1.
Marcus Garvey
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He also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands. Prior to the 20th century, leaders such as Prince Hall, Martin Delany, Edward Wilmot Blyden, only his sister Indiana along with Marcus survived to adulthood. His family was financially stable given the circumstances of time period. Garveys father had a library, and it was from his father that Marcus gained his love for reading. He also attended schools in St. Anns Bay during his youth. While attending these schools, Garvey first began to experience racism, in 1907, he took part in an unsuccessful printers strike and the experience kindled in him a passion for political activism. In 1910 Garvey left Jamaica and began traveling throughout the Central American region and his first stop was Costa Rica, where he had a maternal uncle. He lived in Costa Rica for several months and worked as a keeper on a banana plantation. He began work as editor for a newspaper called La Nacionale in 1911. Later that year, he moved to Colón, Panama, where he edited a biweekly newspaper, over time, Marcus Garvey became influenced by many civil rights activists of his time. After years of working in the Caribbean, Garvey left Jamaica to live in London from 1912 to 1914 and he also worked for the African Times and Orient Review, published by Dusé Mohamed Ali, who was a considerable influence on the young man. Garvey sometimes spoke at Hyde Parks Speakers Corner, in 1914, Garvey returned to Jamaica, where he organized the Universal Negro Improvement Association. In an article titled The Negros Greatest Enemy, published in Current History, Garvey explained the origin of the organizations name and he related to me in conversation such horrible and pitiable tales that my heart bled within me. Such a name I thought would embrace the purpose of all black humanity, thus to the world a name was born, a movement created, and a man became known. He intended to make a tour and to raise funds to establish a school in Jamaica modeled after Washingtons Institute. Garvey visited Tuskegee, and afterwards, visited with a number of black leaders, throughout his life, Garvey and the UNIA used the organizations resources to give people of African descent opportunities in academics that he felt they wouldnt be provided otherwise. After moving to New York, he work as a printer by day. He was influenced by Hubert Harrison, at night he would speak on street corners, much as he did in Londons Hyde Park
2.
The Messenger (magazine)
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The Messenger was a political and literary magazine by and for African-American people in the early 20th century that was important in the flowering of the Harlem Renaissance. The Messenger was co-founded in New York City by Chandler Owen, after 1920, The Messenger featured more articles about black culture and began to publish rising black writers. It became a kind of literary magazine and it was notable for helping strengthen African-American intellectual and political identity in the age of Jim Crow. Toward the end of 1916, A, philip Randolph and Chandler Owen dropped out of college, joined the Socialist Party, and gave soapbox orations on street corners around Harlem. Their socialist and labor union propagandizing gained them celebrity in the area and he suggested they move into his society’s headquarters and edit a monthly magazine for waiters. From January until August 1917, Randolph and Owen brought out the Hotel Messenger until their exposé of union corruption resulted in their immediate dismissal and they moved into an office next door at 513 Lenox Avenue and, with the patronage of Randolph’s wife Lucille, launched the Messenger. Patriotism has no appeal to us, justice has, Party has no weight with us, principle has. Loyalty is meaningless, it depends on one is loyal to. Prayer is not one of our remedies, it depends on one is praying for. We consider prayer as nothing more than a fervent wish, consequently the merit and its editors also criticized major black figures such as W. E. B. Du Bois, who was pro-war at the time, and Marcus Garvey and they believed that Garveys program to “repatriate” native-born American black citizens to Africa was illogical and far fetched. The Messenger declared, “No intelligent Negro is willing to lay down his life for the United States as it now exists. Intelligent Negroes have now reached the point where their support of the country is conditional. ”Such statements led to Justice Department agents ransacking the Messenger′s editorial office in the dead of night, breaking furniture and confiscating back issues. Randolph and Owen conducted a speaking tour against the war, appearing in Chicago and Cleveland. Reaching Cleveland on August 4, Randolph and Owen took turns addressing the meeting gathered by Cleveland’s Socialist Party leader Walter Bronstrup. He sold issues of the Messenger in the crowd until an undercover Justice Department official bought an issue and he pulled Randolph from the stage, arrested him and Owen, and held them the following day for investigation. ”After two days in jail they were brought to trial. The judge, looking at the two men and what they had written, said that he could not believe they were old enough, or, being black and he did not doubt that they were being used by white socialists who had written the editorials for them. He said there would be no trial and ordered Randolph and Owen returned to their parents homes, when they returned to New York, they learned that the Postmaster General Albert Burleson had denied second-class mailing privileges to their magazine because of its content
3.
The Crisis
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The Crisis is the official magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. It was founded in 1910 by W. E. B, Du Bois, Oswald Garrison Villard, J. Max Barber, Charles Edward Russell, Kelly Miller, W. S. Braithwaite, and Mary Dunlop Maclean. The Crisis has been in print since 1910, and it is the oldest black publication in the world. The original title of the magazine was The Crisis, A Record of The Darker Races, the magazine’s name was inspired by James Russell Lowell’s 1844 poem, The Present Crisis. The suggestion to name the magazine after the poem came from one of the NAACP co-founders and it takes its name from the fact that the editors believe that this is a critical time in the history of the advancement of men. Although The Crisis was officially an organ of the NAACP, Du Bois had a degree of control over the periodicals expressed opinion. The NAACP was founded in response to the Springfield Race Riots of Illinois in 1908, after this Riot, William Walling composed an article in the newspaper, prompting his audience to fight racism in a united fashion. There were 60 individuals that attended the call,7 of them were persons of color, including Mary Church Terrell and this meeting and signing of the call led to the formation of the NAACP in 1909. The NAACP was largely recognized as a foundation, as it relied on the surrounding to community to sell subscriptions to the magazine. In its first year, the journal had a circulation of 1,000 and by 1918. It also grew in size, beginning at 20 pages and rising to as many as 68 pages, the Crisis would go on to become incredibly influential during the 1910s and 1920s and would take a large role in the Harlem Renaissance literature movement. It was primarily during Jessie Fauset’s tenure that literature abounded, though not nearly as well-known today as Du Bois, Fausets literary contributions were equal in importance. The poet Langston Hughes described Fauset as one of the midwives of the Harlem Renaissance, Hughes wrote in his autobiography The Big Sea that the parties at Fauset’s Harlem home were rather exclusive “literary soirees with much poetry but little to drink. Despite Fauset’s personal tastes and interests in her own writing, she featured poetry, prose, short stories, Fauset was also the primary force that kept the New York office going logistically between 1919 and 1926. After her departure from The Crisis, the quality and quantity of the section of The Crisis declined. In addition to literature, art played an important role in The Crisis’s overall message, I stand in utter shamelessness and say that whatever art I have for writing has been used always for propaganda for gaining the right of black folk to love and enjoy. I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda, but I do care when propaganda is confined to one side while the other is stripped and silent. In pursuing the use of art to portray the African-American race
4.
African diaspora
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Some scholars identify four circulatory phases of migration out of Africa. The term has also commonly been used to refer to recent emigration from Africa. Its constitutive act declares that it shall invite and encourage the participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent. The phrase African diaspora was coined during the 1990s, and gradually entered common usage during the 2000s, use of the term diaspora is modelled after the concept of the Jewish diaspora. Much of the African diaspora was dispersed throughout the Americas, Europe, beginning in the 15th century, Europeans captured or bought African slaves from West Africa and brought them to the Americas and Europe. The Atlantic Slave Trade ended in the 19th century, and the Arab Slave Trade ended in the middle of the 20th century, the dispersal through slave trading represents the largest forced migrations in human history. The economic effect on the African continent was devastating, as generations of people were taken from their communities and societies were disrupted. Some communities created by descendants of African slaves in the Americas, Europe, in other cases, blacks intermarried with non-blacks, and their descendants are blended into the local population. In the Americas, the confluence of multiple ethnic groups from around the world created multi-ethnic societies, in Central and South America, most people are descended from European, indigenous American, and African ancestry. In Brazil, where in 1888 nearly half the population was descended from African slaves, in the United States, there was historically a greater European colonial population in relation to African slaves, especially in the Northern Tier. There was considerable racial intermarriage in colonial Virginia, and other forms of racial mixing during the slavery, one of the results of this implementation was the loss of records of Indian-identified groups, who were classified only as black because of being mixed race. See Emigration from Africa for a treatment of voluntary population movements since the late 20th century. From the very onset of Spanish exploration and colonial activities in the Americas, juan Garrido was such an African conquistador. He crossed the Atlantic as a freedman in the 1510s and participated in the siege of Tenochtitlan, Africans had been present in Asia and Europe long before Columbuss travels. Its constitutive act declares that it shall invite and encourage the participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent. Their descendants are now found around the globe, but because of intermarriage they are not necessarily readily identifiable, a long line of scholars has challenged conventional views of the African diaspora as a mere dispersion of Black people. For them, it is a movement of liberation that opposes the implications of racialization and their position assumes that Africans and their descendants abroad struggle to reclaim power over their lives through voluntary migration, cultural production and political conceptions and practices. It also implies the presence of cultures of resistance with similar objectives throughout the global diaspora, from this view, the daily struggle against what they call the world-historical processes of racial colonization, capitalism, and western domination defines Blacks links to Africa
5.
Harlem Renaissance
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The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s. During the time, it was known as the New Negro Movement, the Harlem Renaissance was considered to be a rebirth of African-American arts. The Harlem Renaissance is generally considered to have spanned from about 1918 until the mid-1930s, many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this flowering of Negro literature, as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic, soon after the end of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Bill. By 1875 sixteen blacks had been elected and served in Congress, the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was denounced by black Congressmen and resulted in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. By the late 1870s, Democratic whites managed to power in the South. From 1890 to 1908 they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most Negros and many poor whites and they established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind southern Democrats. Convict laborers were typically subject to forms of corporal punishment, overwork. While a small number of blacks were able to land shortly after the Civil War. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in great numbers, most of the African-American literary movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents or grandparents had been slaves and their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better-than-average education. Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century Great Migration out of the South into the Negro neighborhoods of the North, African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a better life, uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the middle class. Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s, in 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War, due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North
6.
John Edward Bruce
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He founded newspapers in Washington, DC and Norfolk, Virginia, as well as co-founding the Negro Society for Historical Research in New York. Bruce was born in 1856 in Piscataway, Maryland, to enslaved parents Robert, traveling back to Washington later, he received a private education and attended Howard University for a time. At the age of 18, Bruce was an assistant at the New York Times, in Washington, DC, in 1879, Bruce established the Argus Weekly. It was a time of flourishing projects in the black community, next, Bruce founded the Sunday Item in 1880, and the Republican in 1882, both in Norfolk, Virginia. He served as the editor and business manager of the Baltimore, Maryland. Later that year, he returned to Washington, D. C. to establish the Grit. He earned income as a contributor to The Boston Transcript, The Albany Argus, Buffalo Express, Sunday Gazette. In 1890, he joined activist T. Thomas Fortunes Afro-American League and he became the organizations new president in 1898 when it reformed as the Afro-American Council. Bruce was a member of the bureau of the Republican National Committee in 1900. By 1908, he had followed the Great Migration to New York, there, in 1908, he established the Yonkers, New York, Weekly Standard. Beginning in 1910, he served as American Correspondent for the African Times and Orient Review of London, England, in Yonkers, he also worked as a probation officer in 1910. During the American Reconstruction era and after, many black leaders espoused non-violent strategies for social change, appalled at the rise of lynchings and imposition of legal segregation, Bruce supported armed self-defense against racist attacks. He is quoted as saying, The Man who will not fight for the protection of his wife and children. is a coward and deserves to be ill treated. The man who takes his life in his hand and stands up for what he knows to be right will always command the respect of his enemy and he supported organized resistance to organized resistance. In Harlem and Yonkers, Bruce became involved with the community of intellectuals. In 1911, with Arthur Schomburg from Puerto Rico, he founded the Negro Society for Historical Research, first based in Yonkers, for the first time it brought together African, West Indian and Afro-American scholars. This later became the foundation for the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, Bruce also was a mentor to Hubert Henry Harrison, the young migrant from St. Croix who became influential in black socialism and black nationalism. Bruces belief in an independent national destiny for blacks in the United States led him in the period around 1919 to embrace Jamaican Marcus Garveys Pan-African nationalism, as a member of Garveys Universal Negro Improvement Association, Bruce wrote for the movements Negro World and the Daily Negro Times
7.
Timothy Thomas Fortune
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Timothy Thomas Fortune was an orator, civil rights leader, journalist, writer, editor and publisher. He was the influential editor of the nations leading black newspaper The New York Age and was the leading economist in the black community. He was an adviser to Booker T. Washington and the ghost writer. Fortune’s philosophy of militant agitation on behalf of the rights of people laid one of the foundations of the Civil Rights Movement. He was born into slavery in Marianna, Jackson County, Florida, to Emanuel and he started his education at Mariannas first school for African Americans after the Civil War. His family moved to Jacksonville where he attended Stanton High School for Negroes and he worked both as a page in the state senate and as apprenticed printer at a Jacksonville newspaper during the time that his father, Emanuel, was a Reconstruction politician in Florida. At one time Fortune also worked at the Marianna Courier and later the Jacksonville Daily-Times Union and these experiences would be the start of a career wherein he would go on to have his work published in over twenty books and articles and in more than three hundred editorials. Although he was mostly self-taught prior to his enrollment in 1875. He changed his major to journalism after two semesters before leaving altogether to begin work, in 1876, at the Peoples Advocate. About that same time he married Carrie C, upon arrival in New York, Fortune began working as a printer and worked at The Weekly Witness. In 1880 he became journalist and editor of The Rumor run by George Parker and this journal soon changed its name to The New York Globe. The Globe closed in November 1884 after a dispute with co-editor William B, derrick, and one week later, on November 22, Fortune published the first issue of his New York Freeman. In the late 1880s, Fortune was considered the greatest black writer in America. That same year he published a book entitled Black and White, Land, Labor and that book, along with his 1885 pamphlet, The Negro in Politics, openly challenged Frederick Douglasss dictum that the Republican Party is the ship, all else the open sea. In 1885, The Freeman took the new name of The New York Age and set out to become The Afro-American Journal of News, in 1890 he was elected chairman of the executive committee of the National Afro-American Press Association at their meeting in Indianapolis. The league fell apart after four years, walters was followed as president by Fortune, who held the position from 1902-1904. Fortune was succeeded by William Henry Steward, Booker T. Washington played a dominant role on the Council and it included a number of important leaders including W. E. B. Du Bois who went on to form the NAACP and anti-lynching activist Ida B, the League and the Council would play a vital role in setting the stage for the Niagara Movement, NAACP and other civil rights organizations to follow
8.
Hubert Henry Harrison
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Hubert Henry Harrison was a West Indian-American writer, orator, educator, critic, and race and class conscious political activist and radical internationalist based in Harlem, New York. He was described by activist A, Philip Randolph as “the father of Harlem radicalism” and by the historian Joel Augustus Rogers as “the foremost Afro-American intellect of his time. ”John G. Jackson of American Atheists described him as The Black Socrates. An immigrant from St. Croix at the age of 17, Harrison played significant roles in the largest radical class, in 1912-14 he was the leading Black organizer in the Socialist Party of America. In 1917 he founded the Liberty League and The Voice, the first organization, from his Liberty League and Voice came the core leadership of individuals and race-conscious program of the Garvey movement. He was also a self-described radical internationalist and contributed significantly to the Caribbean radical tradition, Harrison profoundly influenced a generation of “New Negro” militants, including A. Philip Randolph, Chandler Owen, Marcus Garvey, Richard Benjamin Moore, W. A. Domingo, Williana Burroughs, Hubert was born to Cecilia Elizabeth Haines, a working-class woman, on Estate Concordia, St. Croix, Danish West Indies. His biological father, Adolphus Harrison, was born enslaved, one account from the 1920s suggested that Harrisons father owned a substantial estate. Harrisons biographer, however, found no such landholding and writes there is no indication that Adolphus. As a youth, Harrison knew poverty but also learned of African customs, among his schoolmates was his lifelong friend, the future Crucian labor leader and social activist, D. Hamilton Jackson. In later life Harrison worked with many Virgin Islands-born activists, including James C, canegata, Anselmo Jackson, Rothschild Francis, Elizabeth Hendrikson, Casper Holstein, and Frank Rudolph Crosswaith. He was especially active in Virgin Island causes after the March 1917 U. S. purchase of the Virgin Islands, Harrison came to New York in 1900 as a 17-year-old orphan and joined his older sister. He confronted a racial oppression unlike anything he knew, as only the United States had such a binary color line. In the Caribbean, social relations were more fluid, Harrison was especially “shocked” by the virulent white-supremacy typified by lynchings, which were reaching a peak in these years in the South. They were a horror that had not existed in St. Croix or other Caribbean islands, in addition, the fact that in most places blacks and people of color far outnumbered whites meant they had more social spaces in which to operate away from the oversight of whites. In the beginning, Harrison worked low-paying service jobs while attending school at night. For the rest of his life, Harrison continued to study as an autodidact, while still in high school, his intellectual gifts were recognized. He was described as a “genius” in The World, a New York daily newspaper, at age 20, he had an early letter published by the New York Times in 1903. He became an American citizen and lived in the United States the rest of his life, in 1909 Harrison married Irene Louise Horton
9.
Zora Neale Hurston
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Zora Neale Hurston was an African-American novelist, short story writer, folklorist, and anthropologist. Of Hurstons four novels and more than 50 published short stories, plays, Hurston was the fifth of eight children of John Hurston and Lucy Ann Hurston, two former slaves. Her father was a Baptist preacher, tenant farmer, and carpenter and she was born in Notasulga, Alabama, on January 7,1891, where her father grew up and her grandfather was the preacher of a Baptist church. When she was three, her moved to Eatonville, Florida, in 1887 it was one of the first all-black towns to be incorporated in the United States. Hurston said she felt that Eatonville was home to her as she grew up there. Her father later was elected as mayor of the town in 1897 and in 1902 became preacher of its largest church, Hurston later used Eatonville as a backdrop in her stories. It was a place where African Americans could live as they desired, in 1901, some northern schoolteachers visited Eatonville and gave Hurston a number of books that opened her mind to literature, she described it as a kind of birth. Hurston spent the remainder of her childhood in Eatonville, and describes the experience of growing up there in her 1928 essay, How It Feels to Be Colored Me. Her father remarried to Matte Moge, this was considered a minor scandal, Hurstons father and stepmother sent her away to a Baptist boarding school in Jacksonville, Florida. They eventually stopped paying her tuition and the school expelled her and she later worked as a maid to the lead singer in a traveling Gilbert & Sullivan theatrical company. In 1917, Hurston began attending Morgan College, the school division of Morgan State University. At this time, apparently to qualify for a free high-school education and she graduated from the high school of Morgan State University in 1918. In 1918, Hurston began her studies at Howard University, where she one of the earliest initiates of Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc. and co-founded The Hilltop. While there, she took courses in Spanish, English, Greek and public speaking, in 1921, she wrote a short story, John Redding Goes to Sea, which qualified her to become a member of Alaine Lockes literary club, The Stylus. Hurston left Howard in 1924 and in 1925 was offered a scholarship by Barnard trustee Annie Nathan Meyer to Barnard College, Columbia University, Hurston received her B. A. in anthropology in 1928, when she was 37. While she was at Barnard, she conducted research with noted anthropologist Franz Boas of Columbia University. She also worked with Ruth Benedict as well as fellow anthropology student Margaret Mead, after graduating from Barnard, Hurston spent two years as a graduate student in anthropology at Columbia University. Living in Harlem in the 1920s, Hurston befriended the likes of Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen and her apartment, according to some accounts, was a popular spot for social gatherings
10.
Arthur Schomburg
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Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, also Arthur Schomburg, was a historian, writer, and activist. He was an important intellectual figure in the Harlem Renaissance, Schomburg was born in the town of Santurce, Puerto Rico, to María Josefa, a freeborn black midwife from St. Croix, and Carlos Federico Schomburg, a German merchant living in Puerto Rico. While Schomburg was in school, one of his teachers claimed that blacks had no history. Inspired to prove the teacher wrong, Schomburg determined that he would find and document the accomplishments of Africans on their own continent, Schomburg was educated at San Juans Instituto Popular, where he learned commercial printing. At St. Thomas College in the Danish-ruled Virgin Islands, he studied Negro Literature, Schomburg immigrated to New York City on April 17,1891, and settled in the Harlem section of Manhattan. He continued his studies to untangle the African thread of history in the fabric of the Americas, after experiencing racial discrimination in the US, he began calling himself Afroborinqueño which means Afro-Puerto Rican. He became a member of the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico and became an advocate of Puerto Ricos. On June 30,1895, Schomburg married Elizabeth Hatcher of Staunton and she had come to New York as part of a wave of migration from the South that would increase in the 20th century and be known as the Great Migration. They had three sons, Maximo Gomez, Arthur Alfonso, Jr. and Kingsley Guarionex Schomburg, after Elizabeth died in 1900, Schomburg married Elizabeth Morrow Taylor of Williamsburg, a village in Rockingham County, North Carolina. They were married on March 17,1902, and had two sons, Reginald Stanton and Nathaniel José Schomburg, in 1896, Schomburg began teaching Spanish in New York. From 1901 to 1906 Schomburg was employed as messenger and clerk in the law firm of Pryor, Mellis and Harris, in 1906, he began working for the Bankers Trust Company. Later, he became a supervisor of the Caribbean and Latin American Mail Section, while supporting himself and his family, Schomburg began his intellectual work of writing about Caribbean and African-American history. His first known article, Is Hayti Decadent. was published in 1904 in The Unique Advertiser, in 1909 he wrote Placido, a Cuban Martyr, a short pamphlet about the poet and independence fighter Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés. In 1911, Schomburg co-founded with John Edward Bruce the Negro Society for Historical Research, for the first time it brought together African, West Indian and Afro-American scholars. Schomburg was later to become the President of the American Negro Academy, founded in Washington, DC in 1874 and this was a period of founding of societies to encourage scholarship in African American history. In 1915, Dr. Carter G. Woodson co-founded the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, Schomburg became involved in the Harlem Renaissance movement, which spread to other African-American communities in the U. S. The concentration of blacks in Harlem from across the US and Caribbean led to a flowering of arts and he was the co-editor of the 1912 edition of Daniel Alexander Payne Murrays Encyclopedia of the Colored Race. In 1916 Schomburg published what was the first notable bibliography of African-American poetry, in March 1925 Schomburg published his essay The Negro Digs Up His Past in an issue of Survey Graphic devoted to the intellectual life of Harlem
11.
Eric D. Walrond
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Eric Derwent Walrond was an Afro-Caribbean Harlem Renaissance writer and journalist. He made a contribution to literature, his most famous book being Tropic Death, published in New York City in 1926 when he was 28. In it are collected 10 stories, at least one of which had previously published in small magazines. He had published short stories prior to this, as well as a number of essays. Forced a dent in the crisp caked earth, an isolated ear lay limp and juicy, like some exhausted leaf or flower, half joined to the tree whence it sprang. Only the sticky milk flooding it was crimson, crimsoning the dust, Eric Walrond was born in Georgetown, British Guiana, to a Barbadian mother and a Guyanese father. Here Walrond completed his education and became fluent in Spanish as well as English. Following training as a secretary and stenographer, he was employed as a clerk in the Health Department of the Canal Commission at Cristóbal, in 1918 he moved to New York, where he attended Columbia University, being tutored by Dorothy Scarborough. He was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, in New York, Walrond worked at first as hospital secretary, porter, and stenographer. His utopian sketch of a united Africa, A Senators Memoirs, from 1921 to 1923, Walrond was editor and co-owner of an African-American weekly called the Brooklyn and Long Island Informer. He was then hired as editor of Negro World, the paper of Garveys Universal Negro Improvement Association. He subsequently became a protégé of the National Urban Leagues director Charles S. Johnson and he was also a contributor to The Smart Set, The New Republic and Vanity Fair and Negro World. In 1928–29 Walrond was awarded the Guggenheim Fellowship for Fiction, after a decade in America, Walrond left for England, where he met English writers and artists during the 1930s, including Winifred Holtby. In later life he continued to employ his skills from time to time. He lived for years in Wiltshire, working in a factory, but in 1951 was hospitalized by his own volition for psychiatric care. After he left the hospital he was involved in a production at Londons Royal Court Theatre in the aftermath of the 1958 Notting Hill race riots. On August 8,1966, at the age of 67, following an autopsy, he was buried at Abney Park Cemetery, Stoke Newington, on September 17. His grave lies on an edge in the southern section
12.
Carter G. Woodson
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Carter Godwin Woodson was an African-American historian, author, journalist and the founder of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History. Woodson was one of the first scholars to study African-American history, a founder of The Journal of Negro History in 1915, Woodson has been cited as the father of black history. In February 1926 he launched the celebration of Negro History Week, Carter G. Woodson was born in Buckingham County, Virginia on December 19,1875, the son of former slaves, James and Eliza Riddle Woodson. His father helped Union soldiers during the Civil War and moved his family to West Virginia when he heard that Huntington was building a school for blacks. Coming from a large, poor family, Carter Woodson could not regularly attend school, through self-instruction, Woodson mastered the fundamentals of common school subjects by age 17. Wanting more education, Carter went to Fayette County to earn a living as a miner in the coal fields and he was able to devote only a few months each year to his schooling. In 1895, at the age of 20, Woodson entered Douglass High School, from 1897 to 1900, Woodson taught at Winona in Fayette County. In 1900 he was selected as the principal of Douglass High School and he earned his Bachelor of Literature degree from Berea College in Kentucky in 1903 by taking classes part-time between 1901 and 1903. From 1903 to 1907, Woodson was a supervisor in the Philippines. Later, he attended the University of Chicago, where he was awarded an A. B. and A. M. in 1908 and he was a member of the first black professional fraternity Sigma Pi Phi and a member of Omega Psi Phi. He completed his PhD in history at Harvard University in 1912 and his doctoral dissertation, The Disruption of Virginia, was based on research he did at the Library of Congress while teaching high school in Washington, D. C. After earning the degree, he continued teaching in public schools, later joining the faculty at Howard University as a professor. Along with Alexander L. Jackson, Woodson published The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 in 1915, Carter G. Woodson stayed at the Wabash Avenue YMCA during visits to Chicago. Dr. Woodsons experiences at the Y and in the surrounding Bronzeville neighborhood inspired him to create the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History in 1915. Another inspiration was John Wesley Cromwells 1914 book, The Negro in American History, Woodson would later promote the first Negro History Week in Washington, D. C. in 1926, forerunner of Black History Month. He served as Academic Dean of the West Virginia Collegiate Institute, now West Virginia State University, in addition to his first book, he wrote A Century of Negro Migration, which continues to be published by the Association for the Study of African American Life and History. He studied many aspects of African-American history, for instance, in 1924, he published the first survey of free black slaveowners in the United States in 1930. He once wrote, “If you can control a man’s thinking, you don’t have to worry about his actions
13.
Tony Martin (professor)
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Tony Martin was a Trinidad-born professor of Africana Studies at Wellesley College. He retired in June 2007 as professor emeritus after 34 years teaching at the Africana Studies Department, born Anthony Martin in Port of Spain, Trinidad, he attended Tranquillity School, where he was a contemporary of Stokely Carmichael. After secondary school Martin went to England to study law at Grays Inn, London, Martin subsequently received a B. Sc. honours degree in economics at the University of Hull. Martin was founder and chair of the Africana Studies Department at Wellesley College, where he began teaching in 1973, became tenured in 1975, Martin was a prolific author of scholarly articles on many aspects of Black History and lectured all over the world. He received awards and honors from the American Philosophical Society, the Association for the Study of Classical African Civilizations and many others. Martin also wrote, compiled or edited 14 books, most recently Caribbean History, From Pre-Colonial Origins to the Present and Amy Ashwood Garvey, Pan-Africanist, Feminist,1, Or, A Tale of Two Amies. He had been working on two biographies of Trinidadian women, of Audrey Jeffers and Kathleen Davis. Martin died unexpectedly on January 17,2013, aged 70, at Westshore Medical Hospital, Cocorite and he co-authored, with Wendy Ball, Rare Afro-Americana, A Reconstruction of the Adger Library. When she asked him about his escort, Martin, she claims, responded using profanity, accused her of racism and bigotry, and positioned himself so as to physically intimidate her. Martin denied all claims, and declared that a group of women accosted him rudely. In an interview with a newspaper, Plantec said, I stopped him and said, Excuse me, sir. He looked at me and said, What do you mean, I said, What Wellesley student are you with. Martin, in the interview, agreed that there was an angry exchange. He also said he asked permission from the desk before going to the restroom. Coming out of the restroom, I was rudely accosted by a group of women who were coming up the stairs behind me. I tried to ignore them for a space of time. And eventually, when we got to the top of the stairs I became very annoyed, mary Lefkowitz was a classics professor at Wellesley, who taught courses on ancient Greek culture. In a 1992 article for The New Republic, she challenged what she felt were ahistorical Afrocentric claims, the books thesis, is that Jews had a disproportionately large role in the black slave trade relative to their numbers. This thesis has since been condemned and refuted by historians including the American Historical Association
14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
15.
African-American newspapers
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African-American newspapers are newspapers in the United States that cater to primarily African-American audiences. Samuel Cornish and John Brown Russwurm started the first African-American periodical called Freedoms Journal in 1827, during the antebellum South, other African-American newspapers sprang forth, such as The North Star founded by Frederick Douglass. As African Americans moved to urban centers around the country, virtually every city with a significant African-American population soon had newspapers directed towards African Americans. Today, these newspapers have gained audiences outside African-American circles, irvine Garland Penns book, The Afro-American Press and Its Editors along with Armistead S. Most of the earliest African-American publications, such as Freedoms Journal, were published in the North and then distributed, often covertly, blacks ability to establish many environments and black neighborhoods in the North led to the first wave of publications. By the 20th century, daily papers appeared in Norfolk, Chicago, Baltimore and Washington, in the late 19th century, the main reason that newspapers were created was to uplift the black community. Many black people sought to assimilate into society and Northern blacks felt that it was their duty to educate Southern blacks on the mores of Victorian society. Many African-American newspapers struggled to keep their circulation going due to the low rate of literacy among African Americans, many freed African-Americans had low incomes and could not afford to purchase subscriptions but shared the publications with one another. The national Afro-American Press Association formed in 1890 in Indianapolis, African-American newspapers flourished in the major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott, publisher of the Chicago Defender, John Mitchell, the national, Chicago-based Associated Negro Press was a news agency with correspondents and stringers in all major centers of black population. There were many specialized black publications, such as those of Marcus Garvey and these men broke a wall that let black people into society. The Roanoke Tribune was founded in 1939 by Fleming Alexander, the Minnesota Spokesman-Recorder is Minnesotas oldest Black newspaper and the United States oldest ongoing minority publication, second only to The Jewish World. Many Black newspapers that began publishing in the 1960s, 70s and they were also victims of their own substantial efforts to eradicate racism and promote civil rights. As of 2002,200 Black newspapers remained, as of 2010, there has been a resurgence of online African-American news organizations, most notably Black Voice News, The Grio, and Black Voices. With the decline of print media and proliferation of internet access, burned down during Wilmington insurrection of 1898. The Denver Weekly News Douglas Monthly The St. Louis Argus - St. Louis, Louis Metro Evening Whirl SC Black News Group The Skanner www. theblackviewpoint. Freedoms journal, the first African-American newspaper Belles, A. Gilbert, Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 344-352. Eye on the Struggle, Ethel Payne, the First Lady of the Black Press, journalism History 41.1, 53+ Brown, Warren Henry
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Bay State Banner
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The Bay State Banner is an independent newspaper primarily geared toward the readership interests of the African-American community in Boston, Massachusetts. The Bay State Banner was originated in 1965, in 2005, the publication celebrated its 40th anniversary serving the journalistic needs of the regions minority-oriented neighborhoods. The newspapers chief editor and publisher is Melvin B. Miller, the Bay State Banners official website
17.
New Pittsburgh Courier
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The New Pittsburgh Courier is a weekly newspaper catering to African Americans, based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It is owned by Real Times, after circulation declines in the 1950s and 1960s, the original Courier was purchased in 1965 by John H. Sengstacke, publisher of The Chicago Daily Defender, in 1966. He reorganized the paper under a new name — the New Pittsburgh Courier — to avoid paying several outstanding tax bills and he later commented, The Courier had a great history. The loss would not only be a big loss for the city of Pittsburgh, the Black press is the only true voice Black people have. Ive worked tireless to make sure that it is heard loud and he re-opened it in 1967 under the new name. The New Pittsburgh Courier joined Sengstackes three other newspapers in a chain of prominent African-American publications, including the Defender. In 1974 Sengstacke appointed Hazel B. Garland as the new editor-in-chief of the New Pittsburgh Courier, making her the first African-American woman in history to be editor of a national newspaper. When asked about his decision, Sengstacke replied, I have supreme confidence in Hazel and she has proven herself over the many years of dedication to the Courier and the Negro cause. She will be a force in leading this paper to bigger and better things in the future. Two years later, the won the John B. Russwurm Award for the best national African-American newspaper, following Sengstackes death in 1997, what was then a four-paper chain was held in a family trust until 2003. It was sold that year for nearly $12 million to Real Times, a group of investors with several business and family ties to Sengstacke
18.
Atlanta Daily World
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The Atlanta Daily World is the oldest black newspaper in Atlanta, Georgia, founded in 1928. Currently owned by Real Times Inc. it publishes daily online and it was one of the earliest and most influential black newspapers. It was founded as the weekly Atlanta World on August 5,1928, a year later he published a similar directory for Atlanta. This was despite the fact that Atlanta contained at the time the most prominent black educational institutions and persons of influence in the country, the paper became a semi-weekly in May 1930, and a triweekly in April 1931. In 1932 Scotts Atlanta World became a daily and added Daily to its title, becoming the first black daily in the U. S. in the 20th century and the first successful one in all U. S. history. At the time of its founding, the other black paper in the area was the Atlanta Independent. This left the Daily World as the black paper in town. Its offices were on Auburn Avenue celebrated as the home of the business, social. On February 4,1934, Scott was shot and killed, during the Civil Rights Movement, the Daily World was criticized for not supporting sit-ins staged at several white-owned restaurants in downtown Atlanta. Advertisers threatened to pull their business if the demonstrations didn’t stop, the paper did urge blacks to shop at black-owned businesses. In the 1940s it sponsored voter registration efforts, the paper also covered the Atlanta black communitys social, church, and sports news. S. Cornelius Scott retired in 1997 and his niece, Alexis Scott Reeves. Reeves has previously been a journalist at the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Atlantas leading daily, during the 1980s and 1990s, the newspapers circulation declined from its peak over 20,000 in the 1960s to a steady 10,000. By 2000, although it retained the word Daily in its name, in 2012, the Atlanta Daily World joined Real Times Inc. a publisher of five other African-American weeklies, including the Chicago Defender and New Pittsburgh Courier. Alexis Scott said the sale would give the World more multimedia resources, in 2008 the Downtown Atlanta tornado damaged the Worlds offices at 145 Auburn Avenue. The papers operations subsequently moved to another location, in 2012 Scott announced plans to sell the building where this important part of Atlantas black history took place, the buyer had plans to demolish the building. This caused outcry in the local Old Fourth Ward neighborhood at the loss of yet another building on Auburn Avenue. The Historic District Development Corporation, whose mission is historic preservation in the Martin Luther King, three Atlanta Daily World newsstands opened at Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta Airport in 2009
19.
Baltimore Afro-American
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The Baltimore Afro-American, commonly known as The Afro, is a weekly newspaper published in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. It is the newspaper of the Afro-American chain and the longest-running African-American family-owned newspaper in the United States, established in 1892 by John H. Murphy. The newspaper was founded in 1892 by John H. Murphy, Sr. who was born into slavery and served in the Civil War in the United States Colored Troops and he worked a variety of jobs after the war. With The Afro-American, Murphy promoted unity in the community of Baltimore, as well as combating racial discrimination in the city. He crusaded for racial justice while exposing racism in education, jobs, housing, in 1913, he was elected president of the National Negro Press Association. The publication began to grow to more cities and to rise in national prominence after his son Carl J. Murphy took control in 1922. He expanded the paper to have nine national editions, with papers published in 13 major cities, in the early 21st century, the Afro-American has two city editions, one in Baltimore, and the other for Washington, D. C. These included manuscripts, articles, photographs, and clippings that date to the founding of the paper, the program is one facet of the Center for Africana Studies larger Diaspora Pathways Initiative, which also includes oral history projects and academic courses. Media in Baltimore List of newspapers in Maryland Farrar, Hayward, Afro. com digitized photos from The Afro-American archives Digitized, searchable issues of The Afro-American Ledger
20.
The Florida Star
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The Florida Star is a weekly newspaper in Jacksonville, Florida. Founded in 1951 to cater to Jacksonvilles African American community, it is the oldest African-American newspaper in Northeast Florida, the Florida Star was founded in 1951 by Eric O. Simpson, a veteran of national publications, to give Jacksonville its own African-American newspaper. The Star catered specifically to the black community at a time when other local media ignored or downplayed African-American. The Star also became known for its crime reporting, which often included scandalous headlines printed in red. In 1983 the paper became embroiled in a battle when it printed a rape victims name. A trainee reporter copied the police report, which included the name. This violated the Stars internal policy and Floridas rape shield law, the victim sued and was awarded $97,500 in damages, greater than the papers value. The Star appealed, eventually reaching the Supreme Court, in 1989 the Court overturned the earlier judgement, ruling that punishing a newspaper for reporting accurate, legally obtained material did not accord with the First Amendment. In 1977, following telephone threats, The Florida Star headquarters on Myrtle Street was subject to an attack that damaged the lobby. In 1993, an arson attack destroyed the building and much of its archive. Simpson and his family committed to maintaining the paper, publishing that weeks issue only one day late, Simpson headed the paper until his death in 1994. His wife, Mary Wooten Simpson, succeeded him, under her watch the paper expanded its staff, coverage, managing editor Erica Simpson, Eric and Mary Simpsons daughter, took over after her mothers death in 2001. Media pioneer Clara McLaughlin purchased the paper from the Simpson family in 2002, in January 2007, The Florida Star launched a Georgia edition, The Georgia Star. Eric Simpson was posthumously inducted into the Florida Press Association Hall of Fame in 2003 and he was the first African-American to be inducted
