1.
Wright brothers
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They made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft on December 17,1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1904–05 the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft, although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible. The brothers fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and this method became and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving the flying problem. This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings. Their first U. S. patent,821,393, did not claim invention of a machine, but rather. They gained the skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that a vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, the Wright brothers status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the competing claims of early aviators. The Wright brothers were two of seven born to Milton Wright, of English and Dutch ancestry, and Susan Catherine Koerner, of German. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, in 1867, Orville in Dayton, Ohio, the other Wright siblings were Reuchlin, Lorin, Katharine, and twins Otis and Ida. In elementary school, Orville was given to mischief and was once expelled, the direct paternal ancestry goes back to a Samuel Wright who sailed to America and settled in Massachusetts in 1636. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, the device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer Alphonse Pénaud. Made of paper, bamboo and cork with a band to twirl its rotor. Wilbur and Orville played with it until it broke, and then built their own, in later years, they pointed to their experience with the toy as the spark of their interest in flying
2.
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
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Kitty Hawk is a town in Dare County, North Carolina, and is a part of what is known as North Carolinas Outer Banks. The population was 3,272 at the 2010 Census and it was established in the early 18th century as Chickahawk. Kitty Hawk became world-famous after the Wright brothers made the first controlled powered airplane flights at the Kill Devil Hills, four miles south of the town, on December 17,1903. After the flights, the brothers walked back to Kitty Hawk, the Kitty Hawk Life-Saving Station was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. Kitty Hawk is located at 36. 1°N75. 7°W /36.1, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a complete area of 8.23 square miles. 8.18 square miles of it is land and 0.0476 square miles of it is water, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,991 people,1,265 households, and 866 families residing in the town. The population density was 365.8 people per square mile, there were 2,618 housing units at an average density of 320.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 13% White,0. 64% African American,0. 23% Native American,0. 27% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 20% from other races, and 0. 50% from two or more races. 0. 94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 8% of all tribes were made up of individuals and 8. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the family size was 2.79. In the town, the population was out with 21. 5% under the age of 18,5. 7% from 18 to 24,31. 6% from 25 to 44,28. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 girls, there were 103.7 boys. For every 100 girls age 18 and over, there were 97.6 boys, the median income for a household in the town was $42,813, and the median income for a family was $48,676. Males had an income of $31,250 versus $25,744 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,960, about 4. 3% of families and 6. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 9% of people under age 18 and 4. 6% of people age 65 or over. Federally, Kitty Hawk is part of North Carolinas 3rd congressional district, represented by Republican Walt Jones, coulaines in Pays de la Loire, France, which is about 1.7 miles north of Le Mans Official website
3.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
4.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
5.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Research and development
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Research and development, also known in Europe as research and technical development, is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. Research and development is situated at the front end of the life cycle. R&D differs from the vast majority of activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk. New product design and development is more often not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and this is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, a system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed, if the development is technology driven R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet need. Statistics on organizations devoted to R&D may express the state of an industry, some common measures include, budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are maintained, public. In the United States, a ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3. 5% of revenues. A high technolog company, such as a manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co.14. 1% or Novartis 15. 1%. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, most industrial companies get 40% revenues only. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and they often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program. Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention. One way of reducing the uncertainty of researching know-hows is to obtain already researched know-hows, president Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012. Much of this spending was devoted to research on the mechanisms of disease
8.
NACA duct
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Prior submerged inlet experiments showed poor pressure recovery due to the slow-moving boundary layer entering the inlet. When properly implemented, a NACA duct allows air to flow into a duct, often for cooling purposes. The design was called a submerged inlet, since it consists of a shallow ramp with curved walls recessed into the exposed surface of a streamlined body. It is, however, common for engine and ventilation intakes. It is especially favored in racing car design
9.
NACA cowling
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The NACA cowling is a type of aerodynamic fairing used to streamline radial engines for use on airplanes and developed by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1927. It was an advance in drag reduction, and paid for its development. The NACA cowling enhanced speed through drag reduction while delivering improved engine cooling, the cowling constitutes a symmetric, circular airfoil, in contrast to the planar airfoil of wings. It directs cool air to flow through the engine where it is routed across the engines hottest parts, that is, furthermore, turbulence after the air passes the free-standing cylinders is greatly reduced. The sum of all these effects reduces drag by as much as 60 percent, the test conclusions resulted in almost every radial-engined aircraft being equipped with this cowling, starting in 1932. NACA duct Townend ring Aeronautic exhibit in Smithsonian Institution, Washington, abstract of NACA TN301 report and. pdf file Archive of NACA reports 1917-1958
10.
NACA airfoil
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The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. The shape of the NACA airfoils is described using a series of following the word NACA. The parameters in the code can be entered into equations to precisely generate the cross-section of the airfoil. The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by, For example, the NACA0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber. The 15 indicates that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord length ratio and this equation gives the thickness as percentage of the chord length, to get the thickness the above equation should be multiplied with c. Note that in this equation, at =1, the thickness is not quite zero, if a zero-thickness trailing edge is required, for example for computational work, one of the coefficients should be modified such that they sum to zero. Modifying the last coefficient will result in the smallest change to the shape of the airfoil. The leading edge approximates a cylinder with a radius of, r =1.1019 t 2 c. Now the coordinates of the airfoil surface, and of the lower airfoil surface are, x U = x L = x, y U = + y t. Symmetrical 4-digit series airfoils by default have maximum thickness at 30% of the chord from the leading edge. The simplest asymmetric foils are the NACA 4-digit series foils, which use the formula as that used to generate the 00xx symmetric foils. The constant m is chosen so that the maximum occurs at x = p, for example, for the 230 camber-line, p =0.3 /2 =0.15. Finally, constant k 1 is determined to give the lift coefficient. For a 230 camber-line profile, k 1 =15.957 is used,3 digit camber lines provide a very far forward location for the maximum camber. The first digit is 2/3 of the lift coefficient. The second digit is twice the location of the maximum camber location. The third digit indicates a non-reflexed or reflexed trailing edge and this results in a theoretical pitching moment of 0. From x c <= r y c = k 16 from r < x c <=1, one digit describing the distance of maximum thickness from the leading edge in tens of percent of the chord
11.
North American P-51 Mustang
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The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang is an American long-range, single-seat fighter and fighter-bomber used during World War II, the Korean War and other conflicts. The Mustang was designed in 1940 by North American Aviation in response to a requirement of the British Purchasing Commission, the Purchasing Commission approached North American Aviation to build Curtiss P-40 fighters under license for the Royal Air Force. Rather than build an old design from another company, North American Aviation proposed the design, the prototype NA-73X airframe was rolled out on 9 September 1940,102 days after the contract was signed, and first flew on 26 October. The Mustang was originally designed to use the Allison V-1710 engine and it was first flown operationally by the RAF as a tactical-reconnaissance aircraft and fighter-bomber. The addition of the Rolls-Royce Merlin to the P-51B/C model transformed the Mustangs performance at altitudes above 15,000 ft, the P-51 was also used by Allied air forces in the North African, Mediterranean, Italian and Pacific theaters. During World War II, Mustang pilots claimed to have destroyed 4,950 enemy aircraft, despite the advent of jet fighters, the Mustang remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s. After the Korean War, Mustangs became popular civilian warbird and air racing aircraft, in April 1940 the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Self was given responsibility for Royal Air Force production and research and development, and also served with Sir Wilfrid Freeman. Self also sat on the British Air Council Sub-committee on Supply and one of his tasks was to organize the manufacturing and supply of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time, the choice was limited, as no U. S. aircraft then in production or flying met European standards. The Curtiss-Wright plant was running at capacity, so P-40s were in short supply, North American Aviation was already supplying its Harvard trainer to the RAF, but was otherwise underutilized. NAA President Dutch Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss. Kindelberger said NAA could have an aircraft with the same engine in the air sooner than establishing a production line for the P-40. In March 1940,320 aircraft were ordered by Sir Wilfred Freeman who had become the head of the Ministry of Aircraft Production. The NA-73X, which was designed by a led by lead engineer Edgar Schmued, followed the best conventional practice of the era. One was a wing designed using laminar flow airfoils which were developed co-operatively by North American Aviation and these airfoils generated very low drag at high speeds. The results of this test showed the superiority of the wing designed with the NAA/NACA 45–100 airfoils, the other feature was a new cooling arrangement that reduced the cooling drag. It was later discovered that, after lot of development, the assembly could take advantage of the Meredith Effect
12.
Area rule
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The Whitcomb area rule, also called the transonic area rule, is a design technique used to reduce an aircrafts drag at transonic and supersonic speeds, particularly between Mach 0.75 and 1.2. At high-subsonic flight speeds, the speed of the airflow can reach the speed of sound where the flow accelerates around the aircraft body. The speed at which development occurs varies from aircraft to aircraft and is known as the critical Mach number. The resulting shock waves formed at these points of sonic flow can reduce power. To reduce the number and power of these waves, an aerodynamic shape should change in cross sectional area as smoothly as possible. The area rule says that two airplanes with the same longitudinal cross-sectional area distribution have the same drag, independent of how the area is distributed laterally. Furthermore, to avoid the formation of shock waves, this total area distribution must be smooth. As a result, aircraft have to be arranged so that at the location of the wing. Similar but less pronounced fuselage waisting is used at the location of a bubble canopy, the area rule also holds true at speeds exceeding the speed of sound, but in this case the body arrangement is in respect to the Mach line for the design speed. For example, consider that at Mach 1.3 the angle of the Mach cone formed off the body of the aircraft will be at about μ = arcsin =50. 3°. In this case the shape is biased rearward, therefore. A classic example of such a design is the Concorde, the correct procedure is to average over all possible orientations of the intersecting plane. A superficially related concept is the Sears–Haack body, which is the shape with the wave drag for a given length. However, the Sears-Haack body shape is derived starting with the Prandtl-Glauert equation which governs small-disturbance supersonic flows, but this equation is not valid for transonic flows where the Area rule applies. So although the Sears-Haack body shape, being smooth, will have favorable wave drag properties according to the Area rule and he wrote a description on 17 December 1943, with the title Arrangement of Displacement Bodies in High-Speed Flight, this was used in a patent filed in 1944. In this case Küchemann arrived at the theory by studying airflow, notably spanwise flow, the swept wing is already an indirect application of the area rule. Wallace D. Hayes, a pioneer of flight, developed the transonic area rule in publications beginning in 1947 with his Ph. D. thesis at the California Institute of Technology. Richard T. Whitcomb, after whom the rule is named, independently discovered this rule in 1952, while working at the NACA
13.
Supersonic aircraft
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A supersonic aircraft is an aircraft able to fly faster than the speed of sound. Supersonic aircraft were developed in the half of the twentieth century and have been used almost entirely for research. Only two, Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144, ever entered service for use as airliners. Fighter jets are the most common example of supersonic aircraft, the aerodynamics of supersonic flight is called compressible flow because of the compression associated with the shock waves or sonic boom created by any object travelling faster than sound. Aircraft flying at speeds above Mach 5 are often referred to as hypersonic aircraft, the first aircraft to fly supersonically in level flight was the American Bell X-1 experimental plane which was powered by a 6000-lb thrust rocket powered by liquid oxygen and ethyl alcohol. The majority of aircraft have been military or experimental aircraft. In the 1960s and 70s, many design studies for supersonic airliners were done, however political, environmental and economic obstacles and one fatal Concorde crash prevented them from being used to their full commercial potential and these aircraft are no longer flying. Supersonic flight brings with it substantial technical challenges, as the aerodynamics of flight are dramatically different from those of subsonic flight. In particular, aerodynamic drag rises sharply as the passes the transonic regime, requiring much greater engine power. To keep drag low, wing span must be limited, which reduces the aerodynamic efficiency when flying slowly. Since a supersonic aircraft must take off and land at a slow speed. However, swinging affects the longitudinal trim of the aircraft and the mechanism adds weight and cost. Another technique that has used is a delta-wing design, such as used on Concorde. This has the advantage that it can attain a high angle of attack at low speeds, other kinds of wings are the Short thin wing, Sweep back wing and the swept forward wing. Another problem is the heat generated by friction as the air flows over the aircraft, most supersonic designs use aluminium alloys such as Duralumin, which are cheap and easy to work but lose their strength quickly at high temperatures. This limits maximum speed to around Mach 2.2, some early supersonic aircraft, including the first, relied on rocket power to provide the necessary thrust, although rockets burn a lot of fuel and so flight times were short. Early turbojets were more fuel-efficient but did not have enough thrust, the invention of the afterburner, in which extra fuel is burned in the jet exhaust, made these mixed powerplant types obsolete. The turbofan engine passes additional cold air around the core, further increasing its fuel efficiency
14.
Bell X-1
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Conceived during 1944 and designed and built in 1945, it achieved a speed of nearly 1,000 miles per hour in 1948. A derivative of this design, the Bell X-1A, having greater fuel capacity and hence longer rocket burning time. In 1942, the United Kingdoms Ministry of Aviation began a top secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the worlds first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype turbojet-powered Miles M.52, designed to reach 1,000 miles per hour in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft in 1 min 30 sec. By 1944, design of the M.52 was 90% complete, later that year, the Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange high-speed research and data. Unknown to Miles, Bell had already started construction of a supersonic design of their own. Bell was battling the problem of control due to blanking the elevators. A variable-incidence tail appeared to be the most promising solution, the Miles, meanwhile, on 16 March 1945, the U. S. The X-1 was, in principle, a bullet with wings, its shape resembling a Browning. 50-caliber machine gun bullet. The shape was followed to the extent of seating its pilot behind a sloped, framed window inside a confined cockpit in the nose, after the rocket plane experienced compressibility problems during 1947, it was modified with a variable-incidence tailplane following technology transfer with the United Kingdom. The rocket engine was a design built by Reaction Motors. This rocket burned ethyl alcohol diluted with water with a liquid oxygen oxidizer and its thrust could be changed in 1,500 lbf increments by using just additional chambers. The fuel and oxygen tanks for the first two X-1 engines were pressurized with nitrogen, but the rest used gas-driven turbopumps, the all-important fuel turbopumps were necessary to increase the chamber pressure and thrust while making the engine lighter. The color of the X-1 #46-062, the Glamorous Glennis, is International Orange, not all subsequent models were painted with the same shade. Bell Aircraft chief test pilot Jack Woolams became the first person to fly the XS-1 and he made a glide-flight over Pinecastle Army Airfield, in Florida, on 25 January 1946. These were performed at Muroc Army Air Field near Palmdale, California, after Woolams death on 30 August 1946, Chalmers Slick Goodlin was the primary Bell Aircraft test pilot for the X-1-1. He made 26 successful flights in both X-1s from September 1946 through June 1947, the Army Air Forces was unhappy with the cautious pace of flight envelope expansion and Bell Aircrafts flight test contract for airplane #46-062 was terminated. The test program was acquired by the Army Air Force Flight Test Division on 24 June after months of negotiation, Goodlin had demanded a US$150,000 bonus for exceeding the speed of sound
15.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
16.
Meudon
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Meudon is a municipality in the southwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is in the département of Hauts-de-Seine and it is located 9.1 km from the center of Paris. The town of Meudon is built on the hills and valleys of the Seine, the wood of Meudon lies for the most part to the west of the town. The northwest part of Meudon, overlooking the Seine, is known as Bellevue, at Meudon, the argile plastique clay was extensively mined in the 19th century. The first fossil of the European diatryma Gastornis parisiensis was discovered in deposits by Gaston Planté. Archaeological sites show that Meudon has been populated since Neolithic times, the Gauls called the area Mol-Dum, and the Romans Latinized the name as Moldunum. The handsome Galliera Institutions, on the hill of Fleury, were founded by the duchess of Galliera for the care of aged persons and orphans, the buildings were completed in 1885. The old castle of Meudon was rebuilt in Renaissance style in the mid-sixteenth century and it was bought by Louis XIV as a residence for Louis, le Grand Dauphin, under whom Meudon became a center of aristocratic life. A branch of the Paris Observatory was founded in 1877 on the ruins, the Meudon town hall is about 43 m in altitude above that of Paris and the climb from there to the observatory offers some rewarding views of Paris. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, the inventor of the worlds first automobile, is reported to have carried out some early trials at Meudon in the early 1770s, chalais-Meudon was important in the pioneering of aviation, initially balloons and airships, but also the early heavier-than-air machines. A Corps dAérostatiers under the command of Jean-Marie-Joseph Coutelle was established in 1794, Hangar Y was built in 1880 at the request of the military engineer Captain Charles Renard, for the construction of balloons and airships. The building is 70 m long,24 m wide and around 26 m high. The airship La France, designed by Renard and Arthur Krebs, was built in Hangar Y in 1884 and was the first airship which was controllable during flight and which could return to its starting point. Although a choice residential district, access to the railway and the Seine river have made Meudon a manufacturing center since the 1840s, metal products and military explosives have been continuously produced there since then. From 1921 to 1981 the Air Museum was located here until it moved to Le Bourget Airport, CNRS has a campus in Bellevue. Meudon is well served by public transports operated jointly by the SNCF, Meudon is served by the line C of the RER by the Meudon – Val Fleury station. Meudon is also served by the transilien line N through the Meudon station, the T2 tramway line links the Pont de Bezons station to the Porte de Versailles station. Meudon is served by the Brimborion station and the Meudon-sur-Seine station, the T6 tramway line runs from Châtillon to Viroflay
17.
ONERA
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The Office National dEtudes et de Recherches Aérospatiales is the French national aerospace research centre. ONERA was created in 1946 as Office National d’Études et de Recherches Aéronautiques, since 1963, its official name has been Office National d’Études et de Recherches Aérospatiales. However, in January 2007, ONERA has been dubbed The French Aerospace Lab to improve its international visibility, ONERA’s historic roots are in the Paris suburb of Meudon, south of Paris. As early as 1877, this site hosted a research center for military aerostats. ONERA was created in May 1946 to relaunch aeronautics research, an activity that had gone into hibernation during the Second World War and the German occupation. Its creation reflected the decision to recover the large wind tunnel in Otztal, Austria, in the French administrative zone. Today, ONERA’s extensive array of tunnels is one of its main assets. ONERA operates a fleet of wind tunnels, the largest in Europe. The S1MA wind tunnel at Modane-Avrieux, developing 88 MW of total power, is the world’s largest sonic wind tunnel, the Chairman and CEO of ONERA is appointed by the French Council of Ministers, acting on a proposal by the Minister of Defense. Since June 2014, the Chairman and CEO is Bruno Sainjon, ONERA is organized in eight geographic areas. It has about 2,000 employees, with 1,500 engineers and scientists, three other centers, Lille, northern France Salon-de-Provence, southern France, on the site of the Ecole de l’air flying school Modane-Avrieux, in the Savoy region of southeast France. ONERA is organized in four branches, Fluid Mechanics and Energetics, Materials and Structures, Physics. Wind tunnel testing is managed in the GMT department, Aerospace prospective depends on a specific department. Unlike NASA in the United States, ONERA is not an agency for space science, however, it carries out a wide range of research for space agencies, both CNES in France and the European Space Agency, as well as for the French defense agency, DGA. ONERA also independently conducts its own research to anticipate future technology needs. It focuses on research, for example in aerodynamics for concrete applications on aircraft. ONERA also uses its research and innovation capabilities to support both French and European industry, ONERA has contributed to a number of landmark aerospace and defense programs in recent decades, including Airbus, Ariane, Rafale, Falcon, Mirage and Concorde. ONERA’s customer-partners include Airbus Group, Safran, Dassault Aviation, Thales, innovative small businesses are also encouraged to call on the expertise of ONERA’s scientists and engineers, and to take advantage of technology transfer opportunities
18.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
20.
TsAGI
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The Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute was founded in Moscow by the pioneer of Russian aviation, Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky on December 1,1918. Since 1925 and into the 1930s, TsAGI developed and hosted Tupolevs AGOS, the first aircraft design bureau in Soviet Union, in 1930, two other major aircraft design bureaus in the country were the Ilyushins unsystematic TsKB and an independent, short-lived Kalinins team in Kharkiv. In 1935 TsAGI was partly relocated to the dacha settlement Otdykh converted to the new urban-type settlement Stakhanovo. It was named after Alexey Stakhanov, a famous Soviet miner, on April 23,1947, the settlement was granted town status and renamed to Zhukovsky. The Moscow branch of the institute is known as MAGI. In 1965 in Zhukovsky an Aeromechanics faculty of MIPT was established under TsAGI, among latest TsAGI developments are the rocket Energia and the Space Shuttle Buran. In 2013 TsAGI developed a testbench for high-speed compound helicopters with propellers. 1918–1921, Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky 1921–1931, S. A. Tschaplygin 1932–1937, N. M. Charlamow 1938–1939, M. N. Schulschenko 1940–1941, I. F. Petrow 1941–1950, S. N. Schischkin 1950–1960, A. I. Makarewski 1960–1967, V. M. Mjassischtschew 1967–1989, G. P. Swischtschjow 1989–1995, G I. Neuland 1998–2006, W. G. Dmitrijew 2006–2007, W. A. Kargopolzew 2007–2009, S. L. Tschrenyschtschjow 2009–present, B. S. Aljoschin TsAGI official website Page on TsAGI TsAGI on Google Maps
21.
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
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The Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was a United Kingdom agency founded on April 30,1909 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. In 1919 it was renamed the Aeronautical Research Committee, later becoming the Aeronautical Research Council. S. A. s National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Aeronautical Research Council was disbanded in 1979. The idea for the creation of the ACA originated with the then Secretary of State for War, R. B. Haldane, Haldane was criticised for what some considered the undue preponderance of academics on the committee. To these criticisms Asquith replied in the House of Commons, It is no part of the duty of the Advisory Committee For Aeronautics either to construct or invent. Its function is not to initiate, but to consider what is initiated elsewhere, the problems which are likely to arise. It was kept out of the ambit of any one ministry, reporting directly to the Prime Minister. This arrangement changed with the creation of the Royal Air Force, annual Technical Reports were produced by the committee from 1910 until 1919, at which time its name was changed to the Aeronautical Research Committee. From 1920 reports were made to the Air Ministry, in addition, technical papers known as Reports & Memoranda were produced. The Aeronautical Research Committees scope was both military and civil applications, during the deteriorating international situation of the 1930s, the committee was given fresh impetus with the appointment of Sir Henry Tizard. One of the committees most important decisions was to speed the development of a system of air defence based on radar. In 1945 after the Second World War the Committees name was changed to Aeronautical Research Council, annual reports were replaced by collections of R&Ms, the last issue appearing in 1972. The Aeronautical Research Council was disbanded in 1979, an early example, from 1917, is R&M351 Current Papers An index to R&Ms was issued periodically e. g. R&M2750 published in 1956, covering papers from the late 1940s onwards
22.
William Howard Taft
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William Howard Taft served as the 27th President of the United States and as the tenth Chief Justice of the United States, the only person to have held both offices. In 1921, President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft to be chief justice, Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft, was a U. S. Attorney General, William Taft attended Yale and was a member of Skull and Bones secret society like his father, and after becoming a lawyer was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named Solicitor General and as a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, in 1901, President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines. In 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelts hand-picked successor, despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, believing his political work to be more important. With Roosevelts help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908, in the White House, he focused on East Asia more than European affairs, and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. Taft sought reductions to trade tariffs, then a source of governmental income. Controversies over conservation and over antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912, Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates, and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of re-election, he took only Utah, after leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace. In 1921, President Harding appointed Taft as chief justice, an office he had long sought, Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, but under him, there were advances in individual rights. In poor health, he resigned in February 1930, after his death the next month, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians rankings of U. S. presidents, William Howard Taft was born September 15,1857 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey. The Taft family was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn, Alphonso served as a judge, ambassador and in the cabinet, as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant. William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a worker, Tafts demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success. He attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati, at Yale College, which he entered in 1874, the heavyset, jovial Taft was popular. One classmate described him succeeding through hard work rather than being the smartest, in 1878, Taft graduated, second in his class out of 121. He attended Cincinnati Law School, and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1880, while in law school, he worked on The Cincinnati Commercial newspaper, edited by Murat Halstead
23.
Robert Simpson Woodward
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Robert Simpson Woodward was an American physicist and mathematician. He was born at Rochester, Michigan on July 21,1849 and he graduated with a degree in civil engineering at the University of Michigan in 1872. He was appointed assistant engineer on the United States Lake Survey, in 1882 he became assistant astronomer for the United States Transit of Venus Commission. In 1884 he became astronomer to the United States Geological Survey, serving until 1890, in 1893 he was called to Columbia as professor of mechanics and subsequently became professor of mathematical physics as well. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1896, in 1898-1900 he was president of the American Mathematical Society, and in 1900 he became President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1915 he was appointed to the Naval Consulting Board and he died on June 29,1924 in Washington, D. C. Professor Woodward carried on researches and published papers in many departments of astronomy, geodesy and his work on the composition and structure of the earth and the variation of latitude found expression in a number of valuable papers. Geographical Tables Probability and Theory of Errors, robert Simpson Woodward House This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
24.
Charles D. Walcott
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Charles Doolittle Walcott was an American paleontologist, administrator of the Smithsonian Institution from 1907 to 1927, and geologist. He became known for his discovery in 1909 of well-preserved fossils in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia, Canada and he was described by Stephen Jay Gould as the finest symbol that I have ever encountered for the embodiment of conventional beliefs. Walcott was born in New York Mills, New York and his grandfather, Benjamin S. Walcott, moved from Rhode Island in 1822. His father, also Charles Doolittle Walcott, died when Charles Jr. was only two, Walcott was the youngest of four children. He was interested in nature from an age, collecting minerals and bird eggs and, eventually. He attended various schools in the Utica area but left at the age of eighteen without completing high school and his interest in fossils solidified as he became a commercial fossil collector. On January 9,1872, Walcott married Lura Ann Rust and she died on January 23,1876. He lost this job after two years but was recruited to the newly formed US Geological Survey as a geological assistant. In 1876, he became the assistant to James Hall, State Geologist of New York, Walcott also became a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1879, Walcott joined the US Geological Survey and rose to become its director in 1894 and he married Helena Breese Stevens in 1888. They had four children between 1889 and 1896, Charles Doolittle Walcott, Sydney Stevens Walcott, Helena Breese Walcott, Walcott was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1896. In 1902, he met with Andrew Carnegie and became one of the founders and incorporators of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and he served in various administrative and research positions in that organization. In 1921 Walcott was awarded the inaugural Mary Clark Thompson Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, Walcott became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in 1907 after the death of Samuel Pierpont Langley, holding the latter post until his own death. He was succeeded by Charles Greeley Abbot, because of Walcotts responsibilities at the Smithsonian, he resigned as director of the United States Geological Survey. As part of the celebration of Darwins birth, Walcott was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Cambridge in 1909. He served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1923 and he was an advisor to then-president, Theodore Roosevelt. Walcott had an interest in the movement and assisted its efforts. In 1910, the year after his discovery of Cambrian fossils in the Burgess shale, Walcott returned to the area accompanied by his sons Stuart and Sidney
25.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
26.
Benjamin R. Tillman
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Benjamin Ryan Tillman was a politician of the Democratic Party who was Governor of South Carolina from 1890 to 1894, and a United States Senator from 1895 until his death in 1918. A white supremacist who often spoke out against blacks, Tillman led a group of Red Shirts during South Carolinas violent 1876 election. On the floor of the U. S. Senate, he frequently ridiculed blacks, in the 1880s, Tillman, a wealthy landowner, became dissatisfied with the Democratic leadership and led a movement of white farmers calling for reform. He was initially unsuccessful, though he was instrumental in the founding of Clemson University as an agricultural school, in 1890, Tillman took control of the state Democratic Party, and was elected governor. During his four years in office,18 African Americans were lynched in South Carolina—the 1890s saw the most lynchings of any decade in South Carolina, Tillman tried to prevent lynchings, but spoke in support of the lynch mobs, stating his own willingness to lead one. In 1894, at the end of his second two-year term, Tillman was known as Pitchfork Ben because of his aggressive language, as when he threatened to use one to prod that bag of beef, President Grover Cleveland. Considered a possible candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1896 and he became known for his virulent oratory but also as an effective legislator. The first federal campaign finance law, banning corporate contributions, is called the Tillman Act. Tillman was repeatedly re-elected, serving in the Senate for the rest of his life, one of his legacies was South Carolinas 1895 constitution, which disenfranchised most of the black majority and ensured white rule for more than half a century. Benjamin Ryan Tillman was born on August 11,1847, on the family plantation Chester, near Trenton, in the Edgefield District and his parents, Benjamin Ryan Tillman, Sr. and the former Sophia Hancock, were of English descent. In addition to being planters with 86 slaves, the Tillmans operated an inn, Benjamin Jr. was the last born of seven sons and four daughters. Edgefield was known as a violent place, even by the standards of antebellum South Carolina, before Tillman Sr. s death from typhoid fever in 1849, he had killed a man and been convicted of rioting by an Edgefield jury. One of his sons died in a duel, another was killed in a domestic dispute, a third died in the Mexican-American War, a fourth of disease aged 15. Of Benjamin Jr. s two surviving brothers, one died of Civil War wounds after returning home, and the other, George, killed a man who accused him of cheating at gambling. Convicted of manslaughter, George continued to practice law from his cell during his two-year sentence. He later served several terms in Congress, from an early age, Ben showed a developed vocabulary. In 1860, he was sent to Bethany, a school in Edgefield where he became a star student. In 1863, he came home for a year to help his mother pay off debts and he returned to Bethany in 1864, intending a final year of study prior to entering the South Carolina College
27.
Ernest W. Roberts
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Ernest William Roberts was a U. S. Born in East Madison, Maine, Roberts attended the schools in Chelsea. He was graduated from Highland Military Academy, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1877, Roberts was admitted to the bar in 1881 and then practiced in Boston. He served as member of the city council of Chelsea in 1887 and 1888 and he served as member of the state House of Representatives in 1894 and 1896. He served in the state Senate in 1897 and 1898, Roberts was elected as a Republican to the Fifty-sixth and to the eight succeeding Congresses. He was chairman of the Committee on Private Land Claims and he was an unsuccessful candidate in 1916, losing with 16,765 votes to Alvan T. Fuller, another Republican running as an Independent, with 17,079. Roberts was named a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 1913, after leaving Congress he practiced law in Washington, D. C. until his death on February 27,1924. He was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery, Everett, Massachusetts, whos who in State Politics,1908 Practical Politics p.20. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress and this article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http, //bioguide. congress. gov
28.
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
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Assistant Secretary of the Navy is the title given to certain civilian senior officials in the United States Department of the Navy. From 1861 to 1954, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy was the second highest civilian office in the Department of the Navy and that role has since been supplanted by the office of Under Secretary of the Navy and the office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy has been abolished. There have, however, been a number of bearing the phrase Assistant Secretary of the Navy in their title. The Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy was established in 1861, the Assistant Secretary was responsible for the Navys civilian personnel, as well as for administration of shore facilities. Gustavus Fox was the first to hold the post, serving throughout the Civil War, the office was disestablished in 1869, during Reconstruction, but was reestablished by Congress on July 11,1890. James R. Soley was the first to be appointed to the reestablished position. James V. Forrestal, later Secretary of Defense, was the first to serve as Under Secretary, he held the post until 1944, during the 20th century, the responsibilities of the Assistant Secretary were divided among several officials. During the 1920s, for example, to reflect the importance of naval aviation. The office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy was disestablished in 1954, U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy from 1897–1898, during the William McKinley administration. U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy from 1913 until 1920, and helped to implement Navy policies during World War I. Source for papers and photos of various Assistant Secretaries of the Navy Navy Organization – The Secretariat An organizational chart for the Office of the Secretary of the Navy, Dept. of the Navy
29.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
30.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
31.
63rd United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1913 to March 4,1915, during the first two years of Woodrow Wilsons presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Thirteenth Census of the United States in 1910, both chambers had a Democratic majority. March 4,1913, Woodrow Wilson became President of the United States, March 9,1914, The Senate adopted a rule forbidding smoking on the floor of the Senate because Senator Ben Tillman, recovering from a stroke, found the smoke irritating. July 28,1914, World War I began in Europe August 15,1914, The Panama Canal was inaugurated August 19,1914, may 8,1914, Smith-Lever Act, ch. 717,15 U. S. C. §41 October 2,1914, River and Harbors Act of 1914 October 15,1914, Clayton Antitrust Act, a few senators were elected directly by the residents of the state. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress, donnelly, Cornelius Ford Secretary, Charles G. Bennett of New York James M. Baker of South Carolina, elected March 13,1913. Clerk, South Trimble of Kentucky, elected April 7,1913, sergeant at Arms, Robert B. Gordon of Ohio, elected April 7,1913. Doorkeeper, Joseph J. Sinnott of Virginia, elected April 7,1913, postmaster, William M. Dunbar of Georgia, elected April 7,1913. Clerk at the Speaker’s Table, Bennett C. Clark Chaplain, Henry N. Couden, Universalist, biographical Directory of the U. S. Congress. Archived from the original on 1 June 2006, archived from the original on 1 June 2006. Archived from the original on 1 June 2006, official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 1st Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 2nd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 3rd Session. Official Congressional Directory for the 63rd Congress, 3rd Session
32.
Armstrong Flight Research Center
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The Armstrong Flight Research Center, located inside Edwards Air Force Base, is an aeronautical research center operated by NASA. It was originally named in honor of Hugh L, first known as the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Muroc Flight Test Unit, the DFRC has also been known as the High-Speed Flight Research Station and the High-Speed Flight Station. The facility was renamed, effective March 1,2014, the Armstrong Flight Research Center in honor of Neil Armstrong, similarly the Western Aeronautical Test Range at the facility was renamed the NASA Hugh L. Dryden Aeronautical Test Range. The facility is NASAs premier site for research and operates some of the most advanced aircraft in the world. It was also the home of the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a modified Boeing 747 designed to carry a Space Shuttle orbiter back to Kennedy Space Center if one landed at Edwards, david McBride is currently the centers director. He succeeded Kevin Petersen, who retired in April 2008, until 2004, Armstrong Flight Research Center operated the oldest B-52 Stratofortress bomber, a B-52B model which had been converted to drop test aircraft, dubbed Balls 8. It dropped a number of supersonic test vehicles, ranging from the X-15 to its last research program. The aircraft was retired and is currently on display near the North Gate of Edwards, NASAs predecessor, NACA, operated the Douglas Skyrocket. A successor to the Air Forces Bell X-1, the D-558-II could operate under rocket or jet power and it conducted extensive tests into aircraft stability in the transsonic range, optimal supersonic wing configurations, rocket plume effects, and high-speed flight dynamics. On November 20,1953, the Douglas Skyrocket became the first aircraft to fly at twice the speed of sound when it attained a speed of Mach 2.005. Like the X-1, the D-558-II could be air-launched using a B-29 Superfortress, unlike the X-1, the Skyrocket could also takeoff from a runway with the help of JATO units. On December 1,1984, a remotely piloted Boeing 720 aircraft was flown into specially built wing openers which tore the wings open, despite the new fuel additive, the resulting fire ball was huge, the fire still took an hour to fully extinguish. Even though the fuel additive did not prevent a fire, the research was not a complete failure. The additive still prevented the combustion of fuel which flowed over the fuselage of the aircraft. Also, instrumented crash test dummies were in the airplane for the impact, LASRE was a NASA experiment in cooperation with Lockheed Martin to study a reusable launch vehicle design based on a linear aerospike rocket engine. The experiments goal was to provide data to help Lockheed Martin validate the computational predictive tools they developed to design the craft. LASRE was a small, half-span model of a body with eight thrust cells of an aerospike engine. The experiment, mounted on the back of an SR-71 Blackbird aircraft, the interaction of the aerodynamic flow with the engine plume could create drag, design refinements look to minimize that interaction
33.
Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket
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The Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket was a rocket and jet-powered supersonic research aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company for the United States Navy. The -2 in the aircrafts designation referred to the fact that the Skyrocket was the version of what had originally been conceived as a three-phase program. The phase-one aircraft, the D-558-1, was jet powered and had straight wings, the third phase, which never came to fruition, would have involved constructing a mock-up of a combat type aircraft embodying the results from the testing of the phase one and two aircraft. The eventual D-558-3 design, which was never built, was for an aircraft similar to the North American X-15. When it became obvious that the D558-1 fuselage could not be modified to accommodate both rocket and jet power, the D558-2 was conceived as a different aircraft. A contract change order was issued on 27 January 1947 to formally drop the final three D558-1 aircraft and substitute three new D558-2 aircraft instead, the Skyrocket featured wings with a 35-degree sweep and horizontal stabilizers with 40-degree sweep. The wings and empennage were fabricated from aluminum and the fuselage was of primarily magnesium construction. The Skyrocket was powered by a Westinghouse J34-40 turbojet engine fed through side intakes in the forward fuselage and this engine was intended for takeoff, climb and landing. For high speed flight, a four-chamber Reaction Motors LR8-RM-6 engine, was fitted and this engine was rated at 6,000 lbf static thrust at sea level. A total of 250 US gallons of fuel,195 US gallons of alcohol. The Skyrocket was configured with a cockpit canopy, but visibility from the cockpit was poor. This resulted in a greater profile area at the front of the aircraft, like its predecessor, the D558-1, the D558-2 was designed so that the forward fuselage, including cockpit, could be separated from the rest of the aircraft in an emergency. Once the forward fuselage had decelerated sufficiently, the pilot would then be able to escape from the cockpit by parachute, Douglas pilot John F. Martin made the first flight at Muroc Army Airfield in California on 4 February 1948 in an aircraft equipped only with the jet engine. The number three aircraft also gathered information about the effects of external stores upon the behavior in the transonic region. In correlation with data from other early transonic research aircraft such as the XF-92A and its flight research was done at the NACAs Muroc Flight Test Unit in California, redesignated in 1949 the High-Speed Flight Research Station. The HSFRS became the High-Speed Flight Station in 1954 and was known as the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. In 2014 it was renamed Armstrong Flight Research Center in honor of Neil Armstrong, the three aircraft flew a total of 313 times –123 by the number one aircraft,103 by the second Skyrocket, and 87 by aircraft number three. Skyrocket 143 flew all but one of its missions as part of the Douglas contractor program to test the aircrafts performance, NACA aircraft 143 was initially powered by the jet engine only, but was later fitted with the rocket engine
34.
Langley Research Center
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Langley Research Center is the oldest of NASAs field centers, located in Hampton, Virginia, United States. It directly borders Langley Field and the city of Poquoson, LaRC has focused primarily on aeronautical research, but the Apollo lunar lander was flight-tested at the facility. In addition, a number of the earliest high-profile space missions were planned and designed on-site, established in 1917 by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, in the early 21st century the Center devotes two-thirds of its programs to aeronautics, and the rest to space. LaRC researchers use more than 40 wind tunnels to study improved aircraft and spacecraft safety, performance, between 1958 and 1963, when NASA started Project Mercury, LaRC served as the main office of the Space Task Group. In 1962-1963 this office was transferred to the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, the current director is David E. Bowles. After US-German relations had deteriorated from neutral to hostile around 1916, on February 15,1917, the newly established Aviation Week warned that the U. S. military aviation capability was less than what was operating in the European war. President Woodrow Wilson sent Hunsaker to Europe to investigate, and Hunsakers report prompted Wilson to command the creation of the nation’s first aeronautics laboratory, in 1917, less than three years after it was created, the NACA established Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory on Langley Field. Both Langley Field and the Langley Laboratory are named for aviation pioneer Samuel Pierpont Langley, the Aviation Section, U. S. Signal Corps had established a base there earlier that same year. The first research facilities were in place and aeronautical research was started by 1920, initially the laboratory included four researchers and 11 technicians. Langley Field and NACA began parallel growth as air power proved its utility during World War I, the center was originally established to explore the field of aerodynamic research involving airframe and propulsion engine design and performance. In 1934 the worlds largest wind tunnel was constructed at Langley Field with a 30 ×60 foot test section and it remained the worlds largest wind tunnel until the 1940s, when a 40 ×80 foot tunnel was built at NASA Ames in California. Early in 1945, the center expanded to include research, leading to the establishment of a flight station at Wallops Island. A further expansion of the research program permitted Langley Research Center to orbit payloads, as rocket research grew, aeronautics research continued to expand and played an important part when subsonic flight was advanced and supersonic and hypersonic flight were introduced. Langley Research Center can claim many firsts, some of which have proven to be revolutionary scientific breakthroughs. The center also developed standards for the grooving of aircraft based on a previous British design used at Washington National Airport. Grooved runways reduce aquaplaning which permits better grip by aircraft tires in heavy rain and this grooving is now the international standard for all runways around the world. Langley Research Center performs critical research on aeronautics, including wake vortex behavior, fixed-wing aircraft, rotary wing aircraft, air safety, human factors, LaRC supported the design and testing of the hypersonic X-43, which achieved a world speed record of Mach 9.6. LaRC assisted the NTSB in the investigation of the crash of American Airlines Flight 587, work began in July 2011 to remove the 1940s era 16 feet transonic wind tunnel
35.
Hampton, Virginia
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Hampton is an independent city in Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 137,436, as one of the seven major cities that compose the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, it is on the southeastern end of the Virginia Peninsula. Since consolidation in 1952, Hampton has included the former Elizabeth City County, in the 20th century, the area became the location of Langley Air Force Base, NASA Langley Research Center, and the Virginia Air and Space Center. Hampton features many miles of waterfront and beaches, for residents and visitors alike, the city features a wide array of business and industrial enterprises, retail and residential areas, and historical sites. Most recently, the new Peninsula Town Center development opened in May 2010 on the site of the former Coliseum Mall. Located in the adjacent to the Hampton Coliseum and the Convention Center. Development of new development and additional public facilities are underway at Buckroe Beach. Located on the Hampton Roads Beltway, it hosts the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel on Interstate 64, expanded in the 1970s, the HRBT remains Virginias busiest and deepest such facility. In December 1606, three ships carrying men and boys left England on a mission sponsored by a proprietary company, headed by Captain Christopher Newport, they sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to North America. After a long voyage, they first landed at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay on the shore at a place they named Cape Henry. During the first few days of exploration, they identified the site of Old Point Comfort as a defensive location at the entrance to the body of water that became known as Hampton Roads. This is formed by the confluence of the Elizabeth, Nansemond, the latter is the longest river in Virginia. Slightly south, near the entrance to Hampton River, the colonists seized the Native American community of Kecoughtan under Virginias Governor, the colonists established their own small town, with a small Anglican church, on July 9,1610. This came to be known as part of Hampton, the area became part of Elizabeth Cittie in 1619, Elizabeth River Shire in 1634, and was included in Elizabeth City County when it was formed in 1643. By 1680, the settlement was known as Hampton, and it was incorporated as a town in 1705, in the latter part of August 1619, an English ship flying a Dutch flag, the White Lion, appeared off shore from Point Comfort. Its cargo included 20 plus Africans captured from the slave ship Sao Joao Bautista and these were the first Africans to come ashore on English-occupied land in what would become the United States. John Rolfe, the widower of Pocahontas, wrote in a letter that he was at Point Comfort, although these first Bantu men from Angola were considered indentured servants, their arrival marked the beginning of slavery in North America. Two of the first Africans to arrive at Old Point Comfort in 1619 were Antoney and their child, the first of African descent born in North America, was born baptized January 1624
36.
Ames Research Center
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Ames Research Center, also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in Californias Silicon Valley. It was founded as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory and that agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration on October 1,1958. NASA Ames is named in honor of Joseph Sweetman Ames, a physicist, at last estimate NASA Ames has over US$3.0 billion in capital equipment,2,300 research personnel and a US$860 million annual budget. Ames was founded to conduct research on the aerodynamics of propeller-driven aircraft, however, its role has expanded to encompass spaceflight. Ames plays a role in many NASA missions, Ames also develops tools for a safer, more efficient national airspace. The centers current director is Eugene Tu, the site is mission center for several key current missions and a major contributor to the new exploration focus as a participant in the Orion crew exploration vehicle. Although Ames is a NASA Research Center, and not a center, it has nevertheless been closely involved in a number of astronomy. The Pioneer programs eight successful missions from 1965 to 1978 were managed by Charles Hall at Ames. By 1972, it supported the bold flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn with Pioneer 10 and those two missions were trail blazers for the planners of the more complex Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, launched five years later. In 1978, the end of the program brought about a return to the solar system, with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe. Lunar Prospector was the mission selected by NASA for full development. Based on Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer data, mission scientists have determined that there is indeed water ice in the craters of the Moon. The 11-pound GeneSat-1, carrying bacteria inside a laboratory, was launched on December 16,2006. The very small NASA satellite has proven that scientists can quickly design, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite mission to look for water on the moon was a secondary payload spacecraft. LCROSS began its trip to the moon on the rocket as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It launched in April 2009 on an Atlas V rocket from Kennedy Space Center, the Kepler mission is NASAs first mission capable of finding Earth-size and smaller planets. The Kepler mission will monitor the brightness of stars to find planets that pass in front of them during the planets orbits, during such passes or transits, the planets will slightly decrease the stars brightness. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy is a joint venture of the U. S, the aircraft is supplied by the U. S. and the infrared telescope by Germany
37.
Moffett Federal Airfield
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On November 10,2014, NASA announced that it would be leasing the airfield to Google for 60 years. The airport is near the end of San Francisco Bay. Formerly a United States Navy facility, the naval air station is now owned and operated by the NASA Ames Research Center. S. Until 28 July 2010, the U. S. Air Forces 21st Space Operations Squadron was also a tenant command at Moffett Field, in addition to these military activities, NASA also operates several of its own aircraft from Moffett. By far the most famous and visible sites are Hangars #1, #2, and #3, the Hangars One, Two, and Three, and the adjacent Shenandoah Plaza are collectively designated as a National Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Hangar One is one of the worlds largest freestanding structures, covering 8 acres, the hangar was constructed in 1931. Hangar One is a Naval Historical Monument, Historic American Engineering Record CA-335, in May 2008, The National Trust for Historic Preservation listed Hangar One on their list of Americas Most Endangered Places. Hangars #2 and #3 are some of the worlds largest freestanding wood structures, the hangars were constructed when the US Navy established ten lighter-than-air bases across the United States during World War II as part of the coastal defense plan. Seven of the original seventeen of these wooden hangars still exist, the adjacent NASA Ames Research Center is also home to several wind tunnels, including the Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel, and the National Full-Scale Aerodynamic Complex. The location proved to be ideal for an airport, since the area is often clear while other parts of the San Francisco Bay are covered in fog. This is due to the Coast Range to the west, which blocks the cold air that is the cause of San Francisco fog. The naval air station was authorized by an Act of Congress, construction of the original facilities was begun 8 July 1931. The base was originally named Airbase Sunnyvale CAL as it was thought that calling it Mountain View would cause officials to fear airships colliding with mountainsides, the original station was commissioned on 12 April 1933 and dedicated NAS Sunnyvale. After the crashing of the Macon on 12 February 1935, the Navy wanted to close Moffett Field due to its high cost of operations. Also, in San Diego, the Army and Navy were having jurisdictional issues over North Island in San Diego harbor, which had both NAS San Diego as well as the Armys Rockwell Field dividing the island. The Navy wanted the Army out of North Island in San Diego harbor as it needed to expand NAS San Diego as an airfield for its growing number of aircraft carrier pilots. The Army resisted strongly, as Rockwell Field was a training airfield for flight cadets. Upon taking jurisdiction of Moffett Field, the Army took on the high cost of Hangar Ones maintenance, also in 1939, Moffett saw the establishment of the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory
38.
Glenn Research Center
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Its director is Janet L. Kavandi. Glenn Research Center is one of ten major NASA field centers, whose mission is to develop science and technology for use in aeronautics. As of May 2012, it employed about 1,650 civil servants and 1,850 support contractors located on or near its site, in 2010, the formerly on-site NASA Visitors Center moved to the Great Lakes Science Center. It was initially named the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory after funding approval was given in June 1940 and it was renamed the Flight Propulsion Research Laboratory in 1947, the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in 1948 (after George W. Lewis and the NASA Lewis Research Center in 1958. On March 1,1999, the Lewis Research Center was officially renamed the NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field after John Glenn, within NASA, the Glenn Research Center is often referred to by the initialism GRC. As early as 1951, researchers at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory were studying the processes in liquid rocket engines. The 6, 400-acre Plum Brook field station near Sandusky, Ohio is also part of Glenn and it is located about 50 mi. from the main campus. It specializes in very large-scale tests which would be hazardous within the confines of the main campus.5 million, the Space Power Facility houses the worlds largest space environment vacuum chamber. An icing tunnel is capable of simulating atmospheric icing condition to test the effect of ice accretion on aircraft wings, the Zero Gravity Research Facility is a vertical vacuum chamber used for microgravity experiments. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, the facility uses vertical drop tests in a vacuum chamber to investigate the behavior of components, systems, liquids, gases, and combustion in such circumstances. The facility consists of a shaft,28 feet in diameter. An aluminum vacuum chamber,20 feet in diameter and 470 feet high, is contained within the concrete shaft, the pressure in this vacuum chamber is reduced to 13.3 newtons per square meter before use. After the closing of the Japan Microgravity Centre, the NASA Zero-G facility is the largest microgravity facility in the world, another, smaller drop tower remains in use. That tower has a free time of 2.2 seconds. Aeronautics science and technology NASA Glenn does significant research and technology development on jet engines, producing designs that reduce energy consumption, pollution, the chevrons it invented for noise reduction appear on many commercial jet engines today, including the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. A Glenn-derived ion engine was used on the successful NASA probe Deep Space 1 and it provides internships for high school students, college students, and high school teachers. The high school program is an 8-week internship for sophomores and juniors with interests in science, technology, engineering, math, the college level consists of a 10-week internship and is open to college students at all levels, from graduating high school seniors to PhD candidates. Only residents of the Cleveland area are eligible for high school LERCIP, interns work closely with their NASA mentors and are involved in the day-to-day activities of the Center
39.
Edwards Air Force Base
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Edwards Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation in southern California, located approximately 22 miles northeast of Lancaster and 15 miles east of Rosamond. It operates the U. S. Air Force Test Pilot School and is home to NASAs Armstrong Flight Research Center, previously known as Muroc Air Force Base, Edwards AFB is named in honor of Captain Glen Edwards. Edwards became a test pilot in 1943 and spent much of his time at Muroc Army Air Field, on Californias high desert and he died in the crash of a Northrop YB-49 flying wing near Muroc AFB on 5 June 1948. The base is next to Rogers Dry Lake, an endorheic salt pan whose hard dry lake surface provides a natural extension to Edwards runways. This large landing area, combined with excellent year-round weather, makes the good for flight testing. The lake is a National Historic Landmark, the base has played a significant role in the development of virtually every aircraft to enter the Air Force inventory since World War II. Almost every United States military aircraft since the 1950s has been at least partially tested at Edwards, the Wing also oversees the base’s day-to-day operations and provides support for military, federal civilian, and contract personnel assigned to Edwards AFB. 412th Operations Group. There are eight flight test squadrons under the 412th Operations Group with as many as 20 aircraft assigned to each, the 412 OS flies an average of 90 aircraft with upwards of 30 different aircraft designs. It also performs more than 7,400 missions on an annual basis and they provide the tools, talent and equipment for the core disciplines of aircraft structures, propulsion, avionics and electronic warfare evaluation of the latest weapon system technologies. The Project and Resource Management Divisions provide the foundation for the program management of test missions. 412th Civil Engineer Division 412th Maintenance Group 412th Medical Group 412th Mission Support Group U. S, the comprehensive curriculum of Test Pilot School is fundamental to the success of flight test and evaluation. There are a vast array of organizations at Edwards that do not fall under the 412th Test Wing and these units do everything from providing an on-base grocery store to testing state-of-the-art rockets. The 31st Test and Evaluation Squadron provides Air Combat Command personnel to support combined test, established in 1917, it is one of the oldest units of the United States Air Force. The Desert Pirates are part of the 53d Test and Evaluation Group, Nellis AFB, Nevada, the 31st is staffed with a mixture of operations, maintenance and engineering experts who plan and conduct tests, evaluate effectiveness and suitability, and influence system design. The squadrons personnel are integrated into the B-1, B-2, B-52, Global Hawk, MQ-9 and their results and conclusions support Department of Defense acquisition, deployment and employment decisions. AFOTEC Detachment 5 is responsible for conducting the operational test and evaluation of USAF aircraft, certification by Detachment 5 is required in advance prior to new aircraft prior to AFMC full rate production and combat fielding decisions. During 1978 and 1979, an AFFTC test pilot and a pair of flight test engineers were engaged in testing with Lockheeds low-observable technology demonstrator. The successful conduct of tests led immediately to the development of the F-117A Nighthawk
40.
Airfoil
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An airfoil or aerofoil is the shape of a wing, blade, or sail. An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force, the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag, subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the fluid are called hydrofoils. The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack, when oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as force and can be resolved into two components, lift and drag. Most foil shapes require an angle of attack to generate lift. This turning of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines, resulting in pressure on one side. The lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation, a fixed-wing aircrafts wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections, as are helicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and turbines, sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils, common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, an airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction. Any object with an angle of attack in a fluid, such as a flat plate. Airfoils are more efficient lifting shapes, able to more lift. A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right, the curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a linear relation. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that, the drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thicker boundary layer also causes an increase in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near. Airfoil design is a facet of aerodynamics
41.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
42.
Compressibility
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In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure change. β = −1 V ∂ V ∂ p where V is volume, the specification above is incomplete, because for any object or system the magnitude of the compressibility depends strongly on whether the process is adiabatic or isothermal. Accordingly, isothermal compressibility is defined, β T = −1 V T where the subscript T indicates that the differential is to be taken at constant temperature. Isentropic compressibility is defined, β S = −1 V S where S is entropy, for a solid, the distinction between the two is usually negligible. The minus sign makes the compressibility positive in the case that an increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume, the speed of sound is defined in classical mechanics as, c 2 = S where ρ is the density of the material. It follows, by replacing partial derivatives, that the compressibility can be expressed as, β S =1 ρ c 2 The inverse of the compressibility is called the bulk modulus. That page also contains some examples for different materials, the compressibility equation relates the isothermal compressibility to the structure of the liquid. The term compressibility is also used in thermodynamics to describe the deviance in the properties of a real gas from those expected from an ideal gas. The compressibility factor is defined as Z = p V _ R T where p is the pressure of the gas, T is its temperature, and V _ is its molar volume. The deviation from ideal gas behavior tends to become particularly significant near the critical point, in these cases, a generalized compressibility chart or an alternative equation of state better suited to the problem must be utilized to produce accurate results. This pressure dependent transition occurs for atmospheric oxygen in the 2500 K to 4000 K temperature range, in transition regions, where this pressure dependent dissociation is incomplete, both beta and the differential, constant pressure heat capacity greatly increase. For moderate pressures, above 10,000 K the gas further dissociates into free electrons and ions, Z for the resulting plasma can similarly be computed for a mole of initial air, producing values between 2 and 4 for partially or singly ionized gas. Each dissociation absorbs a great deal of energy in a reversible process, ions or free radicals transported to the object surface by diffusion may release this extra energy if the surface catalyzes the slower recombination process. The isothermal compressibility is related to the isentropic compressibility by the relation, more simply stated, β T β S = γ where, γ is the heat capacity ratio. The Earth sciences use compressibility to quantify the ability of a soil or rock to reduce in volume under applied pressure and this concept is important for specific storage, when estimating groundwater reserves in confined aquifers. Geologic materials are made up of two portions, solids and voids, the void space can be full of liquid or gas. Geologic materials reduces in volume only when the spaces are reduced. This can happen over a period of time, resulting in settlement and it is an important concept in geotechnical engineering in the design of certain structural foundations
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Lockheed P-38 Lightning
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The Lockheed P-38 Lightning is a World War II-era American piston-engined fighter aircraft. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms, Allied propaganda claimed it had been nicknamed the fork-tailed devil by the Luftwaffe and two planes, one pilot by the Japanese. In the South West Pacific theater, the P-38 was the primary fighter of United States Army Air Forces until the appearance of large numbers of P-51D Mustangs. The P-38 was unusually quiet for a fighter, the exhaust muffled by the turbo-superchargers and it was extremely forgiving and could be mishandled in many ways but the rate of roll in the early versions was too slow for it to excel as a dogfighter. The P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, at the end of the war, orders for 1,887 more were cancelled. Lockheed designed the P-38 in response to a February 1937 specification from the United States Army Air Corps, Kelsey was looking for a minimum of 1,000 lb of armament. Kelsey and Saville aimed to get a capable fighter, better at dog-fighting. Specifications called for a maximum airspeed of at least 360 mph at altitude, and a climb to 20,000 ft within six minutes, the unbuilt Vultee XP1015 was designed to the same requirement, but was not advanced enough to merit further investigation. A similar single-engine proposal was issued at the time, Circular Proposal X-609. Both proposals required liquid-cooled Allison V-1710 engines with turbo-superchargers and gave points for tricycle landing gear. The Lockheed team chose twin booms to accommodate the tail assembly, engines, the XP-38 gondola mockup was designed to mount two. 50-caliber M2 Browning machine guns with 200 rounds per gun, two. In the YP-38s, a 37 mm M9 autocannon with 15 rounds replaced the T1, the 15 rounds were in three five-round clips, an unsatisfactory arrangement according to Kelsey, and the M9 did not perform reliably in flight. Further armament experiments from March to June 1941 resulted in the P-38E combat configuration of four M2 Browning machine guns, and one Hispano 20 mm autocannon with 150 rounds. Clustering all the armament in the nose was unusual in U. S. aircraft, nose-mounted guns did not suffer from having their useful ranges limited by pattern convergence, meaning that good pilots could shoot much farther. A Lightning could reliably hit targets at any range up to 1,000 yd, whereas the wing guns of other fighters were optimized for a specific range. The rate of fire was about 650 rounds per minute for the 20×110 mm cannon round at a velocity of about 2,887 ft/s. Combined rate of fire was over 4,000 rpm with roughly every sixth projectile a 20 mm shell, the duration of sustained firing for the 20 mm cannon and. 50-caliber machine guns was approximately 14 seconds and 35 seconds, respectively. The P-38 was the first American fighter to make use of stainless steel and smooth
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Henry H. Arnold
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Henry Harley Hap Arnold was an American general officer holding the grades of General of the Army and General of the Air Force. Instructed in flying by the Wright Brothers, Arnold was one of the first military pilots worldwide, and one of the first three rated pilots in the history of the United States Air Force. He overcame a fear of flying that resulted from his experiences with flight, supervised the expansion of the Air Service during World War I. He was called Harley by his family during his youth, Arnold was known to his West Point classmates as Pewt or Benny. By his immediate subordinates and headquarters staff he was referred to as The Chief, born June 25,1886, in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, Arnold was the son of Dr. Herbert Alonzo Arnold, a strong-willed physician and a member of the prominent political and military Arnold Family. His mother was Anna Louise Harley, from a Dunker farm family, Arnold was Baptist in religious belief but had strong Mennonite ties through both families. However, unlike her husband, Gangy Arnold was fun-loving and prone to laughter, when Arnold was eleven, his father responded to the Spanish–American War by serving as a surgeon in the Pennsylvania National Guard, of which he remained a member for the next 24 years. Arnold attended Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1903, the athletic fields at Lower Merion are named after him. Arnold had no intention of attending West Point but took the examination after his older brother Thomas defied their father. Arnold placed second on the list and received an appointment when the nominated cadet confessed to being married, prohibited by academy regulations. Arnold entered the United States Military Academy at West Point as a Juliette and his cadet career was spent as a clean sleeve. At the academy he helped found the Black Hand, a group of cadet pranksters and he played second-team running back for the varsity football team, was a shot putter on the track and field team, and excelled at polo. Arnolds academic standing varied between the middle and the end of his class, with his better scores in mathematics. He initially protested the assignment, but was persuaded to accept a commission in the 29th Infantry, Arnold arrived in Manila on December 7,1907. Arnold disliked infantry troop duties and volunteered to assist Capt. Arthur S. Cowan of the 20th Infantry, Cowan returned to the United States following completion of the cartography detail, transferred to the Signal Corps, and was assigned to recruit two lieutenants to become pilots. Cowan contacted Arnold, who cabled his interest in transferring to the Signal Corps. In June 1909, the 29th Infantry relocated to Fort Jay, New York, in 1911, Arnold applied for transfer to the Ordnance Department because it offered an immediate promotion to first lieutenant. While awaiting the results of the competitive examination, he learned that his interest in aeronautics had not been forgotten
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Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel
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Low-speed wind tunnels are used for operations at very low Mach number, with speeds in the test section up to 480 km/h. They may be of type, or closed-return flow with air moved by a propulsion system usually consisting of large axial fans that increase the dynamic pressure to overcome the viscous losses. The highest speed is reached in the test section, the Mach number is approximately 1 with combined subsonic and supersonic flow regions. Testing at transonic speeds presents additional problems, mainly due to the reflection of the waves from the walls of the test section. Therefore, perforated or slotted walls are required to reduce reflection from the walls. Since important viscous or inviscid interactions occur both Mach and Reynolds number are important and must be properly simulated, large-scale facilities and/or pressurized or cryogenic wind tunnels are used. With a sonic throat, the flow can be accelerated or slowed down and this follows from the 1D area–velocity equation. If an acceleration to supersonic flow is required, a convergent-divergent nozzle is required
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Wind tunnel
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A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air moving past solid objects. A wind tunnel consists of a passage with the object under test mounted in the middle. Air is made to move past the object by a fan system or other means. The test object, often called a wind tunnel model, is instrumented with sensors to measure aerodynamic forces, pressure distribution. The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the days of aeronautic research. In that way an observer could study the flying object in action. The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane, large wind tunnels were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing was considered of importance during the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft. Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings, in these studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting the test results. The advances in fluid dynamics modelling on high speed digital computers has reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing. However, CFD results are not completely reliable and wind tunnels are used to verify CFD predictions. Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels, air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoullis principle. Measurement of the pressure, the static pressure, and the temperature rise in the airflow. The direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces, the direction of airflow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the upstream of the test model. Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the test model with beams, strings, or cables. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive paint, the strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface. The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain the same for a scaled model, however, by observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic properties of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved
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Aerodynamics
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Aerodynamics, from Greek ἀήρ aer + δυναμική, the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, the term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that gas dynamics applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the sense in the eighteenth century. Most of the efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to flow, turbulence. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle, in 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows, the Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow, in 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond dAlembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, in 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift. Building on these developments as well as carried out in their own wind tunnel. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil, as aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under such conditions leds to problems in control, increased drag due to shock waves. The ratio of the speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of supersonic flow. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly, by the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an line of high performance aircraft. Understanding the motion of air around an object enables the calculation of forces, in many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight, lift, drag, thrust, and weight
