1.
Alexandria, Virginia
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Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side
2.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
3.
Research
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It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field, to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of research are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development of methods. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences, there are several forms of research, scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577, Research has been defined in a number of different ways. Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell and it consists of three steps, pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary and this material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the research is to produce new knowledge. Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to, in analytical work, there are typically some new mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals, graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation. Scientific research is a way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature, scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic, Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the correct answer to a question. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, an example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, Artistic research, also seen as practice-based research, can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge
4.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
5.
Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
6.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
7.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
8.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
9.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
10.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
11.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
12.
Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
13.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
14.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
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National Science Board
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The NSB also serves as an independent policy advisory body to the President and Congress on science and engineering research and education issues. The Board has an obligation to. The President appoints the 24 Board members, NSFs director serves as an ex officio 25th member and is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Foundation shall consist of a National Science Board and a Director, as an independent Federal agency, NSF does not fall within a cabinet department, rather NSFs activities are guided by the National Science Board. The Board was established by the Congress to serve as a science policy body. It has dual responsibilities to, a) provide independent national science policy advice to the President and the Congress, the Board identifies issues that are critical to NSFs future, and approves NSFs strategic plan and the annual budget submission to the Office of Management and Budget. Specifically, the Board analyzes NSFs budget to progress and consistency in keeping with the strategic direction set for NSF. The President appoints 24 Members of the National Science Board for six year terms, the NSF director serves as an ex officio 25th member. Every two years, one-third of the members rotate off of the Board and eight new members are appointed to serve for six-year terms, Board member nominations are based on distinguished service and eminence in research, education and/or public service. Members are drawn from academia and industry, and represent a range of science, technology, engineering. Much of the work of the National Science Board is done through its committees. By statute, the Board has an Executive Committee, which such functions as are delegated to it by the Board. As of January 2009, the Board has five standing committees. One of the ways in which the National Science Board contributes to the U. S. science and engineering enterprise is with its biennial Science & Engineering Indicators report. Mandated by Congress, this report is produced in collaboration with NSFs statistical center and these reports include information about K-12, international comparisons of investments in R&D, workforce trends and public attitudes and understanding about science. Indicators serves as a resource for a range of users that can include policymakers at all levels, educators, analysts, reporters, the broad scientific community. • The most comprehensive source of quality, policy neutral data on the U. S. Digest of Key Science and Engineering Indicators, In 2006, the Board produced a pilot digest or condensed version of SEI comprising a selection of important indicators. S
16.
Purdue University
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Purdue University is a public research university located in West Lafayette, Indiana and is the main campus of the Purdue University system. The university was founded in 1869 after Lafayette businessman John Purdue donated land and money to establish a college of science, technology, the first classes were held on September 16,1874, with six instructors and 39 students. The main campus in West Lafayette offers more than 200 majors for undergraduates, over 70 master’s and doctoral programs, in addition, Purdue has 18 intercollegiate sports teams and more than 900 student organizations. In 1865, the Indiana General Assembly voted to take advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862, communities throughout the state offered their facilities and money to bid for the location of the new college. Popular proposals included the addition of a department at Indiana State University or at what is now Butler University. By 1869, Tippecanoe County’s offer included $150,000 from Lafayette business leader and philanthropist John Purdue, $50,000 from the county, and 100 acres of land from local residents. On May 6,1869, the General Assembly established the institution in Tippecanoe County as Purdue University, classes began at Purdue on September 16,1874, with six instructors and 39 students. Professor John S. Hougham was Purdue’s first faculty member and served as acting president between the administrations of presidents Shortridge and White, a campus of five buildings was completed by the end of 1874. Purdue issued its first degree, a Bachelor of Science in chemistry, in 1875, emerson E. White, the university’s president from 1876 to 1883, followed a strict interpretation of the Morrill Act. He intended not only to students for industrial work, but also to prepare them to be good citizens. Part of White’s plan to distinguish Purdue from classical universities included an attempt to ban fraternities. This ban was overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court and led to White’s resignation. The next president, James H. Smart, is remembered for his call in 1894 to rebuild the original Heavilon Hall one brick higher after it had destroyed by a fire. Purdue’s engineering laboratories included testing facilities for a locomotive and a Corliss steam engine, one of the most efficient engines of the time. The School of Agriculture was sharing its research with farmers throughout the state with its cooperative extension services, programs in education and home economics were soon established, as well as a short-lived school of medicine. By 1925 Purdue had the largest undergraduate engineering enrollment in the country, President Edward C. Elliott oversaw a campus building program between the world wars. Inventor, alumnus, and trustee David E. Ross coordinated several fundraisers, donated lands to the university, ross’s gifts and fundraisers supported such projects as Ross–Ade Stadium, the Memorial Union, a civil engineering surveying camp, and Purdue University Airport. Purdue Airport was the country’s first university-owned airport and the site of the country’s first college-credit flight training courses, amelia Earhart joined the Purdue faculty in 1935 as a consultant for these flight courses and as a counselor on women’s careers
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Office of Management and Budget
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The Office of Management and Budget is the largest office within the Executive Office of the President of the United States. The current OMB Director is Mick Mulvaney, the OMB Director reports to the President, Vice President and the White House Chief of Staff. The Bureau of the Budget was moved to the Executive Office of the President in 1939 and was run by Harold D. Smith during the rapid expansion of spending during the Second World War. The Bureau was reorganized into the Office of Management and Budget in 1970 during the Nixon administration, the first OMB included Roy Ash, Paul ONeill, Fred Malek and Frank Zarb and two dozen others. OMB prepares the Presidents budget proposal to Congress and supervises the administration of the executive branch agencies, OMB evaluates the effectiveness of agency programs, policies, and procedures, assesses competing funding demands among agencies, and sets funding priorities. OMB ensures that agency reports, rules, testimony, and proposed legislation are consistent with the presidents budget, OMB also oversees and coordinates the administrations procurement, financial management, information, and regulatory policies. OMB manages other agencies financials, paperwork, and IT, the Office is made up mainly of career appointed staff who provide continuity across changes of party and persons in the White House. Approximately half of all OMB staff are assigned to these offices, program examiners can be assigned to monitor one or more federal agencies or may be deployed by a topical area, such as monitoring issues relating to U. S. Navy warships. These staff have dual responsibility for management and budgetary issues, as well as responsibility for giving expert advice on all aspects relating to their programs. Each year they review federal agency budget requests and help decide what resource requests will be sent to Congress as part of the presidents budget and they are often called upon to provide analysis information to any EOP staff member. Other offices are OMB-wide support offices which include the Office of General Counsel, the Office of Legislative Affairs, the Budget Review Division, the BRD performs government-wide budget coordination and is largely responsible for the technical aspects relating to the release of the presidents budget each February. The Legislative Reference Division has the important role of being the clearing house across the federal government for proposed legislation or testimony by federal officials. It distributes proposed legislation and testimony to all relevant federal reviewers and they are also responsible for writing an Enrolled Bill Memorandum to the president once a bill is presented by both bodies of Congress for the presidents signature. They also issue Statements of Administration Policy that let Congress know the White Houses official position on proposed legislation. S. com, August 22,2005
18.
William Proxmire
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Edward William Bill Proxmire was an American politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a United States Senator from Wisconsin from 1957 to 1989, Proxmire graduated from The Hill School in 1933, Yale University in 1938, Harvard Business School in 1940, and Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration in 1948. During World War II he served as a member of the Military Intelligence Service, after getting his second masters degree, Proxmire moved to Wisconsin to be a reporter for The Capital Times in Madison and to stake out a political career in a favorable state. They fired me after Id been there seven months, for activities and impertinence. Proxmire served as a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly from 1951 to 1952, Proxmire was elected, in a special election on August 28,1957, to fill the remainder of the term vacated due to the death of Senator Joseph McCarthy, on May 2,1957. He paid no homage to his predecessor in the Senate, stating that McCarthy was a disgrace to Wisconsin, to the Senate, Proxmire was reelected in 1958,1964,1970,1976 and 1982. His re-elections were always achieved by wide margins, including 71% of the vote in 1970, 73% in 1976 and 65% in 1982 and he was an early advocate of campaign finance reform. Proxmire holds the U. S. Senate record for consecutive roll call votes cast,10,252 between April 20,1966 and October 18,1988. In doing so, he surpassed the record of 2,941 which was held by Senator Margaret Chase Smith of Maine. Proxmire served as the Chair of the Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs from 1975 to 1981, during his first tenure in this position, Proxmire was instrumental in devising the financial plan that saved New York City from bankruptcy in 1976–77. He was an early, outspoken critic of the Vietnam War who frequently criticized Presidents Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon for their conduct of the war and foreign policy decisions. He used his seat on the Senate Armed Services Committee to spotlight wasteful military spending and was instrumental in stopping frequent military pork barrel projects, despite his support of budgetary restraint in other areas, he regularly sided with dairy interests and was a proponent of dairy price supports. From 1967 until 1986, Proxmire gave daily speeches noting the necessity of ratifying The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. After giving this speech every day that the Senate was in session for 20 years, resulting in 3,211 speeches, Proxmire was head of the campaign to cancel the American supersonic transport and particularly opposed to space exploration, ultimately eliminating spending on said research from NASAs budget. In response to a segment about space colonies run by the CBS program 60 Minutes, Proxmire stated that, I say not a penny for this nutty fantasy. With these positions Proxmire drew the enmity of many space advocates, arthur C. Clarke attacked Proxmire in his short story Death and the Senator. Later, the short story The Return of William Proxmire by Larry Niven and the novel Fallen Angels, written by Niven, Jerry Pournelle and he refused to accept reimbursements for travel expenses related to his Senate duties. The first Golden Fleece Award was awarded in 1975 to the National Science Foundation, Proxmires critics claimed that some of his Golden Fleece awards went to basic science projects that led to important breakthroughs
19.
Golden Fleece Award
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United States Senator William Proxmire, a Democrat from Wisconsin, began to issue the Golden Fleece Award in 1975 in monthly press releases. The Washington Post once referred to the award as the most successful public relations device in politics today, Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia, referred to the award as being as much a part of the Senate as quorum calls and filibusters. William Proxmire, a United States Senator representing the Democratic Party from Wisconsin, issued the award monthly from 1975 until 1988, in total, he issued 168 Golden Fleece Awards. Other organizations patterned their own Golden Fleece Awards after Proxmires, the Taxpayers for Common Sense, a nonpartisan federal budget watchdog organization, gave Proxmire their lifetime achievement award in 1999, and revived the Golden Fleece Award in 2000. Proxmire served as a chairman of the organization. One winner of the Golden Fleece Award, behavioral scientist Ronald Hutchinson, sued Proxmire for libel, requesting $8 million in damages, Proxmire claimed that his statements about Hutchinsons research were protected by the Speech or Debate Clause of the United States Constitution. The case was settled out of court. Proxmire continued to present the following the suit. In his 2014 book Creativity, Inc, pixar President Ed Catmull spoke of the chilling effect on research The Golden Fleece Award exerts. He argues that if you fund thousands of projects, some will have measurable, positive impacts. It is not possible to know in advance what the results of research project would be or whether the results would have value. He further argues that failure in research is essential and that fear of failure would distort the way researchers choose projects, the National Science Foundation won the first Golden Fleece Award, for spending $84,000 on a study on love. Im also against it because I dont want the answer. I believe that 200 million other Americans want to leave some things in life a mystery, Proxmire later withdrew his opposition to the SETI program. However, there is no evidence for this claim in the archives of the Award held by the Wisconsin Historical Society, begun in 1979, the money proved insufficient and the site is currently abandoned. As a result, frostbite can occur in as little as 30 minutes in these conditions, National Science Foundation, Under the Microscope Pork barrel Proxmire, William. What Proxmires Golden fleece Did For--And To--Science at The Scientist Against the Golden Fleece Award at Washington Monthly
20.
Jeff Flake
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Jeffry Lane Jeff Flake is an American politician and member of the Republican Party who has served as the Junior United States Senator from Arizona since 2013. Flake was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Arizona in 2000 for the states Arizonas 1st congressional district. He was redistricted to the Arizonas 6th congressional district during his first term and was re-elected six times, serving from 2001 to 2013, Flake declined to seek re-election to the House in 2012, instead running for the U. S. Senate. Flake was sworn-in in January 2013 and serves on the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, the Committee on Foreign Relations, the Committee on the Judiciary, Flake was born in Snowflake, Arizona, the son of Nerita and Dean Maeser Flake. His birth town was named in part for his great-great-grandfather, Mormon pioneer William J. Flake, Flake obtained a B. A. in International Relations and an M. A. in Political Science from Brigham Young University. He also worked as a Mormon missionary for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to South Africa in the early 1980s and he opposed economic sanctions on South Africa in the 1980s, arguing that sanctions would harm the black population who were already suffering under Apartheid policies. Flake was first elected to what was then Arizonas 1st congressional district in 2000, the district, which included most of the East Valley, was then renumbered to the 6th district as Arizona gained two Congressional seats because of the results of the 2000 census. In his campaign in 2000, Flake had pledged to no more than three terms in Congress which would see him serve no later than January 2007. Shortly after being elected for a time, Flake announced in early 2005 that he had changed his mind on pledging term limits and was planning to run for re-election in 2006. It was a mistake to limit my own terms, Flake said, Flake easily defeated his primary challenger. In that same election, three out of five mayors in his home district opposed his re-election because, according to Flake, I did expect to have a primary opponent. I deserve one, Flake said, referring to the term-limit pledge which he had broken, by all rights, I ought to have an opponent. I just got lucky, I guess, in the 2006 mid-term elections, Flake had no Democratic Party opponent and easily defeated the Libertarian Party candidate, Jason Blair, with 74% of the vote. Spending Flake is a fiscal conservative and he is a critic of government waste and advocates reducing federal spending. He was described by columnist Robert Novak as an insistent reformer and he is a signer of the Taxpayer Protection Pledge and one of eight House members to receive a 100% approval rating from the American Conservative Union. In 2008, Flake voted against the Troubled Asset Relief Program, a scourge of pork-barrel spending, Flake was ruled the least profligate spender in Congress by Citizens Against Government Waste in July 2007 and designated a taxpayer superhero. In September 2010, Flake introduced a series of releases under the title So Just How Broke Are We. in which explains the size of the national debt in terms of recent events. Earmarks Flake is known for his ardent opposition to earmarks and he has been called an anti-earmark crusader, and frequently challenges earmarks proposed by other members of Congress
21.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
22.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
23.
Harley M. Kilgore
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Harley Martin Kilgore was a United States Senator from West Virginia. He was born on January 11,1893 in Brown, West Virginia and he was born to Quimby Hugh Kilgore and Laura Jo Kilgore. His father worked as an oil driller and contractor and he attended the public schools and graduated from the law department of West Virginia University at Morgantown in 1914 and was admitted to the bar the same year. He taught school in Hancock, West Virginia in 1914 and 1915 and he was the schools first principal for a year, and commenced the practice of law in Beckley, West Virginia in 1916. During the First World War he served in the infantry from 1917 and was discharged as a captain in 1920, in 1921 he organized the West Virginia National Guard and he was married to Lois Elaine Lilly in Huntington, West Virginia, in 1921. He was judge of the Raleigh County criminal court from 1933 to 1940, and was elected as a Democrat to the U. S. Senate in 1940, and won re-election twice. He was a member of the Senate from January 3,1941 until his death in Bethesda Naval Hospital in 1956. S, Mobilization efforts for World War II. He also helped establish the National Science Foundation in 1950, Senator Kilgore was West Virginias favorite-son candidate in 1948 Democratic presidential primaries and won his home state unopposed. He died on February 28,1956, aged 63 and was interred in Arlington National Cemetery, in 1942, American manufacturing expert Herbert Schimmel advised Kilgore to form a committee to centralize scientific research done for the war effort. Additionally, the organization would be able to draft scientists and facilities for the war effort, as the war neared its end, many prominent scientists feared a peacetime Kilgore plan. The scientists running the war-time Office of Scientific Research and Development sought to bypass the Kilgore Committee in forming a postwar science policy, Senator Warren Magnuson of Washington introduced a proposal based on Bushs report, Science, the Endless Frontier, in July 1945. The report contradicted much of Kilgores vision of a science-funding organization accountable to the government, Kilgore felt betrayed by Bushs failure to mention this alternate bill, and remained on hostile terms with Bush for years afterwards. At the same time, Republican Senator Alexander Smith of New Jersey introduced a bill for a more similar to Bushs vision. The Smith bill passed both houses of United States Congress, Kilgore encouraged his former colleague, now President Harry S. Truman to veto the Smith bill, in large part because of the potential it made for the military to dominate scientific research. Truman followed Kilgores advice and let the bill expire through a pocket veto, Kilgore also encouraged Truman to establish a Presidential Research Board to be led by John Steelman, former Director of the War Mobilization and Reconversion, which Truman then did in October 1946. By 1948, other agencies like the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation would now solely fund basic science. In early 1948, Truman, Steelman, and Senator Smith reached a compromise in administration of the foundation, later that year, Kilgore and Smith cosponsored the bill that President Truman would finally sign on May 10,1950 to establish the National Science Foundation. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
24.
National Defense Research Committee
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Most of its work was done with the strictest secrecy, and it began research of what would become some of the most important technology during World War II, including radar and the atomic bomb. It was superseded by the Office of Scientific Research and Development in 1941, Bush managed to get a meeting with the President on June 12,1940, and took a single sheet of paper describing the proposed agency. Roosevelt approved it in ten minutes and that, in fact, is exactly what it was. One member was appointed by the Secretary of War and another by the Secretary of the Navy, Conant, President of Harvard University, Frank B. Jewett, President of the National Academy of Sciences and President of Bell Telephone Laboratories, Brigadier General George V. Strong, Tolman, Professor of Physical Chemistry and Mathematical Physics at California Institute of Technology. Strong was succeeded by Brigadier General R. C. Moore on January 17,1941, during its first meeting on July 2, the NDRC elected Tolman as its Vice-Chairman and appointed Irvin Stewart as its Secretary. The NDRC members met approximately once a month until September 1942, after which it met weekly or bi-weekly until the end of the war with Germany. The former grew to be the largest single activity of the NDRC, in the year of its autonomous existence, the NDRC received approximately $6,500,000 for research. The NDRCs most important project eventually became the Manhattan Project — the full-scale project to nuclear weapons by the United States. It was instructed in Roosevelts June 15 letter to report to the NDRC and Bush, during June 1940 Bush reorganized the Uranium Committee into a scientific body and eliminated military membership. No longer beholden to the military for funds, the NDRC had greater access to money for nuclear research, however, there was little impetus until the British MAUD Committees findings were presented in 1941. At Bushs insistence Roosevelt issued Executive Order No.8807 on June 28,1941, the NDRC technically still existed after the creation of the OSRD but its authority had been reduced from being able to actually fund research to becoming simply an advisory body to the OSRD. The NDRC ceased to exist officially after its last meeting on January 20,1947, when it became the NDRC of the OSRD, the committee membership and structure was re-organized. The NDRC of the OSRD membership consisted of Conant, Tolman, Adams, Compton, and Jewett, along with the Commission of Patents, the Committee on Uranium was reorganized as the S-1 Section and it stopped being part of NDRC jurisdiction during December 1941. The NDRC funded research into hundreds of different projects at different educational and industrial sites around the country. During early June 1941, shortly before it was superseded by the OSRD, its organization was as follows, Section B Section H Section S Section T Section E Division B – James B. Conant, Chairman Synthetic Problems — Roger Adams, Vice-Chairman Section A-1 Section A-2 Section A-3 Section A-4 Physical Chemical Problems – W. K, jolliffe, Hartley Rowe, R. D. Booth, and J. T. Tate, Vice-Chairmen. Section C-1 Section C-2 Section C-3 Section C-4 Section C-5 Division D – Karl Compton, Chairman, Alfred L. Loomis, Section D-1 Section D-2 Section D-3 Section D-4 Division E – Conway P. Coe, Chairman
25.
Populism
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Populism is a political doctrine that proposes that the common people are exploited by a privileged elite, and which seeks to resolve this. The underlying ideology of populists can be left, right, or center and its goal is uniting the uncorrupt and the unsophisticated little man against the corrupt dominant elites and their camp of followers. It is guided by the belief that political and social goals are best achieved by the actions of the masses. Political parties and politicians often use the terms populist and populism as pejoratives against their opponents, such a view sees populism as demagogy, merely appearing to empathize with the public through rhetoric or unrealistic proposals in order to increase appeal across the political spectrum. Populism is most common in democratic nations, historically, academic definitions of populism vary, and people have often used the term in loose and inconsistent ways to reference appeals to the people, demagogy, and catch-all politics. The term has also used as a label for new parties whose classifications are unclear. In recent years, academic scholars have produced definitions that facilitate populist identification and comparison, in the United States and Latin America, populism has generally been associated with the left, whereas in European countries, populism is more associated with the right. In both, the tenet of populism—that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of the people—means it can sit easily with ideologies of both right and left. Cas Mudde says, Many observers have noted that populism is inherent to representative democracy, after all, most recently, many observers have categorized the rise of Donald Trump in the U. S. and Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines as populist in nature. Populism has taken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist forms, as well as forms of politics that bring together groups and individuals of diverse partisan views. The use of populist rhetoric in the United States has recently included references such as the trial lawyer lobby. Subsistence peasant movements, such as the Eastern European Green Rising militias, intellectuals who romanticize hard-working farmers and peasants and build radical agrarian movements like the Russian narodniki. Populist democracy, including calls for political participation through reforms such as the use of popular referenda. Politicians populism marked by non-ideological appeals for the people to build a unified coalition, reactionary populism, such as the white backlash harvested by George Wallace. Populist dictatorship, such as established by Getúlio Vargas in Brazil. Scholars have argued that populist elements have appeared in authoritarian movements. Conspiracist scapegoating employed by various populist movements can create a seedbed for fascism, National Socialist populism interacted with and facilitated fascism in interwar Germany. In this case, distressed middle–class populists mobilized their anger against the government, the Nazis parasitized the forms and themes of the populists and moved their constituencies far to the right through ideological appeals involving demagoguery, scapegoating, and conspiracism
26.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
27.
Vannevar Bush
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He is also known in engineering for his work on analog computers, for founding Raytheon, and for the memex, a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext. The memex influenced generations of scientists, who drew inspiration from its vision of the future. He was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation, for his masters thesis, Bush invented and patented a profile tracer, a mapping device for assisting surveyors. It was the first of a string of inventions and he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919, and founded the company now known as Raytheon in 1922. Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, a computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory, Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938. Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1938, Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11,1890, the third child and only son of Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood née Paine. He had two sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry, the family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909. He then attended Tufts, like his father before him, a popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed the football team and he became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelors degree, so for his masters thesis. This was a device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower and it had two bicycle wheels, and a pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions, on graduation in 1913 he received both bachelor of science and master of science degrees. After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric in Schenectady, New York, as a test man, his job was to assess equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GEs plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire out at the plant, Bush. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and he was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics
28.
Manhattan Project
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
29.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
30.
Warren Magnuson
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Warren Grant Maggie Magnuson was an American lawyer and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a U. S and he served over 36 years in the Senate, and was the most senior member of the body during his final two years in office. Warren Magnuson was born in Moorhead, Minnesota and his birth date is given as April 12,1905, but the actual records of his birth are sealed. He apparently never knew his parents, according to various sources, his parents either died within a month of his birth. He was adopted by William Grant and Emma Magnuson, who gave him their name, the Magnusons were second-generation Scandinavian immigrants who operated a bar in Moorhead, and who adopted a daughter named Clara a year after adopting Warren. His adoptive father left the family in 1921, Magnuson attended Moorhead High School, where he played quarterback on the football team and was captain of the baseball team. While attending high school, he ran a YMCA camp, worked in the wheat farms and he graduated in 1923, and then enrolled at the University of North Dakota in Grand Forks. In 1924, he transferred to the North Dakota Agricultural College in Fargo and he then traveled through Canada for a period of time, riding freight trains and working with threshing crews. Magnuson followed a high school girlfriend to Seattle, Washington, where he entered the University of Washington in 1925 and he was a member of the Theta Chi fraternity, and worked delivering ice as a member of the Teamsters under Dave Beck. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1926, and earned a Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of Washington School of Law in 1929. A Democrat, he first became active in politics in 1928, volunteering for A. Scott Bullitt for governor, in 1929, Magnuson was admitted to the bar and joined the law office of Judge Samuel Stern in Seattle. He served as secretary of the Seattle Municipal League from 1930 to 1931 and he served as special prosecutor for King County in 1932, investigating official misconduct. He also founded the chapter of the Young Democrats of America that same year. He was a supporter of repealing state Prohibition laws and establishing the state Liquor Control Board. From 1933 to 1934, Magnuson served as a member of the Washington House of Representatives from the Seattle-based 37th Legislative District, as a state legislator, he sponsored the first unemployment compensation bill in the nation. He was a delegate to the constitutional convention in 1933. He briefly served as Assistant United States District Attorney before being elected prosecuting attorney of King County, Magnuson was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1936, filling a vacancy caused by the sudden and still mysterious death of fellow Democrat Marion Zioncheck on August 7,1936. In 1937, along with senators Homer Bone and Matthew Neely, Magnuson introduced the National Cancer Institute Act and he won re-election in 1938,1940, and 1942
31.
Howard Alexander Smith
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Howard Alexander Smith was an American lawyer and politician. A member of the Republican Party, he served as a United States Senator from New Jersey from 1944 to 1959 and he was the uncle of Peter H. Dominick, who was a Senator from Colorado. H. Alexander Smith was born in New York City to Abram Alexander and his father was a physician and teacher. He attended the Cutler School in New York, and then enrolled at Princeton University in New Jersey, at Princeton, he studied jurisprudence, political science, and English common law under Woodrow Wilson. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1901, Smith married Helen Dominick, whom he met during his time at Columbia, in 1902, the couple had two daughters and a son. One daughter, Helen Smith Shoemaker, was an author, sculptor and she married renowned preacher Sam Shoemaker in 1925. In 1904, Smith was admitted to the New York State Bar Association and commenced his practice in New York City, due to poor health, he moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado, where continued to practice law until 1917. During World War I, he worked for the United States Food Administration in Colorado and afterwards in Washington and he moved to New Jersey in 1919, and served as executive secretary of Princeton University from 1920 to 1927. He then served as a lecturer in Princetons department of politics, teaching international relations, while continuing to live in New Jersey, Smith resumed his practice of law in New York City. He became active in politics, helping establish the New Jersey Republican Policy Council in 1933. He was later elected chairman of the Republican State Committee, and he was elected on November 7,1944, as a Republican to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy in the term ending January 3,1947, caused by the death of W. Warren Barbour. He was reelected in 1946 and 1952 and served from December 7,1944 and he was not a candidate for renomination in 1958, but served as a special consultant on foreign affairs to the US Secretary of State from 1959 to 1960. Smith died in Princeton at age 86, and is buried in Princeton Cemetery
32.
Elbert D. Thomas
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Elbert Duncan Thomas was a Democratic Party politician from Utah. He represented Utah in the United States Senate from 1933 until 1951, Thomas was born in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory on June 17,1883 to Caroline Stockdale and Richard Kendall Thomas. He was the fifth of 12 children and his parents loved the arts, especially the theater. They built the first Childrens Playhouse west of the Mississippi River in a barn on their property, Elbert was involved in many plays held for the public in the Barnacle. His father was involved in government and held conventions and political rallies at the Barnacle. His family later moved to a home across from what is now the Conference Center of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and this home is on the National Historical Landmark Registry. While an undergraduate student at the University of Utah, Thomas helped found the Amici Fidissimi Society in 1902, Elbert was the first initiate into Phi Delta Theta at the University of Utah. Thomas married Edna Harker on June 25,1907, in the Salt Lake Temple, Edna died in 1942, and Elbert later married Ethel Evans in 1946 in the Salt Lake Temple. Thomas served a mission to Japan for the LDS Church with his first wife and he was one of the first LDS missionaries sent to Japan, and his first daughter, Chiyo, was born there. Elbert developed a love for the Japanese people and learned to speak Japanese fluently. He was the author of Sukui No Michi, the Japanese translation of the Mormon tract Way of Salvation, for part of his five-year mission, Thomas was the president of the Japanese Mission. On his return from Japan, he became a Professor of Political Science, Thomas was first elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1932, defeating Republican Reed Smoot. He served on the Committee on Education and Labor, the Committee on Military Affairs, the Mines and Mining Committee, and he is an out and out internationalist and interventionist, who has voted with the Administration on all foreign measures. He is essentially a free trader but, nevertheless, occasionally votes with the Farm Bloc which is powerful in the agricultural State which he represents and he is an ardent champion of the Jewish army scheme. Thomas served three terms before being defeated for reelection by Wallace F. Bennett in 1950, in 1951, he was appointed High Commissioner over the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Elbert died in Honolulu, Hawaii Territory on February 11,1953 and he was buried in the Thomas family plot in the Salt Lake City Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, Elbert D. Thomas Collection at the Carl Albert Center Haruo Iguchi, Senator Elbert D. Thomas and Japan
33.
Alan Tower Waterman
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Alan Tower Waterman was an American physicist. Born in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York, he grew up in Northampton and his father was a professor of physics at Smith College. Alan also became a physicist, doing his undergraduate and doctoral work at Princeton University and he joined the faculty of the University of Cincinnati, and married Vassar graduate Mary Mallon there in August 1917. He later became a professor at Yale University, and moved to North Haven, during World War II, he took leave of absence from Yale to become director of field operations for the Office of Scientific Research and Development, and the family moved to Cambridge, MA. He continued his government work and became deputy chief of the Office of Naval Research, in 1950, he was appointed by President Truman as first director of the U. S. National Science Foundation. Waterman was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1960 and he served as director until 1963, when he retired and was subsequently awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Alan and Mary had six children, Alan Jr. an atmospheric physicist who taught at Stanford University, Neil, Barbara, Anne, and Guy, writer, climber, a daughter Mary died in childhood. Possessed of a nature, Alan Waterman was known for his calm. Besides his scientific talents, he was a musician, revealing his sense of humor by walking the corridors of the National Science Foundation playing his bagpipes. He had a voice and singing together was a family ritual. An avid outdoorsman, Dr. Waterman canoed the rivers and lakes of northern Maine during extensive summer trips in the 1930s and 1940s and he was accompanied by his sons and colleagues, in particular Karl Compton, then president of MIT. Dr. Waterman was known to say that becoming a licensed Maine Guide meant possibly more to him than his NSF appointment, the crater Waterman on the Moon is named after him, as is Mount Waterman in the Hughes Range of Antarctica. Since 1975, the National Science Foundation has annually issued the Alan T. Waterman Award to a young researcher. Losing the Garden, The Story of a Marriage, National Science Foundation biography page for Waterman
34.
Office of Naval Research
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It is headquartered in the Ballston neighborhood of Arlington, Virginia. ONR reports to the U. S. Secretary of the Navy through the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development and Acquisition. The Chief of Naval Research is Rear Admiral Mathias W. ONR executes its mission through science and technology departments, corporate programs, the Naval Research Laboratory, the ONR Global office. In 2007, a Naval S&T Strategic Plan was developed to describe how ONR will enable the future operational concepts of the Navy and this plan was updated in 2009 and 2011. More than 50 researchers have won a Nobel Prize for their ONR-funded work, continuous investment in new and innovative technology enables ONR to build and maintain the world’s most capable Navy. Its focus is long term, yet it is responsive to near-term Naval needs. The six departments support efforts span from combating terrorism to oceanography, NRL is the corporate research laboratory for the Navy and Marine Corps and conducts a broad program of scientific research, technology and advanced development. A few of the Laboratorys current specialties include plasma physics, space physics, materials science, the U. S. Office of Naval Research Global provides worldwide science & technology-based solutions to current and future Naval challenges. ONR Global combines the expertise of over 40 scientists, technologists, oNRs investments have enabled many firsts, including the launch of the first U. S. Others include, The ONR has also sponsored symposia such as the Symposium on Principles of Self-Organization at Allerton Park in 1960, Office of Naval Research Homepage Naval Research Laboratory Homepage Naval S&T Strategic Plan
35.
Sputnik 1
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Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957 and it was a 58 cm diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable and this surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information, even though the satellite itself wasnt equipped with sensors. The density of the atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, the satellite travelled at about 29,000 kilometres per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, the signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. Sputnik burned up on 4 January 1958 while reentering Earths atmosphere, after travelling about 70 million km, on 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev addressed Dimitri Ustinov and proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite. Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overview of similar projects abroad, Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that the United States would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year. A week later, on 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov – the head of the State Commission on R-7 rocket test launches – held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D, was planned to be completed in 1957–58, it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg, the first test launch of Object D was scheduled for 1957. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the wind, magnetic fields. These data would be valuable in the creation of artificial satellites. A system of stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellites orbit
36.
Kitt Peak
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Kitt Peak is a mountain in the U. S. state of Arizona, and at 6,883 feet is the highest point in the Quinlan Mountains. It is the location of the Kitt Peak National Observatory, the radio telescope at the Observatory is one of ten dishes comprising the Very Long Baseline Array radio telescope. The peak was named in English by County Surveyor George J. Roskruge for his sister, Phillippa, on his 1893 Pima County Survey map, Roskruge spelled the name Kits. At the request of the wife of George F. Kitt, Kitt Peak is the second-highest peak on the Tohono Oodham Indian reservation, and as such is the second-most sacred after Baboquivari Peak. Near the summit is Iitois Garden, the residence of the nations elder brother deity. The name Ioligam means red stick in reference to the abundance of bushes on
37.
Tucson, Arizona
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Tucson is a city and the county seat of Pima County, Arizona, United States, and home to the University of Arizona. The 2010 United States Census put the population at 520,116, the Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area, with a total population of 1,010,025 as of the 2010 Census. Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix, both of which anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor, the city is located 108 miles southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi north of the U. S. –Mexico border. Tucson is the 33rd largest city and the 53rd largest metropolitan area in the United States, Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. Communities in the vicinity of Tucson include Casas Adobes, Catalina Foothills, Flowing Wells, Midvale Park, Tanque Verde, Tortolita, towns outside the Tucson metro area include Benson to the southeast, Catalina and Oracle to the north, and Green Valley to the south. The Spanish name of the city, Tucsón, is derived from the Oodham Cuk Ṣon, meaning base of the black, Tucson is sometimes referred to as The Old Pueblo. Tucson was probably first visited by Paleo-Indians, known to have been in southern Arizona about 12,000 years ago, recent archaeological excavations near the Santa Cruz River have located a village site dating from 2100 BC. The floodplain of the Santa Cruz River was extensively farmed during the Early Agricultural Period and these people constructed irrigation canals and grew corn, beans, and other crops while gathering wild plants and hunting. The Early Ceramic period occupation of Tucson saw the first extensive use of vessels for cooking. The groups designated as the Hohokam lived in the area from AD600 to 1450 and are known for their vast irrigation canal systems and their red-on-brown pottery. Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino visited the Santa Cruz River valley in 1692, a separate Convento settlement was founded downstream along the Santa Cruz River, near the base of what is now A mountain. Hugo OConor, the father of the city of Tucson, Arizona authorized the construction of a military fort in that location, Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón. During the Spanish period of the presidio, attacks such as the Second Battle of Tucson were repeatedly mounted by Apaches, eventually the town came to be called Tucson and became a part of Sonora after Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. Tucson was not included in the Mexican Cession and Cookes road through Tucson became one of the important routes into California during the California Gold Rush, Arizona, south of the Gila River, was obtained via treaty from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase on June 8,1854. Tucson became a part of the United States of America, although the American military did not formally take control until March 1856. In 1857, Tucson became a station on the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line. The Overland Mail Corporation attempted to continue running, however, following the Bascom Affair, devastating Apache attacks on the stations, from August 1861 to mid-1862, Tucson was the western capital of the Confederate Arizona Territory, the eastern capital being Mesilla. In 1862, the California Column drove the Confederate forces out of Arizona, Tucson and all of what is now Arizona were part of New Mexico Territory until 1863, when they became part of the new Arizona Territory
38.
National Optical Astronomy Observatory
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The National Optical Astronomy Observatory is the United States national observatory for ground based nighttime ultraviolet-optical-infrared astronomy. The National Science Foundation funds NOAO to provide forefront astronomical research facilities for US astronomers, however, professional astronomers from any country in the world may apply to use the telescopes operated by NOAO under the NSFs open skies policy. Astronomers submit proposals for review to gain access to the telescopes which are scheduled every night of the year for observations. The combination of open access and the merit based science proposal process makes NOAO unique in the world. The NOAO headquarters are located in Tucson, Arizona and are co-located with the headquarters of the National Solar Observatory, the NOAO is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, under a cooperative agreement with the NSF. NOAO operates world class research telescopes in both the northern and southern hemispheres and these telescopes are located at Kitt Peak and Cerro Tololo in the US and Chile, respectively. Complemented with similar instruments, the two sites allow US astronomers to make observations over the entire sky. Instrumentation includes optical to near infrared wavelength cameras and spectrometers, CTIO has a base and office facility in the seaside town of La Serena, Chile. The CTIO telescopes are located some 70 km inland in the foothills of the Chilean Andes, access to the observatory is made through the picturesque Elqui Valley. The Blanco 4m played the role in discovery of Dark Energy. The Blanco began hosting a new 3-degree field of view called the Dark Energy Camera, also known as DECam. This camera is being built at Fermilab in Chicago, USA, CTIO operates, and is a partner in the 4. 1m Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope. SOAR concentrates on high resolution observations and will soon deploy an adaptive optics module to help support such observations. KPNO is located near Tucson, AZ, USA, the mountain, Kitt Peak, is part of the tribal lands of the Native American people the Tohono Oodham. The mountain has been leased from the Tohono Oodham since 1958, the native name for the mountain is loligam which means manzanita. The observatory was established in 1958, and its largest telescope, a new wide field imager working at near infrared wavelengths has been deployed to advance studies of galactic star formation, cosmology, and the structure and evolution of galaxies. NOAO also manages US participation in the international Gemini Observatory, Gemini is a partnership of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The US holds a 50% share of the project which provides public access time on each of Geminis two 8m telescopes, one telescope is located near CTIO in Chile, and the other is located on the island of Hawaii
39.
National Radio Astronomy Observatory
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NRAO designs, builds, and operates its own high sensitivity radio telescopes for use by scientists around the world. The NRAO headquarters is located on the campus of the University of Virginia, the North American ALMA Science Center and the NRAO Technology Center are also located in Charlottesville, Virginia. NRAO was, until October 2016, the operator of the worlds largest fully steerable telescope, the Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope. The zone consists of a 13, 000-square-mile piece of land where fixed transmitters must coordinate their emissions before a license is granted, the land was set aside by the Federal Communications Commission in 1958. No fixed radio transmitters are allowed within the area closest to the telescope, with the advent of wireless technology and microprocessors in everything from cameras to cars, it is difficult to keep the sites free of radio interference. At one point, the observatory faced the problem of North American flying squirrels tagged with US Fish & Wildlife Service telemetry transmitters, electric fences, electric blankets, faulty automobile electronics, and other radio wave emitters have caused great trouble for the astronomers in Green Bank. All vehicles on the premises are powered by diesel motors to minimize interference by ignition systems, the NRAOs facility in Socorro is the Pete V. Domenici Array Operations Center. The ten VLBA telescopes are located in Hawaii, the U. S. Virgin Islands, offices are located on the University of Arizona campus. NRAO formerly operated the 12 Meter Telescope on Kitt Peak, NRAO suspended operations at this telescope and funding was rerouted to the Atacama Large Millimeter Array instead. The Arizona Radio Observatory now operates the 12 Meter Telescope, the Atacama Large Millimeter Array site in Chile is at ~5000 m altitude near Cerro Chajnantor in northern Chile. This is about 40 km east of the village of San Pedro de Atacama,130 km southeast of the mining town of Calama. The Karl G. Jansky Lectureship is a prestigious Lecture awarded by the Board of Trustees of the NRAO, the Lectureship is awarded to recognize outstanding contributions to the advancement of radio astronomy. Recipients have included Fred Hoyle, Charles Townes, Edward M. Purcell, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Philip Morrison, Vera Rubin, Jocelyn Bell Burnell, Frank J. Low, the lecture is delivered in both Charlottesville and in Socorro
40.
National Solar Observatory
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The US National Solar Observatory carries out research into the Sun as an astronomical object and as the dominant external influence on Earth. It provides its observations to the scientific community and it operates facilities, develops advanced instrumentation both in-house and through partnerships, conducts solar research, and carries out educational and public outreach. The NSO operates facilities at two locations, at Sacramento Peak near Sunspot in New Mexico, and at Kitt Peak in Arizona, a major feature of the Richard B. Dunn Solar Telescope at Sacramento Peak is a de-rotated 100 meter vacuum column, the National Solar Observatory at Sacramento Peak welcomes visitors during the daytime. There is a separate, nighttime observatory, Apache Point Observatory, Sunspot is an unincorporated community in the Sacramento Mountains in Otero County. The National Solar Observatory in Arizona is located in Tucson and at Kitt Peak, allow 90 minutes of drive time from Tucson. The sites name was chosen by the late James C, sadler, an internationally noted meteorologist and professor at The University of Hawaii, formerly with the United States Air Force on assignment during the early inception of the observatory. Scientists spot tsunami on the sun, liebowitz, R. P. Donald Menzel and the creation of the Sacramento Peak Observatory. Journal for the History of Astronomy, official website Media related to National Solar Observatory at Wikimedia Commons
41.
Gemini Observatory
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The Gemini Observatory is an astronomical observatory consisting of two 8. 19-metre telescopes, Gemini North and Gemini South, which are located at two separate sites in Hawaii and Chile, respectively. Together, the twin Gemini telescopes provide almost complete coverage of both the northern and southern skies and they are currently among the largest and most advanced optical/infrared telescopes available to astronomers. The National Science Foundation of the United States, the National Research Council of Canada, CONICYT of Chile, MCTI of Brazil, the NSF is currently the majority partner, contributing approximately 70% of the funding needed to operate and maintain both telescopes. The operations and maintenance of the observatory is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, NSF acts as the Executive Agency on behalf of the international partners. Past participants in the Gemini Observatory include Australia and the United Kingdom, both telescopes are also now operated remotely from Base Facility Operations centers in Hilo, Hawaii, and La Serena, Chile. The Gemini Observatorys international Headquarters and Northern Operations Center is located in Hilo, the Southern Operations Center is located on the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory campus near La Serena, Chile. The Gemini North telescope, officially called the Frederick C. Gillett Gemini Telescope is located on Hawaiis Mauna Kea and that location provides excellent viewing conditions due to the superb atmospheric conditions above the 4, 200-metre-high dormant volcano. It saw first light in 1999 and began operations in 2000. The Gemini South telescope is located at over 2,700 metres elevation on a mountain in the Chilean Andes called Cerro Pachón, very dry air and negligible cloud cover make this another prime telescope location. Gemini South saw first light in 1998, the history of the Gemini Observatory featured prominently in Giant Telescopes, a 2004 book by science historian W. Patrick McCray. The book details the technical and political challenges faced by scientists and engineers working to construct Gemini and it is estimated that the two telescopes cost approximately $184 million to construct, and a night on each Gemini telescope is worth tens of thousands of US dollars. The two 8-meter mirror blanks, each weighing over 22 t, were fabricated from Cornings Ultra Low Expansion glass, each blank was constructed by the fusing together of and subsequent sagging of a series of smaller hexagonal pieces. This work was performed at Cornings Canton Plant facility located in upstate New York, the blanks were then transported via ship to REOSC, located south of Paris for final grinding and polishing. One decision made during design to save money was eliminating the 2 Nasmyth platforms and this makes instruments like high resolution spectrographs and adaptive optics systems much more difficult to construct, due to the size and mass requirement inherent with Cassegrain instruments. In November 2007 it was announced that the UKs STFC had proposed that, to save £4 million annually, it would aim to leave the telescopes operating consortium. At a consortium meeting in January 2008, the conclusion was made that the UK would officially withdraw from the Gemini Partnership and this decision significantly disrupted observatory budgets, and resulted in the cancellation of at least one instrument in development at that time. The UK rethought their decision to withdraw from Gemini, and requested reinstatement into the agreement, the first director of Gemini was Matt Mountain, who after holding the post for eleven years left in September 2005 to become director of STScI. He was succeeded by Jean-René Roy, who served for nine months and he in turn was succeeded by an interim appointment of the then-retired Fred Chaffee, former director of Keck Observatory
Brussels for Europe, formerly based in Paris[65]
Tokyo for East Asia, except China[66]
Beijing for China[67]
