent in 1792, under the terms of the Act of Parliament, tolls were reduced when the dividend exceeded 10 per cent, and the first such reduction occurred in 1791
18.
Wolverhampton
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Wolverhampton is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 249,470, the demonym for people from the city is Wulfrunian. Historically part of Staffordshire, the city is named after Wulfrun, prior to the Norman Conquest, the areas name appears only as variants of Heantune or Hamtun, the prefix Wulfrun or similar appearing in 1070 and thereafter. Alternatively, the city may have earned its name from Wulfereēantūn after the Mercian King. The variation Wolveren Hampton is seen in records, e. g. in 1381. The city grew initially as a market town specialising in the woollen trade, in the Industrial Revolution, it became a major centre for coal mining, steel production, lock making and the manufacture of cars and motorcycles. The economy of the city is based on engineering, including a large aerospace industry. A local tradition states that King Wulfhere of Mercia founded an abbey of St Mary at Wolverhampton in 659, the Mercians and West Saxons claimed a decisive victory and the field of Woden is recognised by numerous place names in Wednesfield. In 985, King Ethelred the Unready granted lands at a place referred to as Heantun to Lady Wulfrun by royal charter and this became the site for the current St. Peters Church. A statue of Lady Wulfrun, sculpted by Sir Charles Wheeler, Wolverhampton is recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086 as being in the Hundred of Seisdon and the county of Staffordshire. The lords of the manor are listed as the canons of St Mary, with the tenant-in-chief being Samson, Wolverhampton at this date is a large settlement of fifty households. In 1179, there is mention of a market held in the town and this charter for a weekly market held on a Wednesday was eventually granted on 4 February 1258 by Henry III. From the 16th century onwards, Wolverhampton became home to a number of industries including lock and key making and iron. Wolverhampton suffered two Great Fires, the first in April 1590, and the second in September 1696, both fires started in todays Salop Street. The first fire lasted for five days and left nearly 700 people homeless and this second fire led to the purchase of the first fire engine within the city in September 1703. There is also evidence that Wolverhampton may have been the location of the first working Newcomen Steam Engine in 1712. In Victorian times, Wolverhampton grew to be a town mainly due to the huge amount of industry that occurred as a result of the abundance of coal. The remains of this wealth can be seen in houses such as Wightwick Manor and The Mount
19.
Packet trade
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Packet trade generally refers to any regularly scheduled cargo, passenger and mail trade conducted by ship. The ships are called packet boats as their function was to carry mail. A packet ship was originally a vessel employed to carry post office mail packets to and from British embassies, colonies, in sea transport, a packet service is a regular, scheduled service, carrying freight and passengers. The ships used for service are called packet ships or packet boats. The seamen are called packetmen, and the business is called packet trade, Packet can mean a small parcel but, originally meant a parcel of important correspondence or valuable items, for urgent delivery. The French-language term paquebot derives from the English term packet boat and this sense became extended to mean any regularly scheduled ship, carrying passengers, as in packet trade. The word packet is frequently modified by the destination, e. g. Sydney packet, or by motive force, many states, civilisations and organisations set up mail systems for high value goods, especially confidential correspondence and bullion. In times of war, regular shipments ran the gauntlet of warships and privateers, in 1829, the pirate Mansel Alcantra captured the packet Topaz and murdered her crew after looting her. In Britain, the Post Office Packet Service used small, fast and this service operated from Tudor times until 1823, when the Admiralty assumed the responsibility for running the service. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars the packet ships were targets for privateers, although some were captured, others managed to fight back. In the 1850s the Post Office moved to using contract carriers, the European states with empires too developed mail systems for overseas transport of packets. Eventually, however, commercial steam liners began to work regular international schedules and received contracts from governments to carry mail as well as passengers and their services retained the name Packet. During the 18th century ships carrying cargo, passengers and mail between Europe and America would sail only when they were full, starting in the early 19th century, as trade with America became more common, schedule regularity became a priority. In 1818, ships of the Black Ball line began regularly scheduled trips between Britain and the United States and these packet ships were infamous for keeping to their disciplined schedules. This often involved harsh treatment of seamen and earned the ships the nickname, because of the influence of whaling and several local droughts, there was substantial migration from Cape Verde to America, most notably to New Bedford, Massachusetts. This migration built strong ties between the two locations, a strong packet trade between New England and Cape Verde developed during the early-to-mid-19th century. Vendors in those countries can sell directly to American customers while enjoying delivery rates that are often less even than domestic US vendors would pay to deliver the same parcel. The USPS has complained of inability to negotiate prices with the Chinese postal services
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
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Household Words
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Household Words was an English weekly magazine edited by Charles Dickens in the 1850s. It took its name from the line in Shakespeares Henry V, during the planning stages, titles originally considered by Dickens included The Robin, The Household Voice, The Comrade, The Lever, and The Highway of Life. Household Words was published every Saturday from March 1850 to May 1859, each number cost a mere tuppence, thereby ensuring a wide readership. Theoretically, the paper championed the cause of the poor and working classes, only the name of Dickens, the journals conductor, appeared, articles were unsigned and, in spite of its regularly featuring an advertiser, the paper was unillustrated. To boost slumping sales Dickens serialised his own novel, Hard Times and that Dickens owned half of the company and his agents, John Forster and William Henry Wills, owned a further quarter of it was insurance that the author would have a free hand in the paper. Wills was also appointed editor and, in December 1849, Dickenss acquaintance, writer. The journal contained a mixture of fiction and nonfiction, a large amount of the non-fiction dealt with the social issues of the time. These included, The Seven Poor Travellers in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, Eliza Lynn Linton, Adelaide Anne Procter, the Holly Tree Inn in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, William Howitt, Harriet Parr, and Adelaide Anne Procter. The Wreck of the Golden Mary in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald, Adelaide Anne Procter, Harriet Parr, the Frozen Deep, a play written with Wilkie Collins and initially performed in the converted schoolroom of Dickens London residence, Tavistock House. Other contributors to Household Words included author James Payn, a complete key to who wrote what and for how much in Household Words was compiled in 1973 by Anne Lohrli, using an analysis of the office account book maintained by Dickens subeditor, W. H. Wills. Household Words, A Weekly Journal 1850–1859, Toronto, University of Toronto Press,1973. See also Household Words, Faculty of English Library, Cambridge University, Dickens Journals Online, an online edition of Dickenss journals, Household Words and All the Year Round
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Flyboat
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Richard the Lionheart developed a fleet of war galleys that was referred to as flyboats in the twelfth century. They were of Viking longship design made for speed and riverine warfare and they were tested in a port at Les Andelys under the protection of his new castle there. These boats were on the Seine River and from the towns of Portsmouth to Rouen, the name flyboat is also derived from Dutch vlieboot, a boat with a shallow enough draught to be able to navigate a shallow vlie or river estuary, such as the Vlie. Armed flyboats were used by the forces of the Dutch rebels. The type resembled a small carrack and had two or at most three masts, a board and a dozen iron cannons. Small, inexpensive and manoeuvrable, it was ideal for privateering activities in the European coastal waters, the Dutch navy, and their enemies, the Dunkirkers, at first extensively employed flyboats. However civilian Dutch vlieboten continued to be built and evolved during the 18th century into much larger cromsters, at the same time the term flyboat was used for a swift fishing vessel on the Atlantic. In the 19th century the term was used in England for canal boats, an express boat service was started on the Glasgow, Paisley and Ardrossan Canal in 1830. One of their employees, William Houston, was guiding an empty horse-drawn boat when the horse took fright and bolted. Expecting the horse soon to tire, he hung on, but was amazed when the boat rose up onto its bow wave, mr Houston was canny enough to realise the potential and soon travellers were being hauled along the canals at high speed in an early example of planing. This canal—11 miles without locks into the centre of Glasgow—was an ideal situation for this venture. It was found once the boat was planing, the wash that damaged the canal banks largely disappeared. Services were established on the Forth and Clyde and on the Shropshire Union Canal flyboats with a horse pulled 22 ton loads at 10 mph as late as 1847. They were also called swift boats or gig boats, occurring a year after the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, this development sparked enormous interest in the canal world. Books were published by Sir William Fairburn and Sir John Benjamin Macneill, the latter records experiments on the Paddington Canal in London attended by Thomas Telford and Charles Babbage. They hoped that steamboats running on the canals would be able to attain high speeds. Flyboats pulled by one or more horses continued to be used in Britain and Ireland for a number of years and even in America, a fly-boat is also a narrowboat which works all day and all night on the English canal system without mooring. They appeared in the 1790s and later attempted to emulate the railways by running to timetables so that deliveries could be assured, Lionheart and Lackland, King Richard, King John and the Wars of Conquest
23.
Macclesfield Canal
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The Macclesfield Canal is a canal in east Cheshire, England, one of the six that make up the Cheshire Ring. The canal runs 26 miles from Marple Junction at Marple, where it joins the Upper Peak Forest Canal,16 miles, southwards, the canal was initially proposed at a public meeting held on 22 September 1824 at the Macclesfield Arms in Macclesfield. Unlike earlier canals, the spectre of the arrival of the railways was already in sight, by the time the canal gained its Act of Parliament in 1826, the estimated cost of building the canal was put at £295,000. The authorised share capital was £300,000, and the company had powers to borrow a further £100,000, construction of the canal began at Bollington on 4 December 1826, with the ceremonial cutting of the first sod, and progressed steadily. By the autumn of 1829, when engineer Thomas Telford inspected the works, the canal was a success, and in its first full year of operation the income was over £6,000. By 1838, the company was looking to expansion, and sought to build a branch from Buglawton to Biddulph. In the same year, the joined forces with the Trent. As with so many UK canals, the arrival of the led to the decline of the canal. By 1845, the spectre of railway competition was looming large, the company, seeing that engaging in head to head competition with the railways, was doomed to failure, opened negotiations with the North Staffordshire Railway in October 1845. The proposals from that company were rejected by the shareholders, by June 1846, however, the company had negotiated an alternative arrangement with the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway. Under the terms of agreement, the railway company took out a perpetual lease of the canal at an annual rate of £2 10s per share. On 29 February 1912, the canal burst its banks at Kerridge, finally, in 1922, under grouping, the canal passed into the ownership of the London and North Eastern Railway. After World War II, in common with other canals. The canal is home to Britains oldest canal cruising club, the North Cheshire Cruising Club and it was formally founded in 1943 although it has pre-war origins. The cruising club played an important role in preventing the canal from closing, the Hall Green Branch, whilst originally built by the Trent & Mersey Canal Company, is often considered as part of the Macclesfield Canal in modern maps and guidebooks. Hall Green Stop Lock survives, with its rise and fall of about a foot, this was to prevent the Trent & Mersey losing water to the Macclesfield in the event of a breach in the latter. There was also a Stop Lock at Marple, although both canals were built to the level, and the lock was provided only for cases where water shortages might have resulted in a temporary difference. The lock has long been de-gated, having become unnecessary once the Macclesfield, the site of the lock remains as a narrows just in front of the junction bridge, as seen in the accompanying picture, overhung by a loading canopy
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Cheshire
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Cheshire is a county in North West England, bordering Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south and Wales to the west. Cheshires county town is Chester, the largest town is Warrington, other major towns include Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Macclesfield, Northwich, Runcorn, Widnes, Wilmslow, and Winsford. The county covers 905 square miles and has a population of around 1 million and it is mostly rural, with a number of small towns and villages supporting the agricultural and other industries which produce Cheshire cheese, salt, chemicals and silk. Cheshires name was derived from an early name for Chester. Although the name first appears in 980, it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920, in the Domesday Book, Chester was recorded as having the name Cestrescir, derived from the name for Chester at the time. A series of changes occurred as English itself changed, together with some simplifications and elision, resulted in the name Cheshire. Because of the close links with the land bordering Cheshire to the west. The Domesday Book records Cheshire as having two complete Hundreds that later became the part of Flintshire. Additionally, another portion of the Duddestan Hundred later became known as Maelor Saesneg when it was transferred to North Wales. For this and other reasons, the Welsh name for Cheshire is sometimes used within Wales, after the Norman conquest of 1066 by William I, dissent and resistance continued for many years after the invasion. In 1069 local resistance in Cheshire was finally put down using draconian measures as part of the Harrying of the North, the ferocity of the campaign against the English populace was enough to end all future resistance. Examples were made of major landowners such as Earl Edwin of Mercia, William I made Cheshire a county palatine and gave Gerbod the Fleming the new title of Earl of Chester. When Gerbod returned to Normandy in about 1070, the king used his absence to declare the earldom forfeit, due to Cheshires strategic location on Welsh Marches, the Earl had complete autonomous powers to rule on behalf of the king in the county palatine. Cheshire in the Domesday Book is recorded as a larger county than it is today. It included two hundreds, Atiscross and Exestan, that became part of North Wales. At the time of the Domesday Book, it included as part of Duddestan Hundred the area of land later known as English Maelor in Wales. The area between the Mersey and Ribble formed part of the returns for Cheshire, an example is the barony of Halton. One of Hugh dAvranches barons has been identified as Robert Nicholls, Baron of Halton, in 1182 the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of Lancashire, thus resolving any uncertainty about the county in which the land Inter Ripam et Mersam was
25.
Grand Union Canal
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The Grand Union Canal in England is part of the British canal system. Its main line starts in London and ends in Birmingham, stretching for 137 miles with 166 locks and it has arms to places including Leicester, Slough, Aylesbury, Wendover and Northampton. Tolls had been reduced to compete with the railways, but there was scope for further reduction. The Regents Canal and the Grand Junction Canal agreed that amalgamation and modernisation were the way to remain competitive. The Grand Union Canal in its current form came into being on 1 January 1929 and it was formed from the amalgamation of several different canals, and at 286. Although the Grand Union intended to buy the Oxford Canal and Coventry Canal, however, the onward sections from Braunston to Birmingham had been built as narrow canals – that is, the locks could accommodate only a single narrowboat. An Act of Parliament of 1931 was passed authorising a key part of the scheme of the Grand Union. The narrow locks between Napton and Camp Hill Top Lock in Birmingham were rebuilt to take widebeam boats or barges up to 12 feet 6 inches in beam, or two narrowboats. Lock works were completed in 1934 when the Duke of Kent opened the new locks at Hatton. However, these improvements to depth and width were never carried out between Braunston and London. Camp Hill Locks in Birmingham were not widened, as it would have very expensive and of little point. A new basin and warehouse were constructed at Tyseley, above Camp Hill, the three sections between Norton junction and the River Trent are mixed in size. From Norton to Foxton, the route is a narrow canal, from below Foxton to Leicester it is a wide canal. From Leicester to the Trent, the route is effectively the River Soar, another Act of 1931 authorised the widening of the locks at Watford and Foxton, but with Government grants for this section not forthcoming, the work was not carried out. The Grand Union Canal was nationalised in 1948, control transferring to the British Transport Commission, commercial traffic continued to decline, effectively ceasing in the 1970s, though lime juice was carried from Brentford to Boxmoor until 1981, and aggregates on the River Soar until 1996. However, leisure traffic took over, and the canal is now as busy as it ever was, with leisure boating complemented by fishing, towpath walking and gongoozling. One end of the Grand Union Canal is at Brentford on the River Thames in west London, the locks on the canal are numbered south from Braunston, and Thames Lock is lock number 101. From the Thames Lock, the canal and the River Brent are one and the same, and the waterway is semi-tidal until the double Gauging Lock at Brentford is reached
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Hadar (narrowboat)
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Hadar is a replica copy of a small Northwich narrowboat of the Star Class originally built for the Grand Union Canal Carrying Company by W. J. Yarwoods of Northwich. She was built by Roger Fuller Boatbuilders Ltd of Stone, Staffordshire, and completed in 2007, Hadar is a close copy of Pisces. Her colour scheme as seen in the photo is that which the GUCCCo, adopted in 1937 in celebration of the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. It is one of two like it known to be in the UK. Many thanks to the Anson Engine Museum for supplying the above information and these are the specifications for the engine, The name Hadar comes from the GUCCCo. Star Class boats being named after stars or constellations, Hadar is more commonly known as Beta Centauri and is the tenth-brightest star in the night sky. It is in the hemisphere and part of the Centaurus constellation. Hadar carries the fleet number 48, numbered their boats in alphabetical order, and Hadar would have been numbered between Grus No.47 and Henry No.49. Coincidentally Hadar is the 48th boat built by Roger Fuller, Hadar can be seen on the UK canals throughout the whole year, and may be occasionally seen at canal festivals and rallies. During 2011 she attended the ceremony for the Droitwich Canals, after taking 30 years to restore. We will spend time throughout the year on our mooring
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Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
28.
Fellows Morton and Clayton
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Fellows Morton & Clayton Ltd was, for much of the early 20th century, the largest and best-known canal transportation company in England. The company was in existence from 1889 to 1947, the company started in 1837 when James Fellows, an agent for a canal carrier, decided to start his own company. James was 32 and based in West Bromwich and his first boat was called Providence. In January 1839 he was allowed toll credit on the Warwick and he expanded rapidly and moved his operation to Toll End in Tipton in 1841. His business was as a Railway & Canal Carrier even though his rail activities were minor, James died in 1854 aged 49, and his widow Eliza carried on the business until their son Joshua was old enough to be an official partner. By 1855 he was transporting 13,000 tons of iron castings between London and Birmingham each year, in the late 1850s a new boat-building facility was built at Tipton and by the early 1860s the fleet had grown to some 50 boats. Long-distance carrying was the mainstay of the business during these early years, in 1876 Frederick Morton brought with him investment capital to expand the business, and the company name was changed to Fellows Morton & Co. This new company continued to absorb smaller traders, so expanding with new boats, in 1888-1889 William Clayton of Saltley, who operated a special fleet of liquid cargo boats as well as traditional loads, became the third partner. William died before the companies merged formally but his son, Thomas, Fellows, Morton & Clayton Ltd. was formed on 3 July 1889. The three managing directors appointed at the first meeting of the new company were Joshua Fellows, Frederick Morton and Thomas Clayton, on salaries of £600, each. The new chairman of Fellows, Morton & Clayton Ltd was Alderman Reuben Farley the majority of shareholders being family members of the directors of the company, at the time of formation the general cargo fleet amounted to some 11 steamers and around 112 butty boats. The tank boats were transferred to new company which was called Thomas Clayton Limited of Oldbury. The companys first results for the 18 months ending 30 June 1890 showed a net profit of £7,497. Trading had not been easy to start with - a dock strike in London had caused a financial loss. However, as there was new traffic, a new basin, the headquarters were by the builder, Edwin Shipway. Also the company had acquired the interests of a carrier, Fanshaw. The capital then stood at £84,620, barges, boats and steamers were valued at £20,852, after an initial period of use they were found unsatisfactory because of the excessive wear on the hulls steel. In 1896 Fellows, Morton & Clayton Ltd tried iron in the construction of their boats, the boat had an elm bottom and iron sides
29.
President (narrowboat)
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President is a historic, steam-powered narrowboat, built in 1909 by Fellows Morton and Clayton at their dock at Saltley, Birmingham, England. It is now owned by the Black Country Living Museum, where it is based, President is registered by National Historic Ships as part of the National Historic Fleet. The 71 feet long President was constructed in 1909 at FMCs company dock in Saltley and she was registered on 23 June that year. Her riveted, wrought iron hull is shaped in the Josher style, in 1925, the Ruston, Proctor and Company steam boiler and engine were replaced by a 15 hp Bolinder crude oil engine. Ernest Thomas, a director of FMC, and a Walsall-based coal carrier, President was bought by Nicholas Bostock and Malcolm Braine in 1973, as a derelict hull. They restored the hull and constructed a cabin and boiler room. The boat returned to service in 1978, President was purchased by the Black Country Living Museum in January 1983. The boiler was replaced by a Cochran dryback return flue boiler in 1990, a major refit took place from 2001–2003, including the provision of a new steam engine, pipework and cabin, plus major hull repairs. President, in FMC livery, normally operates with a butty boat, ratcliffe, Neil J. Steam Narrow Boat President, The First Hundred Years. Steam Narrow Boat President crew blog National Historic Ships website
30.
Chesterfield Canal
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The Chesterfield Canal is in the north of England and it is known locally as Cuckoo Dyke. It was opened in 1777 and ran 46 miles from the River Trent at West Stockwith, Nottinghamshire to Chesterfield and it is currently navigable as far as Kiveton Park near Rotherham, South Yorkshire, plus an isolated section near Chesterfield. Tapton Lock Visitor Centre is located on the Chesterfield Canal to the north of Tapton Park, the canal was built to export coal, limestone, and lead from Derbyshire, iron from Chesterfield, and corn, deals, timber, groceries, etc. into Derbyshire. The stone for the Palace of Westminster was quarried in North Anston, Rotherham, Lead had been mined in Derbyshire on a commercial scale since at least 1300, but the industry was hampered by poor transport links. The pigs of lead were carried by horses to Bawtry. Small boats carried them to the River Trent, where the cargo was transferred to larger vessels for onward distribution, there was no proper system of road maintenance, and so the use of carts and wagons for the over-land journey was not possible. The River Idle was also unreliable, being affected by floods and droughts, but there were no alternatives, and the industry flourished despite the difficulties. The Derwent Navigation was authorised in 1719, running from Derby to the River Trent, but it was less reliable than the Idle, and so did not seriously affect trade through Bawtry. The London Lead Company, one of the traders, together with others involved in lead and coal mining, looked for possible solutions. The main impetus for a canal came from the owners of mineral rights, the London Lead Company met with the Duke of Devonshire, the Duke of Newcastle, and others, but proposals were actively supported by the towns of Chesterfield, Worksop and Retford. Retford had obtained an Act of Parliament in 1720 to improve the River Idle from Bawtry to the town, in addition to being a market town, Retford also manufactured bricks and tiles, had reserves of gravel, and produced an agricultural surplus. The route of the canal was surveyed by James Brindley and John Varley, Brindley presented his proposals to a meeting in Worksop on 24 August 1769. Bawtry interests asked John Grundy to carry out a second survey and he proposed a rather shorter course, from Stockwith in a straight line to Bawtry and then by Scrooby, Blyth and Carlton, to join Brindleys line at Shireoaks. Grundys line was 5 1⁄2 miles shorter, and the cost estimated at £71,479, although Grundys line was considerably cheaper, it achieved this by missing Worksop and Retford, and the investors had already decided in favour of Brindleys route. The promoters consisted of one hundred and seventy-four persons, amongst whom were the Duke of Devonshire, the Duke of Newcastle, Lord Scarsdale, the Dean of York, immediately on the passing of the act, construction began under the direction of Brindley. Upon his death in September 1772, John Varley moved from Clerk of Works to Resident Engineer with Hugh Henshall, Brindleys brother-in-law, appointed Chief Engineer in 1773. The canal was to be built as a canal, but in 1775. Retford Corporation joined them, and each contributed £500, the canal was opened throughout in 1777, but the only record of wide-beamed boats using it at Retford is prior to 1799
31.
Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
32.
Japanning
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Japanning is a type of finish that originated as a European imitation of Asian lacquerwork. It was first used on furniture, but was much used on small items in metal. The word originated in the 17th century, Japanning is most often a heavy black lacquer, almost like enamel paint. Black is common and japanning is often assumed to be synonymous with black japanning, the European technique uses varnishes that have a resin base, similar to shellac, applied in heat-dried layers which are then polished, to give a smooth glossy finish. It can also come in reds, greens and blues, originating in India, China and Japan as a decorative coating for pottery, it made its way into Europe by the 17th century. In the late 17th century, high European demand and rumors that higher quality pieces were not exported led to starting in Italy. Its traditional form used gold designs and pictorials to contrast with the base color. As the demand for all things japanned grew, the Italian technique for imitating Asian lacquerwork also spread, the art of japanning developed in seventeenth-century Britain, France, Italy, and the Low Countries. The technique was described in such as Stalker and Parkers Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing. Colonial Boston was a center of the japanning trade in America. In England, decoupage, the art of applying paper cutouts to other items, became very popular, Wolverhampton and Bilston were important centres for the manufacture of japanned ware. Trade directories for 1818 list 20 firms of japanners in Wolverhampton and 15 in Bilston, Japanning firms ranged in size from small family workshops, which often adjoined the proprietors home, to a few large factories employing over 250 people. At the height of its popularity, richly decorated japanned ware was to be seen in every home, but from the mid-19th century. By the 1880s, the japanning and tin-plate industries were in decline and this was due partly to changes in fashion and taste and partly due to the development of electroplating. In response, makers of japanned ware began to focus on more utilitarian items, many turned to other trades, including enamelling, electroplating and the manufacture of copper and brass coal scuttles, fire screens and kettles. By the 1920s, the West Midlands decorative japanned ware industry had died out. Many firms began to supply japanned metal to the newly established bicycle and motor vehicle industries, the most successful of these was John Marston, whose japanning factory began making bicycles in 1887. The bicycle manufacturing part of the quickly became more successful than the production of decorative japanned ware
33.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
34.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
35.
Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
36.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
37.
Hindeloopen
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Hindeloopen is an old city on the North of the Netherlands on the IJsselmeer. It lies within the municipality of Súdwest Fryslân and it is famous because of the Hindeloopen art and hindeloopen costume. Hindeloopen is one of the cities of Friesland. Hindeloopen received city rights in 1225 and in 1368 it became a member of the Hanseatic League, since the 12th and 13th century, shippers of Hindeloopen undertook journeys to the North and Baltic Sea Coasts. The shipping trade brought the population of Hindeloopen a great prosperity, the 17th and 18th century were especially golden times. At that time, the people of Hindeloopen spent a lot of money in Amsterdam on precious fabrics and objects, the rich town developed in those days her own costume and a completely individual style with colorful painted walls and furniture. In the small streets some sea captains houses remind of this time of glory and you can see an anchor hanging on the façades of these houses, in those years a sign, that the captain could still accept freight. In summertime when the captain was at sea, the captains wife lived with the children in the so-called “Likhus”, a little house behind the captains house at the waterline. In the old center you can get a feel for Hindeloopens unique character by wandering through the streets and looking for the lovely views. In the Museum Hindeloopen you can become acquainted with the maritime history and living culture of Hindeloopen. Peter Tazelaar Official website Museum Hindeloopen Museum Hindeloopen, Hindelooper schilderkunst, klederdracht, stads- en scheepvaarthistorie
38.
Kennet and Avon Canal
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The Kennet and Avon Canal is a waterway in southern England with an overall length of 87 miles, made up of two lengths of navigable river linked by a canal. The name is used to refer to the entire length of the navigation rather than solely to the central canal section. From Bristol to Bath the waterway follows the course of the River Avon before the canal links it to the River Kennet at Newbury. In all, the waterway incorporates 105 locks, the two river stretches were made navigable in the early 18th century, and the 57-mile canal section was constructed between 1794 and 1810. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the canal fell into disuse after the opening of the Great Western Railway. In the latter half of the 20th century the canal was restored in stages, after decades of dereliction and much restoration work, it was fully reopened in 1990. The Kennet and Avon Canal has been developed as a heritage tourism destination for boating, canoeing, fishing, walking and cycling. Later, around 1626, Henry Briggs made a survey of the two rivers and noted that the land between them was level and easy to dig and he proposed a canal to connect them, but following his death in 1630 the plan was dropped. The main alternative to transport for the carriage of goods between Bristol and London was a hazardous sea route through the English Channel. The small coastal sailing ships of the day were often damaged by Atlantic storms, plans for a waterway were shelved until the early 18th century. However, in 1715, work was authorised to make the River Kennet navigable from Reading to Newbury, work commenced in 1718, under the supervision of surveyor and engineer John Hore of Newbury. In 1723, despite local opposition, the Kennet Navigation opened. The River Avon had historically been navigable from Bristol to Bath, in 1727, navigation was restored, with the construction of six locks, again under the supervision of John Hore. The first cargo of Deal boards, Pig-Lead and Meal reached Bath in December, the two river navigations were built independently of one another, in order to meet local needs, but they eventually led to plans to connect them and form a through route. In 1788 a Western Canal was proposed to trade and communication links to towns such as Hungerford, Marlborough, Calne. The following year the engineers Barns, Simcock and Weston submitted a proposed route for this canal, the name was changed from Western Canal to Kennet and Avon Canal to avoid confusion with the Grand Western Canal, which was being proposed at the same time. In 1793 a further survey was conducted by John Rennie, the proposed route was accepted by the Kennet and Avon Canal Company, chaired by Charles Dundas, and the company started to take subscriptions from prospective shareholders. In July 1793 Rennie suggested further alterations to the route, including the construction of a tunnel in the Savernake Forest, on 17 April 1794 the Kennet and Avon Canal Act received the Royal Assent and construction began
39.
4G
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4G is the fourth generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology, succeeding 3G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced, potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television. The first-release Long Term Evolution standard has been deployed in Oslo, Norway. It has, however, been debated whether first-release versions should be considered 4G, since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by service providers. According to operators, a generation of the network refers to the deployment of a new non-backward-compatible technology, as opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not support traditional circuit-switched telephony service, but all-Internet Protocol based communication such as IP telephony. The peak bit rate is improved by smart antenna arrays for multiple-input multiple-output communications. New mobile generations have appeared about ten years since the first move from 1981 analog to digital transmission in 1992. In the mid-1990s, the ITU-R standardization organization released the IMT-2000 requirements as a framework for what standards should be considered 3G systems, in 2008, ITU -R specified the IMT - Advanced requirements for 4G systems. In theory speeds up to 672 Mbit/s are possible, but have not been deployed yet, the fastest 3G-based standard in the CDMA2000 family is the EV-DO Rev. B, which is available since 2010 and offers 15.67 Mbit/s downstream. This article refers to 4G using IMT-Advanced, as defined by ITU-R, an IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements, Be based on an all-IP packet switched network. Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access, be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell. Use scaleable channel bandwidths of 5–20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz. Rumney, IMT-Advanced, 4G Wireless Takes Shape in an Olympic Year. Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15-bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6. 75-bit/s/Hz in the up link, system spectral efficiency is, in indoor cases, 3-bit/s/Hz/cell for downlink and 2. 25-bit/s/Hz/cell for up link. In September 2009, the proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union as 4G candidates. Basically all proposals are based on two technologies, LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP802. The latters standard versions were ratified in spring 2011, but are far from being implemented. The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008, LTE Advanced was to be standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP specification. LTE Advanced will be based on the existing LTE specification Release 10, a summary of the technologies that have been studied as the basis for LTE Advanced is included in a technical report
40.
Diesel fuel
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Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load, as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, to distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulfur diesel is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents, as of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle. In Australia diesel fuel is known as distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar. Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his engine he invented in 1892. Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum, other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction. Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most common type of diesel fuel, synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass, biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas, which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel, the process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid, gas-to-liquid or coal-to-liquid, depending on the raw material used. Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a content of sulfur and very low aromatics content, reducing unregulated emissions of toxic hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides. Fatty-acid methyl ester, more known as biodiesel, is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats which have been transesterified with methanol. It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil in Europe, methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. FAME can be used pure in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, FAME as a fuel is specified in DIN EN14214 and ASTM D6751. Pure biodiesel has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel, the loss in power when using pure biodiesel is 5–7%. As FAME contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of oxides and sulfates. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, CO emissions using biodiesel are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel, the exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons are up to 93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel. Biodiesel also may reduce risks associated with petroleum diesel
41.
Solid fuel
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Solid fuel refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to release energy, providing heat and light through the process of combustion. Solid fuels can be contrasted with liquid fuels and gaseous fuels, common examples of solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, wood pellets), corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid fuels are also used in rocketry as solid propellants. Solid fuels have been used throughout history to create fire. Wood fuel can refer to several such as firewood, charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets. The particular form used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality, in many areas, wood is the most easily available form of fuel, requiring no tools in the case of picking up dead wood, or few tools. Today, burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass, wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, stove, or fireplace, or outdoors in a furnace, campfire, as with any fire, burning wood fuel creates numerous by-products, some of which may be useful, and others that are undesirable, irritating or dangerous. When harvested in a sustainable fashion wood is considered to a renewable solid fuel. Although wood is a form of biomass, the term refers to other natural plant material that can be burnt for fuel. Common biomass fuels include waste wheat, straw, nut shells, peat fuel is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that can be burnt once sufficiently dried. Coal is a black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. Throughout history, coal has been used as a resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a carbon content. It is the carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous, while coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes
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Calor Gas
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Calor Gas is a brand of bottled butane and propane which is available in Britain and Ireland. It comes in cylinders, which have a gas regulator. The company was formed in 1935, and is one of the UKs largest suppliers of liquefied petroleum gas. It is currently servicing around 4 million homes and businesses, supplying LPG to power gas appliances from central heating and hot water, as well as cookers, the company predominantly supplies LPG to homes in rural areas where there is no mains natural gas supply. In the United Kingdom, Calor is part of the SHV Gas Group, Calor originally dealt only with cooking and heating appliances, but now covers a wider range of products for home, business, and automotive fuels. In 1934, Ritchie Gill, a Cornishman who had been working in the US and he spotted an opportunity for a product successfully used in America – liquefied petroleum gas. Gill coined the name Calor Gas and in January 1935 he set up Modern Gas & Equipment Co, in August 1935 the trade was transferred to the Calor Co. The business expanded as people in areas of the UK realised the benefits of this new fuel – LPG. So by 1939 the company had six offices in the UK, Calor had been founded and in Ireland, Calor gas was being distributed by Messrs. McMullen Ltd. which was purchased by Calor. In 1947, there was a hard winter which led to a major change in the way that Calor was distributed. Up to this point Calor had been relying upon rail transport for the distribution of the LPG, Calor signed a contract with PX Ltd. to deliver cylinders by road. The first wholly owned filling plant was built at Saxham, near Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk and these two plants were at Millbrook near Southampton and Port Clarence near Middlesbrough. The Millbrook filling plant was closed in 2001, however the sales and service centre remains, the 1950s saw the introduction of the Flavel B500 cooker, which used Calor gas, it became a great success story with caravan owners and smaller households. 1956 saw the birth of Calors industrial division and installation of the first bulk propane tank at the Meredith & Drew biscuit factory in Newmarket, in 1963 Calor Ltd. was formed. 1966 saw a new head office being acquired in Slough, which led to over 300 employees moving into this location, in 1967, Calor was granted a Royal Warrant for the supply of liquefied petroleum gas to Her Majesty the Queen. The company was granted a second Warrant, this time for supplying Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. In 1969 the Imperial Continental Gas Association acquired all the shares in the Company that it did not already own, in a decade, the market for cabinet heaters and the gas they burned grew from nothing to £100 million p. a
43.
Gloucestershire
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Gloucestershire is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the fertile valley of the River Severn. The county town is the city of Gloucester, and other towns include Cheltenham, Cirencester, Stroud. Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 10th century, though the areas of Winchcombe, Gloucestershire originally included Bristol, then a small town. The local rural community moved to the city, and Bristols population growth accelerated during the industrial revolution. Bristol became a county in its own right, separate from Gloucestershire and it later became part of the administrative County of Avon from 1974 to 1996. Upon the abolition of Avon in 1996, the north of Bristol became a unitary authority area of South Gloucestershire and is now part of the ceremonial county of Gloucestershire. The official former postal county abbreviation was Glos, rather than the frequently used but erroneous Gloucs. or Glouc. In July 2007, Gloucestershire suffered the worst flooding in recorded British history, the RAF conducted the largest peace time domestic operation in its history to rescue over 120 residents from flood affected areas. The damage was estimated at over £2 billion, the county recovered rapidly from the disaster, investing in attracting tourists to visit the many sites and diverse range of shops in the area. This is a chart of trend of gross value added of Gloucestershire at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Gloucestershire has mainly comprehensive schools with seven schools, two are in Stroud, one in Cheltenham and four in Gloucester. There are 42 state secondary schools, not including sixth form colleges, all but about two schools in each district have a sixth form, but the Forest of Dean only has two schools with sixth forms. All schools in South Gloucestershire have sixth forms, each has campuses at multiple locations throughout the county. Most of the old market towns have parish churches, at Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Bishops Cleeve near Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the pre-Norman work they retain. These are, however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, other notable buildings include Calcot Barn in Calcot, a relic of Kingswood Abbey. Thornbury Castle is a Tudor country house, the pretensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, near Cheltenham is the 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve, the mansion contains a tiled floor from Hailes Abbey
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Tardebigge
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Tardebigge is a village in Worcestershire, England. The village is most famous for the Tardebigge Locks, a flight of 30 canal locks that raise the Worcester and it lies in the historic county of Worcestershire. The etymology of the name is uncertain, several theories exist on the origins, but they remain largely disputed. One such theory suggests that the name Tardebigge means ‘tower on the hill’, Tardebigge was once a much greater township, which included much of Redditch, including the modern day town-centre. Its name was recorded twice in a will as Anglo-Saxon æt Tærdebicgan, records of the parish begin in the late 10th century. Tardebigge was bought by the Dean of Worcester for his Church from King Ethelred the Unready, in the later Dark Ages there were battles fought between Ethelreds son Edmund Ironside and the Cnut the Dane. In the 12th century, the parish was granted to Bordesley Abbey, for three hundred years the area remained in the Churchs possession. The land was managed and sold off by the Earl, it was not until the mid 19th century that the parish of Tardebigge began to dissolve. The village contains the Tardebigge Locks, a flight of 36 canal locks that raise the Worcester, the area was well known for the manufacture of bricks during the 18th and 19th century. There is little industry in the remaining, apart from minor canal narrow boat repairing works. The area become predominately a fruit growing area until the end of the 20th century with the famous Tardebigge orchards supplying produce to the Birmingham conurbation. Most of these orchards were grubbed up in the 1970s and 1980s with the last orchard being removed in 2000, the only orchard planted recently is the small orchard of Tardebigge Cider. Tardebigge Cider is a cider maker based in Tutnall, about a mile from the church. The cidermaker Steve Cooper planted an orchard of traditional apple varieties of about 100 trees in 1995. The varieties are primarily Dabinett, Michelin, and Harry Masters Jersey with a few culinary varieties included along with some pears, Moorcroft and Worcester Black. The fruit from trees and other Worcestershire fruit go to make about 1
45.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
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Al fresco dining
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Al fresco dining or dining alfresco is eating outside. In temperate climates, al fresco dining is especially popular in the months when temperatures. It is a style of dining that is casual and often party-like in its atmosphere, the phrase al fresco is borrowed from Italian for in the cool, although it is not in current use in that language to refer to dining outside. Instead, Italians use the phrases fuori or allaperto, in Italian, the expression al fresco usually refers to spending time in jail. The Spanish meaning of al fresco is similar to Italian, and Spaniards use fuera or al aire libre to refer to outside dining
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Inland Waterways Association
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Notable founding members included L. T. C. In 1944, Tom Rolt published his book Narrow Boat, which reflected on his journey around the canals in 1939 in his boat Cressy, the book was popular and Rolt received a number of letters following its publication. This included a letter from Robert Aickman, an agent and aspiring author. Tom Rolt supported this idea and in August 1945, he Robert and their wives, Angela and Ray, the couples developed a good working relationship with the inaugural meeting of The Inland Waterways Association taking place on 15 February 1946 London at Aickman’s flat in Gower Street, London. Robert Aickman was appointed chairman, Charles Hadfield, vice-chairman, Tom Rolt honorary secretary, after a question in Parliament by Lord Methuen, the bridge was raised to allow Cressy to pass. An Inland Waterways Exhibition was organised at Heals Mansard Gallery in London which was so successful that it was taken on a one tour of provincial art galleries. By now IWA had attracted a range of talent, including as president, the writer and parliamentarian Sir A. P. Herbert, scotts wife Elizabeth Jane Howard was part-time secretary, working in the Aickmans flat in Gower Street. 120 boats and 50,000 visitors attended and this laid the birth of the highly successful rallies that have been a feature of the IWA ever since, unfortunately, this was overshadowed by a row among the organizers. Tom Rolt had resigned as secretary some months before because of the pressure of his work as a writer. Aickman, through Eyre, attempted to prevent Rolt from attending the rally and promoting his book, there had been personality conflicts with Aickman which had led Charles Hadfield to resign his position as vice-chairman as early as 1946, and disagreements over policy. Aickman engineered a change to the rules to all members to conform to agreed IWA principles and in early 1951, Rolt, Hadfield. During most of the 1950s IWA was campaigning in an era when the British Transport Commission saw the use of the canal system as its main goal. The country did not have money to spend on canal maintenance let alone restoration. The canals, particularly the system, had become inadequate for modern commerce. Local campaigns emerged with the threats to various canals, including the Oxford and Kennet, an all-party parliamentary committee was set up with 30 sympathetic MPs becoming honorary members of IWA. A fight to save the Stroudwater Canal was lost in Parliament, in response, IWA advocated a National Waterway Conservancy to look after all the waterways and pointed out that it is cheaper to restore and use waterways than to eliminate them. A non-party parliamentary petition was also organized, the campaign to save the Kennet and Avon Canal intensified. A group supporting its restoration had set up independently after the argument within the Association but were now brought back within IWA
