1.
Governor of Oregon
–
The Governor of Oregon is the head of the executive branch of Oregons state government and serves as the commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The title of governor was also applied to the office of Oregons chief executive during the provisional, the current governor of Oregon is Kate Brown, a Democrat who took office following the resignation of Governor John Kitzhaber amid scandal. The Governors current salary was set by the 2001 Oregon Legislature at $93,600 annually, Article V of the Oregon State Constitution sets up the legal framework of the Oregon Executive Branch. Article V, Section 1 states that the governor must be a natural born U. S. citizen, at least 30 years of age, and a resident of Oregon for at least three years before the candidates election. Governors are elected by ballot and serve terms of four years. The formal process of certification of results of a gubernatorial election ends when the Secretary of State delivers the results to the Speaker of the Oregon House of Representatives, the Speaker then will publish the results to a joint session of the Oregon Legislative Assembly. Where an election results in a tie, a joint session of the legislative session will vote on the two candidates, and declare the winner governor. Legally contested elections are decided by the full legislature in whichever manner other laws may prescribe. The gubernatorial line of succession was modified in 1920 and 1946, the current list is designated as Article V, Section 8a. It defines who may become or act as the Governor of Oregon upon the incapacity, death, resignation, the new governor will serve out the remainder of the previous governors or incapacitated governors term. A special gubernatorial election is required, if more than two years remaining in the previous governors or incapacitated governors term. Unlike many states, Oregon does not have a Lieutenant Governor The current order is, power is granted to the governor to mobilize and deploy state military forces. The power to grant pardons and reprieves and to commute sentences is granted to the governor, additionally, the governor can remit fines and forfeitures. Any use of powers, however, must be reported to the legislature. In treason cases, the governor may grant reprieves. The final matter of pardons, commuting of sentencing, or further reprieves is referred to the legislature in these cases, if needed, the governor may convene a special session of the legislature by proclamation and is empowered to call for special elections to fill vacant seats. Between the vacancy and special election, the governor is able to appoint a replacement, annually, the governor addresses the legislature in his or her State of the State address. In this speech the governor outlines the current conditions of the state, if the legislature is out of session, the governor may appoint replacements to fill state offices until elections are held or the legislature reconvenes
2.
Victor G. Atiyeh
–
Victor George Vic Atiyeh /əˈtiːjə/ was an American politician and member of the Republican Party who served as the 32nd Governor of Oregon from 1979 to 1987. The first elected governor of Arab descent in the United States, Atiyeh was elected in 1978 and he was re-elected against future Governor Ted Kulongoski with 61. 6% of the vote in 1982, the largest margin in 32 years. Prior to being elected Governor, Atiyeh had served continuously in the Oregon Legislature since 1959, initially in the House, to date, Atiyeh is the last Republican to have served as the governor of Oregon. The son of Syrian immigrants, Atiyeh grew up in Portland, attending Holladay Grade School and he spent two years at the University of Oregon in Eugene, where he played guard for the Oregon Ducks football program and became a regional leader in the Boy Scouts of America. When his father died Atiyeh dropped out of college and took over his familys rug and carpet business, Atiyeh served as a member of the Oregon House of Representatives from 1959 to 1964 and in the Oregon State Senate from 1965 to 1978. In 1974, he ran for governor and lost to Democrat Robert W. Straub, after defeating former governor Tom McCall in the primary Atiyeh ran against Straub again in the 1978 election, but won this time with 55 percent of the vote. In 1982, he won re-election to a second four-year term, as governor, Atiyeh established new public safety programs for Oregons traditional fishing and lumber trades. He provided incentives to bring new industries to the state to diversify the economy, including the opening of an office in Tokyo, Japan. He launched a worldwide initiative and worked towards the designation of the Columbia River Gorge as a national scenic preservation area. Atiyeh helped to establish a food bank, which was the nations first. He also worked to raise awareness of the dangers of drunk driving and he chaired the Republican Governors Association and was the Republican National Conventions floor leader for President Ronald Reagan in 1984. Atiyeh had a relationship with Forest Grove-based Pacific University, serving as a trustee and trustee emeritus. He donated a trove of his memorabilia to the university library in 2011, after leaving office, Atiyeh became an international trade consultant. On August 31,2005, he underwent quadruple bypass surgery, Atiyeh was noted for his fiscal conservatism, his spokesman noted that he had stopped on his way to the hospital to fill his car with gas, having observed the sharply rising prices. In the weeks following the surgery, Atiyeh was readmitted to the hospital for several brief stays after suffering shortness of breath and he solicited a $100,000 donation to the campaign from Phil Knight, CEO of Nike. On July 20,2014, Atiyeh died of renal failure at Providence St. Vincent Medical Center in Portland, Atiyeh lived in Portland with his wife, Dolores, whom he married on July 5,1944. Atiyeh and his wife had two children, Tom and Suzanne, Dolores died on August 29,2016, in Portland at the age of 92
3.
Barbara Roberts
–
Barbara Kay Roberts is an American politician from the state of Oregon. A native of the state, she served as the 34th Governor of Oregon from 1991 to 1995 and she was the first woman to serve as Oregon governor, and the only woman elected to that office until 2016. A Democrat, Roberts was also the first woman to serve as majority leader in the Oregon House of Representatives and she also won two terms as Oregon Secretary of State, and served in local and county government in Portland. Roberts was married to Oregon state Sen. Frank L. Roberts from 1974 until his death in 1993, from February 2011 until January 2013, she served on the council of Metro, the regional government in the Portland metropolitan area. Roberts was born Barbara Kay Hughey on December 21,1936, in Corvallis, Oregon, to Bob and her father, a millworker, was a descendant of Oregon Trail pioneers. The Hugheys second daughter Pat was born a few years later and then moved to Los Angeles. Following World War II, the Hugheys returned to Oregon, settling in Gold Creek in Yamhill County in 1945, in 1954, she married her high-school sweetheart Neal Sanders, graduating the following year from Sheridan High School. With her older son, Mike, diagnosed in 1962 as severely emotionally disturbed, in 1971, she successfully lobbied the Oregon State Legislature to require public schools to guarantee educational rights to these children. In 1972, her marriage to Neal ended in divorce, in 1973, she was elected to Parkrose School Board and, later, to the Mount Hood Community College board. In 1974, she married Oregon state representative and later state Sen. Frank L. Roberts, who became her political mentor. In 1981, she was elected to the Oregon House of Representatives as a Democrat, was re-elected in 1983, in 1984, Roberts was elected as Oregon Secretary of State, the first Democrat elected to that post in over 100 years, and was re-elected in 1988. Her significant achievements as Secretary of State include election-reform legislation, the construction of a new archives building. The Portland Gay Mens Chorus sang at her inauguration and it is widely believed that this was the first time that a gay-identified chorus sang for the inauguration of a statewide elected official of any state. During her second term, Roberts attended a program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. Shortly after incumbent Democratic Gov. Neil Goldschmidt announced that he would not seek a second term as governor and she ran unopposed in the Democratic primary and went on to defeat Republican Attorney General David B. Frohnmayer and Independent Al Mobley in the November general election, during that same election, voters passed Ballot Measure 5, which established constitutional limits on property-tax rates. During her term as governor, Roberts worked with the Clinton administration to secure federal waivers, the Roberts administration was known for its strong support of gay rights and appointed women to positions in state government. Her husband, Frank L. Roberts, died in 1993 from prostate cancer while she was still governor, after his death, Barbara Roberts wrote the book Death Without Denial Grief Without Apology, A Guide for Facing Death and Loss
4.
United States Secretary of Transportation
–
The United States Secretary of Transportation is the head of the United States Department of Transportation, a member of the Presidents Cabinet, and thirteenth in the Presidential Line of Succession. The post was created with the formation of the Department of Transportation on October 15,1966, johnsons signing of the Department of Transportation Act. The Secretary of Transportation oversees eleven agencies, including the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Highway Administration, in April 2008, Mary Peters launched the official blog of the Secretary of Transportation called The Fast Lane. The first Secretary of Transportation was Alan Stephenson Boyd, nominated to the post by Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson, ronald Reagans second Secretary of Transportation, Elizabeth Dole, was the first female holder, and Mary Peters was the second. Gerald Fords nominee William Thaddeus Coleman, Jr, neil Goldschmidt was the youngest secretary, taking office at age thirty nine, while Norman Mineta was the oldest, retiring at age seventy four. The salary of the Secretary of Transportation is $199,700, elaine Chao, who served as Secretary of Labor under President George W. Bush, was nominated by President-elect Donald Trump on November 29,2016. On January 31,2017 the Senate confirmed her appointment by a vote of 93-6, the most recent Secretary of Transportation to die was William T. Coleman, Jr. on March 31,2017. The most recently serving Secretary of Transportation to die was Andrew L. Lewis, general Biographical Sketches of the Secretaries of Transportation. Specific Official website The Fast Lane, the blog of the Secretary The Department of Transportation Act
5.
Jimmy Carter
–
James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
6.
Brock Adams
–
Brockman Brock Adams was an American politician and member of Congress. Adams was a Democrat from Washington and served as a U. S. Representative, Senator, Adams was born in Atlanta, Georgia, and attended the public schools in Portland, Oregon. He graduated in 1949 and was admitted to Harvard Law School, Adams served in the U. S. Navy from 1944 to 1946, and was admitted to the Washington state bar in 1952, opening a private practice in Seattle. Adams was also a member of the American Bar Association, Adams taught law at the American Institute of Banking from 1954 to 1960, and served as United States Attorney for the Western District of Washington from 1961 to 1964. Adams was elected as a Democrat to the House and served six terms beginning January 3,1965 and he was chairman of the newly created Budget Committee during the 94th Congress, and was considered a strong candidate for Speaker of the House. On January 22,1977, Adams resigned to become the fifth Secretary of Transportation following his appointment by President Jimmy Carter and confirmation by the Senate. After resigning his Cabinet post on July 20,1979, Adams resumed law practice, on November 4,1986, Adams was elected as a U. S. senator, narrowly defeating incumbent Republican Slade Gorton. Serving one term, he compiled a record and was strongly supportive of his partys leadership. Adams was accused by Kari Tupper, the daughter of a longtime friend, Adams denied the allegations, but his popularity statewide was weakened considerably by the scandal and he chose to retire rather than risk losing the seat for his party. Adams never lost an election, and lived in Stevensville, Maryland, adamss willingness to plunge into controversial issues was evident in the contrasting assessments of his tenure and accomplishments during a tumultuous period in transportation. Adams was also a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, lobbying in the United States Brock Adams Papers. 14.85 cubic feet including oversize material,2 microfilm reels,65 videocassettes,1 audio disc,11 reel to reel sound tapes plus 3 items, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Voting record maintained by the Washington Post
7.
Andrew L. Lewis Jr.
–
Andrew Lindsay Drew Lewis Jr. was an American businessman and politician from the state of Pennsylvania. Andrew Lindsay Lewis Jr. was born in Norristown, Pennsylvania and he received his Bachelor of Science in 1953 from Haverford College in Haverford, Pennsylvania, and in 1955 his Master of Business Administration from Harvard University. He did postgraduate work at MIT in 1968, in June 1950, he married the former Marilyn Stoughton, a Republican former member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives. The Lewises had four children together and fourteen grandchildren, son Andrew L. Lewis, III and his son Andrew Andy Lewis, IV, served as a township commissioner in Haverford Township between 2004 and 2007 and was elected in 2007 to the Delaware County Council. Lewiss sister, Floy Lewis Bakes, graduated from Ursinus College, he donated $3 million to Ursinus to build a field house, at the time of his nomination for Transportation Secretary, he was a member of the Schwenkfelder Church. Lewis died of complications from pneumonia in Prescott, Arizona on February 10,2016, in the 1950s he held several positions at Henkels and McCoy, Inc. In the 1960s he rose up the ranks of National Gypsum Company, from 1972 to 1974 he was president and Chief Executive Officer of Snelling and Snelling, Inc. From 1974 to 1981 he headed Lewis and Associates, a consulting firm. He became involved in politics through a friend, Richard S. Schweiker, for whom he managed successful campaigns for the U. S. House of Representatives and U. S. Senate. The Philadelphia Inquirer described him as among the two or three most powerful Republicans in Pennsylvania and one of the most powerful in the Northeast. During the 1976 Republican presidential campaign, Lewis, as head of the powerful Pennsylvania delegation, had backed Gerald Ford, at the Republican convention, Reagan announced that if nominated he would name Richard Schweiker, Lewis friend, as his running mate. Lewis had already committed to Ford and so honored his word, Reagan remembered his loyalty in 1980, and appointed Lewis to head his Pennsylvania campaign organization. In 1980, Lewis served as Reagans Pennsylvania campaign chairman, when Reagan was elected President, he named Lewis as his Secretary of Transportation, where he served from 1981 to 1983. During his tenure, the 1981 air traffic controllers strike occurred despite his efforts to avoid it, when the strikers defied Reagans threat to fire them if they did not return to work, it was Lewis who announced their controversial en masse dismissal. Another milestone was the enactment of the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982, by the time he left Washington, The Washington Post reported that Lewis was generally regarded here as the most able domestic Cabinet officer in the administration. In 1983, Lewis was hired as chairman and CEO of Warner-Amex Cable Communications, in this role, he was also chairman of the WACCI subsidiary, Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment Company, which eventually became known as MTV Networks after a public offering in 1984. In 1986, Lewis appeared at the commencement exercises of his alma mater, Haverford College and he said he did so out of respect for the Quaker tradition of making decisions by consensus. In October 1986, he became president and CEO of Union Pacific Corporation, one year later, on October 1,1987, he became Chairman and CEO of Union Pacific Corporation, succeeding William S. Cook
8.
Terry Schrunk
–
Terrence Doyle Schrunk was an American politician who served as the mayor for the city of Portland, Oregon, 1957–1973, a length tying with George Luis Baker, who also served 16 years. Before becoming mayor, he was sheriff of Multnomah County since 1949, in his 1956 campaign for mayor, he advocated for urban renewal. Schrunk beat incumbent Fred L. Peterson by 17,000 votes in a primary, but did not get an absolute majority. He took office at midnight on January 1,1957, the Teamsters felt that Purcell impeded their drive to open a wider vice business in Portland. In 1957 he appeared as himself in the CBS documentary film A Day Called X, an allegation against Mayor Schrunk soon landed him before the special Senate committee headed by Arkansas Democrat John McClellan investigating U. S. labor racketeering in March 1957. While still sheriff in September 1955, Schrunk and his deputies had raided the 8212 Club, elkins testified that the manager, Clifford Bennett, told him he had paid Schrunk $500, and the sheriff had gone away without causing any more trouble—except for arresting a few drunks. Although Bennett refused to testify, several others confirmed pieces of the story, Schrunk flatly denied having taken bribes from Bennett. Robert Kennedy, then the attorney for the Senate committee. Jurors acquitted Schrunk in less two hours. Three years later, Kennedy was managing his brother, Senator John F. Kennedys, presidential campaign, although JFK largely accepted the advice, Millers bluntness angered both brothers. Continued resentment by Schrunk and his supporters was seen as a factor to Robert Kennedy losing the Oregon Democratic Primary to Eugene McCarthy in May 1968. Schrunk suffered an attack in October 1972 while at City Hall and was taken to the hospital where he survived. Schrunk died after suffering another heart attack in 1975, less than a week before his 62nd birthday, government of Portland, Oregon List of mayors of Portland, Oregon Schrunk Riverview Tower Cogswell, Philip
9.
Eugene, Oregon
–
Eugene is a city of the Pacific Northwest located in the U. S. state of Oregon. It is located at the end of the Willamette Valley, near the confluence of the McKenzie and Willamette Rivers. As of the 2010 census, Eugene had a population of 156,185, it is the second most populous city in the state, the citys population for 2014 was estimated to be 160,561 by the US Census. Eugene is home to the University of Oregon and Lane Community College, the city is also noted for its natural beauty, recreational opportunities, and focus on the arts. Eugenes official slogan is A Great City for the Arts and Outdoors and it is also referred to as the Emerald City and as Track Town, USA. The Nike corporation had its beginnings in Eugene, in 2021, the city will host the 18th Track and Field World Championships. The first people to settle in the Eugene area were known as the Kalapuyans and they made seasonal rounds, moving around the countryside as appropriate to collect and preserve local foods, including acorns, the bulbs of the wapato and camas plants, and berries. They stored these foods in their permanent winter village, when crop activities waned, they returned to their winter villages and took up hunting, fishing, and trading. They were known as the Chifin Kalapuyans and called the Eugene area where they lived Chifin, other Kalapuyan tribes occupied villages that are also now within Eugene city limits. Pee-you or Mohawk Calapooians, Winefelly or Pleasant Hill Calapooians, and they were close-neighbors to the Chifin, intermarried, and were political allies. Some authorities suggest that the Brownsville Kalapuyans were related to the Pee-you and it is likely that since the Santiam had an alliance with the Brownsville Kalapuyans that the Santiam influence also went as far at Eugene. According to archeological evidence, the ancestors of the Kalapuyans may have been in Eugene for as long as 10,000 years, French fur traders had settled seasonally in the Willamette Valley by the beginning of the 19th century. Having already developed relationships with Native communities through intermarriage and trade, by 1828 to 1830 they and their Native wives began year round occupation of the land, raising crops and tending animals. In this process the mixed race families began to impact Native access to land, food supply, in July,1830, intermittent fever struck the lower Columbia region and a year later, the Willamette Valley. Natives traced the arrival of the disease, then new to the Northwest, to the U. S. ship, Owyhee, intermittent fever is thought by researchers now to be malaria. In his book The Coming of the Spirit Pestilence Boyd reports that there was a 92% population loss for the Kalapuyans between 1830 and 1841 and this catastrophic event shattered the social fabric of Kalapuyan society and altered the demographic balance in the Valley. As the demographic pressure from the colonists grew, the remaining Kalapuyans were forcibly removed to reservations, though some Natives escaped being swept into the reservation, most were moved to the Grand Ronde reservation in 1856. Strict racial segregation was enforced and mixed people, known as Métis in French, had to make a choice between the reservation and Anglo society
10.
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
11.
University of Oregon
–
The University of Oregon is a public flagship research university in Eugene, Oregon. Founded in 1876, the institutions 295-acre campus is along the Willamette River, since July 2014, UO has been governed by the Board of Trustees of the University of Oregon. The university has a Carnegie Classification of highest research activity and has 21 research centers, UO was admitted to the Association of American Universities in 1969. UO offers 316 undergraduate and graduate programs in a wide range of disciplines. Additionally, the Graduate School oversees the universitys graduate and certificate programs, UO student-athletes compete as the Ducks and are part of the Pac-12 Conference in the National Collegiate Athletic Association. With eighteen varsity teams, the Oregon Ducks are best known for their team and track. The Oregon State Legislature established the university on October 12,1872, the residents of Eugene struggled to help finance the institution, holding numerous fundraising events such as strawberry festivals, church socials, and produce sales. They raised $27,500, enough to buy eighteen acres of land at a cost of $2,500, the doors officially opened in 1876 with the name of Oregon State University and Deady Hall as its sole building. The first year of enrollment contained 155 students taught by five faculty members, the first graduating class was in 1878, graduating five students. In 1881, the university was closed, it was $8,000 in debt before Henry Villard donated $7,000 to help pay for the debt. In 1913, and again in 1932, there were proposals to merge the university with what is now Oregon State University, during Prince Lucien Campbells tenure as president from 1902 to 1925, the university experienced tremendous growth. The budget, enrollment, facilities, and faculty members all grew several times its amount prior to his presidency, however, the University of Oregon lost its School of Engineering to Oregon Agricultural College, now known as Oregon State University. The Zorn-MacPherson Bill in 1932 proposed the University of Oregon and Oregon State College merge, the bill lost in a landslide vote of over 6 to 1. The University of Oregon Medical School was founded in 1887 in Portland, however, in 1974 it became an independent institution known as Oregon Health Sciences University. In 1969, the UO was admitted into the Association of American Universities, with contributions exceeding $100 million from benefactors such as Phil Knight and Lorry I. Lokey, the goal was exceeded by over $253 million. The University occupies over 80 buildings and these projects, among others, were commissioned in part to support current student enrollment as well as possible future increases. Effective July 1,2014, the University of Oregon became an independent public body governed by the Board of Trustees of the University of Oregon
12.
Bachelor of Arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
13.
University of California, Berkeley
–
The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
14.
Juris Doctor
–
The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
15.
U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
16.
Oregon
–
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
17.
Government of Portland, Oregon
–
The Government of Portland, Oregon, a city in the U. S. state of Oregon, is based on a city commission government system. Elected officials include a Mayor, a City Council, and a City Auditor, the mayor and commissioners are responsible for legislative policy and oversee the various bureaus that oversee the day-to-day operation of the city. The auditor is responsible for ensuring that the government operates in good faith, Portland began using a commission form of government in 1913 following a public vote on May 3 of that year. Each elected official serves a term, without term limits. Current City Commissioners are, Chloe Eudaly, Nick Fish, Amanda Fritz, Dan Saltzman, the Auditor is Mary Hull Caballero. The Portland Charter was the subject of much debate circa 1911–1912. C, Benbow, which drafted the Benbow Charter. The city council appointed a committee to draft a compromise charter and this charter, along with the Short Charter, were defeated in referenda. The following year, the city council submitted another charter to the people, the city commission government form consequently came into use in 1913, with H. Russell Albee being the first mayor under the new system. In May 2007, Portland citizens rejected a measure which would have changed city government from a commission form to a strong mayor system. Similar changes have been proposed and rejected several times over the years, neil Goldschmidt, who went on to serve as Mayor, U. S. Secretary of Transportation, and Governor. Mildred Schwab Congressman Earl Blumenauer served on the Council before his election to the House and he has also reopened his private law practice, notably representing Warner Pacific College. Erik Sten Randy Leonard Steve Novick City Council seats, as well as the City Auditor, are non-partisan, elected positions, each carries a four-year term. Two candidates availed themselves of this system in 2006, incumbent Erik Sten, who won the election, and Amanda Fritz. The November 2010 elections saw Portlanders rescind their support for this publicly financed election system, public transit within the city is primarily the responsibility of TriMet, not the city government, but the Portland Streetcar and Portland Aerial Tram are exceptions, both are owned by the city. The city also pays 15% of the trams operating cost. The city contracts with TriMet to provide operators and maintenance staff for the streetcar system, PSI subcontractor Shiels Obletz Johnsen provides the systems Chief Operating Officer and Community Relations Manager. Six positions are directly by city employees, General Manager, Manager of Operations and Safety, Manager of Maintenance, Assistant Manager of Maintenance. Portland is the county seat of Multnomah County, and the core of Metro, both of these government entities have a strong impact on Portland policy
18.
Portland, Oregon
–
Portland is a port and the largest city in the U. S. state of Oregon and the seat of Multnomah County. It is in the Willamette Valley region of the Pacific Northwest, at the confluence of the Willamette, the city covers 145 square miles and had an estimated population of 632,309 in 2015, making it the 26th most populous city in the United States. Approximately 2,389,228 people live in the Portland metropolitan statistical area and its Combined Statistical Area ranks 17th with a population of 3,022,178. Roughly 60% of Oregons population resides within the Portland metropolitan area, named after Portland, Maine, the Oregon settlement began to be populated in the 1830s near the end of the Oregon Trail. Its water access provided convenient transportation of goods, and the industry was a major force in the citys early economy. At the turn of the 20th century, the city had a reputation as one of the most dangerous cities in the world. After the citys economy experienced a boom during World War II. Beginning in the 1960s, Portland became noted for its liberal political values, and the city has earned a reputation as a bastion of counterculture. According to a 2009 Pew Research Center study, Portland ranks as the eighth most popular American city, the city operates with a commission-based government guided by a mayor and four commissioners as well as Metro, the only directly elected metropolitan planning organization in the United States. The city government is notable for its planning and investment in public transportation. Its climate is marked by warm, dry summers and cool and this climate is ideal for growing roses, and Portland has been called the City of Roses for over a century. Keep Portland Weird is a slogan for the city. During the prehistoric period, the land that would become Portland was flooded after the collapse of glacial dams from Lake Missoula and these massive floods occurred during the last ice age and filled the Willamette Valley with 300 to 400 feet of water. The Chinook people occupying the land which would become Portland were first documented by Meriwether Lewis, before its European settlement, the Portland Basin of the lower Columbia River and Willamette River valleys had been one of the most densely populated regions on the Pacific Coast. Large numbers of settlers began arriving in the Willamette Valley in the 1830s via the Oregon Trail. In the early 1840s a new settlement began emerging ten miles from the mouth of the Willamette River and this community was initially referred to as Stumptown and The Clearing because of the many trees cut down to allow for its growth. In 1843 William Overton saw potential in the new settlement but lacked the funds to file a land claim. For 25 cents Overton agreed to half of the 640-acre site with Asa Lovejoy of Boston
19.
Downtown Portland, Oregon
–
Downtown Portland, the city center of Portland, Oregon, United States, is located on the west bank of the Willamette River. It is in the corner of the southwest section of the city. The downtown neighborhood is defined to extend west from the Willamette to Interstate 405, Portlands downtown features narrow streets—64 feet wide—and square, compact blocks 200 feet on a side, to create more corner lots that were expected to be more valuable. The small blocks also made downtown Portland pleasant to walk through, the 264-foot long combined blocks divide one mile of road into exactly 20 separate blocks. By comparison, Seattles blocks are 240 by 320 feet, by the early 1970s, parts of Portlands central city had been in decay for some time. New suburban shopping malls in the cities of Beaverton, Tigard. Unlike many downtown revitalization efforts around the United States at this time, downtown, which had been a virtual ghost town after regular business hours, became more of an all-hours shopping, dining, and business venue. During the two starting in 1990, downtown Portland dominated city development, with 500,000 square feet more development there than on the east side. Downtown development has not been without criticism, downtown also has numerous surface parking lots, which contradict the citys efforts to promote higher density and create the storefronts needed for a vibrant downtown. Portland is sometimes known as Bridgetown, due to the number of bridges cross its two rivers. There are nine bridges entering downtown and immediately adjacent areas. S, most streets in downtown Portland are one-way. Naito Parkway is the farthest east, while most of the end by I-405 to the west. Interstate 5 runs on the bank of the river, crossing over on the Marquam Bridge. U. S. Route 26 connects downtown Portland to the Oregon Coast, downtown is also served by several forms of public transportation. The southern part of downtown and the West End are also served by the Portland Streetcar system, operating from South Waterfront north into the Pearl and Northwest Portland districts. The system currently has two routes, measuring 7.2 miles end to end, and connects in South Waterfront with the Tram to Oregon Health & Science University. The five tallest are, Wells Fargo Center, rises to 166 meters and was constructed in 1972 U. S
20.
Mount Hood Freeway
–
The Mount Hood Freeway is a partially completed but never to be finished freeway alignment of U. S. Route 26 and Interstate 80N, which would have run through southeast Portland, Oregon. Related projects would have continued the route through the suburb of Gresham. The original plans for the freeway were presented by the Oregon State Highway Department as part of a 1955 report that proposed 14 new highways in the Portland metropolitan area. Plans for the freeway triggered a revolt in Portland in the late 1960s and early 1970s, in addition, plans for other proposed freeways in Portland were also scrapped, including Interstate 505. Funds for the project were spent on transportation projects, including the first section of the MAX Light Rail system. When the freeway was canceled, a segment was already completed southeastwards from East Burnside Road and Southeast Powell Blvd in Gresham, continuing to Sandy, the freeway would have run from the Willamette River to about SE 50th Avenue adjacent to the south side of Division St. It would then have shifted to Powell Blvd, by the initial plan, the freeway would have ended at SE 122nd Avenue, though extensions were considered. In 1962, this section was formally submitted for inclusion in the U. S, Interstate Highway System as part of Interstate 80N, todays I-84. I-205 itself was in the stages at the time the Mount Hood Freeway was first proposed. The I-205 routing was originally envisioned for the 52nd Avenue corridor, all plans for the Mount Hood Freeway allowed for a future I-205 connection at various spots. Another segment of the proposal was called the Mount Hood Expressway and it would have continued the Mount Hood Freeway alignment past a stack interchange at I-205, continuing to follow Powell Blvd. before skirting Gresham to the south and connecting to the existing route. The final segment of the proposal continued southeast from Gresham and ran to the outskirts of Sandy and this section was actually constructed, with a single interchange at the junction with Oregon Route 212. The new highway would have carried US26 along the entire alignment, the I-80N designation would have been removed from the Banfield Freeway, and the route would be duplexed over I-205 between the segments. US26 would be taken off Powell Blvd, the Ross Island Bridge, the Banfield Freeway section would have been taken out of the Interstate system and signed only as U. S. Route 30. By the time began to think seriously about building the Mount Hood Freeway in the 1970s. The movements gained city-wide and local support which changed the landscape in local elections. Soon, it seemed as if the Federal government and some in the Oregon State Highway Department were the ones who wanted the freeway. The freeways promoted virtue of a speedy commute was debunked by the freeways opponents, on one hand, it was seen as benefiting only suburban Gresham and East Multnomah County at the expense of Portlands neighborhoods
21.
MAX Light Rail
–
MAX Light Rail, or Metropolitan Area Express, is a light rail system consisting of five separate lines serving 97 stations in the Portland metropolitan area in Oregon. The system has had a weekday ridership between 115,000 and 130,000 since Fiscal Year 2010. It is owned and operated by TriMet and began service in 1986, from MAXs inception to 2004, about $3 billion was invested in light rail in Portland. In the mid-1970s, TriMet began a study for light rail using funds intended for the cancelled Mount Hood Freeway, the light rail project was known as the Banfield Light Rail Project, named for the freeway that part of the alignment followed. The TriMet board approved the project in September 1978, construction of the 15-mile route started in 1982, and the system opened on September 5,1986. Of the projects total cost of million, 83% was funded by the federal Urban Mass Transportation Administration. Less than two months before the opening, TriMet adopted the name Metropolitan Area Express, or MAX, the 18-mile Westside line, to Beaverton and Hillsboro, began construction in 1993 and opened in 1998. Except for a few trips, all trips on the now-two light rail lines were connected in downtown. The MAX system currently consists of five lines, each designated by a color, the use of colors to distinguish the separately operated routes was first adopted in 2000 and brought into use in 2001. The Green Line began serving the Mall on September 12,2009, the system currently has a total of 97 stations. The systems central stations are at Pioneer Courthouse Square, on the Portland Transit Mall, all lines except for the Orange Line pass through the Rose Quarter and cross the Steel Bridge. The trains operate on direct current and utilize two voltages,750 V DC nominal on sections west of NE 9th Avenue & Holladay Street, the two systems are electrically isolated. Trains run every 15 minutes from early in the morning until late at night, the Blue Line runs every 10 minutes during rush hour. Headways between trains are shorter in the section of the system, where lines overlap. Actual schedules vary by location and time of day, at many stations, a live readerboard shows the destination and time-to-arrival of the next several trains, using data gathered by a vehicle tracking system. Arrival information screens are in place at all stations on the Green Line and Transit Mall, with boards on the Yellow Line. These show arrival countdowns for trains and information about any service disruptions, after a $180,000 grant from the Federal Transit Administration, TriMet began adding digital displays to Blue and Red Line stations in 2013, initially on the west side, and then on the east side. All MAX stations are expected to be fitted with screens by 2016, MAX Light Rail stations vary in size, but are generally simple and austere
22.
President of the United States
–
The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
23.
Deregulation
–
Deregulation is the process of removing or reducing state regulations, typically in the economic sphere. It is the undoing or repeal of governmental regulation of the economy, opposition to deregulation may usually involve apprehension regarding environmental pollution and environmental quality standards, financial uncertainty, and constraining monopolies. Regulatory reform is a parallel development alongside deregulation, Regulatory reform refers to organized and ongoing programs to review regulations with a view to minimizing, simplifying, and making them more cost effective. Cost–benefit analysis is used in such reviews. In addition, there have been regulatory innovations, usually suggested by economists, Deregulation can be distinguished from privatization, where privatization can be seen as taking state-owned service providers into the private sector. Argentina underwent heavy economic deregulation, privatization, and had an exchange rate during the Menem administration. In Dec.2001, Paul Krugman compared Enron with Argentina, two months later, Herbert Inhaber claimed that Krugman confused correlation with causation, and neither collapse was due to excessive deregulation. Having announced a range of deregulatory policies, Labor Prime Minister Bob Hawke announced the policy of Minimum Effective Regulation in 1986. This introduced now familiar requirements for regulatory impact statements, but compliance by governmental agencies took many years, the labour market under the Hawke/Keating Labor governments operated under an accord. John Howards Liberal Party of Australia in 1996 began deregulation of the labor market, however, it was reversed under the following Rudd Labor government. Natural gas is deregulated in most of the country, with the exception of some Atlantic provinces and some pockets like Vancouver Island, most of this deregulation happened in the mid-1980s. There is price comparison service operating in some of these jurisdictions, particularly Ontario, Alberta, the other provinces are small markets and have not attracted suppliers. Customers have the choice of purchasing from a distribution company or a deregulated supplier. In most provinces the LDC is not allowed to offer a term contract, LDC prices are changed either monthly or quarterly. The province of Ontario began deregulation of electricity supply in 2002, the government is still searching for a stable working regulatory framework. The current status is a partially regulated structure in which consumers have received a price for a portion of the publicly owned generation. The remainder of the price has been market price based and there are numerous competitive energy contract providers, however, Ontario is installing Smart Meters in all homes and small businesses and is changing the pricing structure to Time of Use pricing. All small volume consumers are to be shifted to the new structure by the end of 2012
24.
Nike, Inc.
–
The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, in the Portland metropolitan area. It is one of the worlds largest suppliers of athletic shoes and apparel, as of 2012, it employed more than 44,000 people worldwide. In 2014 the brand alone was valued at $19 billion, making it the most valuable brand among sports businesses. The company was founded on January 25,1964, as Blue Ribbon Sports, by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight, the company takes its name from Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey between 1995 and 2008, and previously owned Cole Haan and Umbro, in addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high-profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of Just Do It, Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger, says Davis, I told Tom Brokaw that I was the first. I dont care all the billionaires say. Bill Bowerman made the first pair of shoes for me, in fact, I didnt like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight, but I saw Bowerman make them from the waffle iron, and they were mine. In 1964, in its first year in business, BRS sold 1,300 pairs of Japanese running shoes grossing $8,000, by 1965 the fledgling company had acquired a full-time employee, and sales had reached $20,000. In 1967, due to increasing sales, BRS expanded retail and distribution operations on the East Coast, in Wellesley. By 1971, the relationship between BRS and Onitsuka Tiger was nearing an end, BRS prepared to launch its own line of footwear, which would bear the Swoosh newly designed by Carolyn Davidson. The Swoosh was first used by Nike on June 18,1971, patent and Trademark Office on January 22,1974. In 1976, the company hired John Brown and Partners, based in Seattle, the following year, the agency created the first brand ad for Nike, called There is no finish line, in which no Nike product was shown. By 1980, Nike had attained a 50% market share in the U. S. athletic shoe market, together, Nike and Wieden+Kennedy have created many print and television advertisements, and Wieden+Kennedy remains Nikes primary ad agency. Walt Stack was featured in Nikes first Just Do It advertisement, wieden credits the inspiration for the slogan to Lets do it, the last words spoken by Gary Gilmore before he was executed. Throughout the 1980s, Nike expanded its line to encompass many sports
25.
Oregon tax revolt
–
The Oregon tax revolt is a political movement in Oregon which advocates for lower taxes. This movement is part of a larger movement in the western United States which began with the passage of Proposition 13 in California. The tax revolt, carried out in part by a series of citizens initiatives and referendums, has reshaped the debate about taxes. The leaders of the tax revolt include Don McIntire, president of the Taxpayer Association of Oregon, much of the money spent to promote these anti-tax measures were provided by out-of-state backers including Americans for Tax Reform headed by Grover Norquist. Inspired in part by Proposition 13 in the state of California. A majority of voters were frustrated by the increase in property taxes attributed to rising property values in the Portland area. Some attribute this home price inflation to an influx of population in the Portland metro, Measure 5 shifted the burden of school funding to the state and away from counties. Measure 5 also equalized school funding throughout the state, which meant that schools in rural areas benefited while schools in Portland saw budgets reduced, the budgetary restraints caused by Measure 5 were responsible for funding cuts that were made in public schools and universities budgets. However, even with the caps on property taxes, the increase in property values in Portland, exacerbated by the effects of Measure 5. This led to Bill Sizemores Measure 47, which attempted to cap the rate at which property taxes could rise. Measure 47 also instituted Oregons double majority rule, in local tax levies could only pass in minor elections when voter turnout surpassed half of the registered voters. In November 1996, Measure 47 was passed by the Oregon voters 52. 3% to 47. 7%, problems with the legal wording of Measure 47 caused the Oregon Legislature to send Measure 50 to voters in 1997, which clarified Measure 47. During a special election in May 1997, Measure 50 was approved by the voters 55. 7% to 44. 3%. The tax revolt manifested itself in a series of battles in the Oregon Legislature about school funding, the Oregon Health Plan. Then Governor John Kitzhaber and the Republican leadership in the legislature clashed repeatedly over budget priorities, in 2000, Don McIntire helped place Measure 8 on Oregons ballot, which would have limited state spending to 15 percent of personal income for the previous biennium. Measure 8 was defeated by a margin of 43. 5% to 56. 5%, anti-tax activists defeated two proposals in 2003 and 2004, which were referred to voters by the Oregon State Legislature to increase income taxes temporarily. Sizemores group ran into problems in 2002. Sizemore sparked the ire of several public employees unions with a series of initiatives aimed at reducing public employee pensions, the unions responded with the Voter Education Project, which tracked signature gatherers hired by Sizemore to place measures on the ballot
26.
Workers' compensation
–
The trade-off between assured, limited coverage and lack of recourse outside the worker compensation system is known as the compensation bargain. One of the problems that the compensation bargain solved is the problem of becoming insolvent as a result of high damage awards. The system of collective liability was created to prevent that, individual immunity is the necessary corollary to collective liability. General damage for pain and suffering, and punitive damages for negligence, are generally not available in workers compensation plans. These laws were first enacted in Europe and Oceania, with the United States following shortly thereafter and these laws also provide benefits for dependents of those workers who are killed in work-related accidents or illnesses. Some laws also protect employers and fellow workers by limiting the amount an injured employee can recover from an employer, State statutes establish this framework for most employment. Federal statutes are limited to employees or those workers employed in some significant aspect of interstate commerce. As Australia experienced a relatively influential labour movement in the late 19th, each territory has its own legislation and its own governing body. A typical example is Work Safe Victoria, which manages Victorias workplace safety system, Compensation law in New South Wales has recently been overhauled by the state government. In a push to speed up the process of claims and to reduce the amount of claims and it is a public institution that aims to recognize and grant rights to its policyholders. During the first 15 days the workers salary is paid by the employer and after that by the INSS, Workers compensation was Canadas first social program to be introduced as it was favoured by both workers groups and employers hoping to avoid lawsuits. It was introduced in the provinces at different dates. Ontario was first in 1915, Manitoba in 1916, and British Columbia in 1917 and it remains a provincial responsibility and thus the rules vary from province to province. In some provinces, such as Ontarios Workplace Safety and Insurance Board, in British Columbia, the occupational health and safety mandate is legislatively assigned to the Workers Compensation Board of British Columbia WorkSafeBC. In most provinces the workers compensation board or commission remains concerned solely with insurance, the workers compensation insurance system in every province is funded by employers based on their payroll, industry sector and history of injuries in their workplace. The German workers compensation law of 6 July 1884, initiated by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, was passed only three attempts and was the first of its kind in the world. Similar laws passed in Austria in 1887, Norway in 1894, Workers who are totally disabled get continued benefits at 67 percent after 13 weeks, paid by the accident funds, financed entirely by employers. The German compensation system has taken as a model for many nations
27.
Lobbying
–
Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence the actions, policies, or decisions of officials in their daily life, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by many types of people, associations and organized groups, including individuals in the sector, corporations, fellow legislators or government officials. Lobbyists may be among a legislators constituencies, meaning a voter or bloc of voters within their district, or not, they may engage in lobbying as a business. Professional lobbyists are people whose business is trying to influence legislation, regulation, or other government decisions, actions, individuals and nonprofit organizations can also lobby as an act of volunteering or as a small part of their normal job. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying that has become influential, the ethics and morality of lobbying are dual-edged. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt, when the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting the law in order to serve their own interests. The failure of government officials to serve the public interest as a consequence of lobbying by special interests who provide benefits to the official is an example of agent misdirection. One story held that the term originated at the Willard Hotel in Washington, DC, a lobbyist is a person who tries to influence legislation on behalf of a special interest or a member of a lobby. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying as part of laws to prevent political corruption, Lobby groups may concentrate their efforts on the legislatures, where laws are created, but may also use the judicial branch to advance their causes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, for example, filed suits in state and their efforts resulted in the Supreme Court declaring such laws unconstitutional. They may use a device known as amicus curiae, literally friend of the court. Briefs are written documents filed with a court, typically by parties to a lawsuit, amici curiae briefs are briefs filed by people or groups who are not parties to a suit. These briefs are entered into the records, and give additional background on the matter being decided upon. Advocacy groups use these briefs both to share their expertise and to promote their positions, over the past twenty years lobbying in Australia has grown from a small industry of a few hundred employees to a multibillion-dollar per year industry. Lobbying has become a fact of life and is now endemic in local, state. It is not just the local councillors and state and federal politicians being lobbied, in Australia, lobbyists are expected to organise a pass to obtain access to the federal parliament. The Parliamentary Pass must be signed by two parliamentarians and it is administered by the Department of Parliamentary Services and has the enforcement of the Criminal Code Act 1995. The Pass is valid for two years, however, the Parliamentary Pass is not absolutely necessary, as some lobbyists are simply signed in on the day of their visit as guests of Senators or Members
28.
Weyerhaeuser
–
Weyerhaeuser is one of the worlds largest private owners of timberlands. It owns more than 13 million acres of timberlands, primarily in the U. S. the company also manufactures wood and cellulose fiber products. Weyerhaeuser is a real estate investment trust, fifteen partners and 900,000 acres of Washington timberland were involved in the founding, and the land was purchased from James J. Hill of the Great Northern Railway. In 1929, the company built what was then the worlds largest sawmill in Longview, Weyerhaeusers pulp mill in Longview, which began production in 1931, sustained the company financially during the Great Depression. In 1959, the company eliminated the word Timber from its name to reflect its operations. In 1965, Weyerhaeuser built its first bleached kraft pulp mill in Canada, Weyerhaeuser implemented its High Yield Forestry Plan in 1967 which drew upon 30 years of forestry research and field experience. It called for the planting of seedlings within one year of a harvest, soil fertilization, thinning, rehabilitation of brushlands, Weyerhaeuser consolidated its core businesses in the late 1990s and ended its services in mortgage banking, personal care products, financial services, and information systems consulting. Weyerhaeuser also expanded into South America, Australia, and Asia, in 1999, Weyerhaeuser purchased MacMillan Bloedel Limited, a large Canadian forestry company. Then in 2002 after a hostile buyout, the company acquired Willamette Industries, Inc. of Portland. In March 2008, Weyerhaeuser Company announced the sale of its Containerboard Packaging and Recycling business to International Paper for $6 billion in cash, the transaction included nine containerboard mills,72 packaging locations,10 specialty-packaging plants, four kraft bag and sack locations and 19 recycling facilities. The transaction affected approximately 14,300 employees, Weyerhaeuser converted into a real estate investment trust when it filed its 2010 tax return. In 2013, Weyerhaeuser purchased Longview Timber for $2.65 billion including debt from Brookfield Asset Management, the acquisition added 645,000 acres of timberland to Weyerhaeusers holdings in Oregon and Washington. In 2014, Weyerhaeuser spun off its home building unit to TRI Pointe Homes in a $2.8 billion transaction, the company also announced its intention to sell its Federal Way headquarters and relocate to Seattles Pioneer Square in 2016. The sale and move were completed in 2016, on November 8,2015, it was announced that Weyerhaeuser would buy Plum Creek Timber for $8.4 billion, forming the largest private owner of timberland in the United States. The companys operations are divided into three business segments, Timberlands — Growing and harvesting trees in renewable cycles. Wood products — Manufacturing and distribution of building materials for homes, cellulose fiber — Research and development, manufacturing and distribution of pulp products. Doyle Simons is the CEO and president of Weyerhaeuser Company, the Weyerhaeuser board of directors consists of, Debra A. Cafaro, Mark Emmert, John I. Kieckhefer, Wayne W. Murdy, Nicole Piasecki, Doyle R. Simons, Richard Sinkfield, D. Michael Steuert, Kim Williams, hidy, Ralph W, Hill, Frank Ernest, Nevins, Allan
29.
Willamette Industries
–
Willamette Industries, Inc. was a Fortune 500 forest products company based in Portland, Oregon, United States. In 2002, the lumber and paper company was purchased by competitor Weyerhaeuser of Federal Way, Washington in a hostile buyout, Willamette Industries was founded in Dallas, Oregon, in 1906 as the Willamette Valley Lumber Company. Louis Gerlinger, Sr. was president of the new company and H. L. Pittock, george T. Gerlinger served as secretary and manager while F. W. Leadbetter was treasurer. George Cone served as director and mill superintendent, in 1967, this company and several others merged to become Willamette Industries. The next year the company went public, the company continued to grow through acquisitions, including purchasing Bohemia, Inc. in 1991, which at the time was one of the largest lumber companies in Oregon. By 1999 it had grown to 14,000 employees with $4 billion in annual revenues, a brown paper division produced bag paper, paper bags, cardboard, and liner board. The white paper segment made hardwood market pulp, business forms, the building materials unit manufactured lumber, plywood, fiberboard, particleboard, and laminated veneer lumber products. Customers were located in the US, Asia, and Europe, in July 2000, the company was fined a then record $11.2 million by the Environmental Protection Agency for violations of the Clean Air Act. As part of a settlement with the EPA and the Department of Justice, in May 2001, the company donated habitat to The Nature Conservancy in the form of permanent conservation easements. The total amount of land 1,740 acres with a value of $1.5 million, beginning in 1998 Washington-based competitor Weyerhaeuser contacted Willamette Industries about combining the companies. At that time Willamette management did not entertain any of these proposals, the shares in Willamette went up 32. 7% on Monday, November 13. Willamette fought this hostile take-over bid, on November 29 Weyerhaeuser upped the price to $48 a share, or $5.4 billion. On December 22,2000, Weyerhaeuser announced that it had launched a fight to oust four directors of Willamette Industries. The offer was extended on January 5,2001 to February 1, Weyerhaeuser secured three of the four board seats in the proxy fight in June 2001. In October 2001, Willamette said that it was more, value is in the $60-a-share range. Willamette sought out merger talks with another forest products company, Georgia-Pacific, Willamette even talked with Georgia-Pacific about Willamette buying the GP building materials businesses and greatly increasing Willamettes debt level. The combination with the G-P that was larger than all of Willamettes operations would have created a company with sales of around $12.5 billion. On December 13,2001, Weyerhaeuser increased its offer to $55.00 per share, or $6.5 billion, in cash
30.
Portland General Electric
–
Portland General Electric is a Fortune 1000 public utility based in Portland, Oregon. It distributes electricity to customers in parts of Multnomah, Clackamas, Marion, Yamhill, Washington, notably, PGE does not serve all of Portland. Its service territory comprises most of Portland west of the Willamette River, PGE produces and purchases energy primarily from coal and natural gas plants, as well as hydroelectric power from dams on the Clackamas, Willamette and Deschutes rivers. Between 1976 and 1993, PGE operated Trojan, the nuclear power plant in Oregon. The NPP was the subject of three Oregon initiatives to shut it down, the company won all three, but elected to close the plant twenty years early. The utility was founded in 1888 by Parker F. Morey, on June 3,1889 it sent power generated by one of four brush arc light dynamos at Willamette Falls over a 14-mile electric power transmission line to Portland, the first US power plant to do so. On August 6,1892, Morey, Frederick Van Voorhies Holman and it was funded by General Electric and the investment arm of Old Colony Trust, with $4.25 million in capital. The newly formed PGE Company purchased Willamette Falls Electric and the Albina Light & Water Company in 1892, less than a year later, in May 1893, PGE purchased the City-Eastside Electric Light Plant, a municipal power company. In 1903, Henry W. Goode, the president of PGE and his vision was for the company to light the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in 1905. in 1903, he traveled to the east coast to raise three thousand dollars from shareholders. His plan went through, and Thomas H. Wright was put in charge of designing the lighting for the fair, PGE also purchased the Union Power Company in 1905, and the Vancouver Electric Light & Power Company in 1906. In 1906, PGE, Portland Railway Company, and Oregon Water Power & Railway Company merged, becoming the Portland Railway, Light and it was the only streetcar operator within Portland city limits, and the predecessor of the modern PGE. The company name became Portland Electric Power Company in 1932 and it was reorganized in 1948 as PGE. On March 1,1939, PEPCO defaulted on interest bonds that had issued in March 1934. The bonds were pledged with PGE and Portland Traction Company as collateral, PEPCO filed for Chapter X bankruptcy on April 3,1939, and was assigned District Judge James Alger Fee. The proceedings were called one of the most prolonged and complicated series of legal proceedings in Portlands history. The Columbia Valley Authority project would have allowed CVA to purchase such as PGE. PGE survived bankruptcy partially through cheap power purchases from BPA beginning in the fall of 1939, in the meantime, Ormond R. Bean, the Oregon Public Utility Commissioner, forced PGE to lower its rates. Ultimately, PEPCO and PGE were saved by World War II, by 1945, PGE derived nearly $400,000 in revenue from the two Kaiser shipyards in Oregon
31.
Ted Kulongoski
–
Theodore Ralph Ted Kulongoski is an American politician who served as the 36th Governor of Oregon from 2003 to 2011. A Democrat, he served in both houses of the Oregon Legislative Assembly and also served as the state Insurance Commissioner and he was the Attorney General of Oregon from 1993 to 1997 and an Associate Justice on the Oregon Supreme Court from 1997 to 2001. Kulongoski has served in all three branches of the Oregon state government, a rare distinction, Kulongoski was born in St. Louis, Missouri in 1940. He was 4 years old when his father died, and spent the rest of his childhood in a Catholic boys home, after High school, Kulongoski served in the Marines. With the help of the G. I, bill, he obtained an undergraduate and law degree from the University of Missouri in 1970. Kulongoski then moved to Eugene, Oregon and became a labor lawyer, in 1974, Kulongoski was elected to the Oregon House of Representatives and, in 1978, to the Oregon State Senate. In Oregons 1980 United States Senate election, he ran a race against Republican Bob Packwood. In 1982, he made his first bid for governor, he was defeated by Republican incumbent Victor G. Atiyeh, at the 1980 Democratic National Convention then-State Senator and U. S. Senate nominee Kulongoski received 8 delegate votes for Vice President of the United States. Kulongoski was not a candidate and incumbent Walter Mondale was easily renominated, in 1987, Oregon Governor Neil Goldschmidt appointed Kulongoski to the post of state insurance commissioner. In that role, Kulongoski reformed the states workers compensation insurance system, in 1992, Kulongoski was elected as Oregon Attorney General, defeating Republican Rich Rodeman. As Attorney General, he focused on reforming the juvenile justice system, in 1996, Kulongoski decided against running for re-election as Attorney General, and instead successfully ran for the Oregon Supreme Court. He resigned from the court in 2001 to run for governor, after winning the Democratic party nomination in the 2002 race for governor, Kulongoskis opponent was Republican Kevin Mannix. Kulongoski ran a campaign, emphasizing his reputation as a consensus-builder. His television commercials featured such feel-good scenes as the candidate bowling and he argued for a pragmatic approach to solving the states budget crisis and recession, a marked departure from the more confrontational style of outgoing governor John Kitzhaber. Mannix argued that the Democratic Party had held the governorship in Oregon too long, many of Kulongoskis supporters were disappointed with his campaign, feeling he did not adequately respond to Mannixs challenge. Kulongoski narrowly won the election, winning 618,004 votes, with 581,785 votes going to Mannix, Kulongoski took office on January 13,2003. He inherited a state facing a budget deficit and high unemployment. Furthermore, he faced the task of dealing with problems with the employees pension system without angering the labor unions that backed his campaign
32.
Willamette Valley
–
The Willamette Valley is a 150-mile long valley in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It forms the cultural and political heart of Oregon, and is home to approximately 70 percent of its population including its three largest cities, Portland, Eugene and Salem, the state capital. The valleys numerous waterways, particularly the Willamette River, are vital to the economy of Oregon, as they continuously deposit highly fertile alluvial soils across its broad, flat plain. A massively productive agricultural area, the valley was widely publicized in the 1820s as a land of flowing milk. Throughout the 19th century it was the destination of choice for the wagon trains of emigrants who made the perilous journey along the Oregon Trail. Today the valley is considered synonymous with Oregon Wine Country, as it contains more than 19,000 acres of vineyards. When floodwaters met log-and-ice jams at Kalama in southwest Washington, the caused an backup that filled the entire Willamette Valley to a depth of 300 to 400 feet above current sea level. Some geologists suggest that the Willamette Valley flooded in this multiple times during the last ice age. Elevations for other cities in the valley are Newberg,175 feet, Oregon City,138 feet, McMinnville,157 feet, Salem,154 feet, Corvallis,235 feet, and Eugene,430 feet. One of the most prominent of these is the Bellevue Erratic and it is also believed that the Willamette Meteorite was rafted by flood and ice to the location near West Linn where it was found in 1902. The valley may be defined as the broad plain of the Willamette, bounded on the west by the Oregon Coast Range. It is bounded on the south by the Calapooya Mountains, which separate the headwaters of the Willamette from the Umpqua River valley about 25 miles south of Hidden Valley, interstate 5 runs the length of the valley, linking its major communities. Because of differing cultural and political interests, the Portland metropolitan area, cities in the valley include, from south to north, Cottage Grove, Eugene, Corvallis, Albany, Dallas, Salem, McMinnville, Oregon City, Hillsboro, Portland, and St. Helens. Parts of the counties, from south to north, lie within the valley, Douglas, Lane, Linn, Benton, Polk, Marion, Clackamas, Yamhill, Washington, Multnomah. Sometimes the area around Albany and Corvallis and surrounding Benton and Linn counties is referred to locally as the Mid-Valley, Marion, Polk, and other counties are sometimes included in the definition of the Mid-Valley. The climate of the Willamette Valley is oceanic with Mediterranean features and this climate is characterized by very dry and mostly cloudless summers, ranging from warm to occasionally very hot, followed by cool, rainy, and consistently cloudy winters. The precipitation pattern is distinctly Mediterranean, with little to no rainfall occurring during the summer months, temperatures are predictable throughout the year, with daytime highs frequently reaching the low to mid 80s in the summer and the mid 40s in the winter. Lengthy stretches of 90 °F degree days occur every summer, occasionally reaching 100 °F, temperatures of 5 °F or lower occur only about once every 25 years
33.
South Eugene High School
–
South Eugene High School is a public high school located in Eugene, Oregon, United States. It was founded as Eugene High School around 1900, and was located at Willamette Street, the Eugene school district in 1915 built a new high school on a one-block site on West 17th Avenue between Lincoln and Charnelton streets. By 1943, the Eugene School District had outgrown the old high school. World War II and other factors delayed construction for a decade, the old high school then served as Woodrow Wilson Junior High School until 1967. In the fall of 1957, Eugene High was renamed South Eugene High School, in 1983, South Eugene High School was honored in the Blue Ribbon Schools Program, the highest honor a school can receive in the United States. In 2008, 89% of the seniors received their high school diploma. Of 410 students,363 graduated,40 dropped out, and 7 are still in high school, the school has regularly received a silver ranking from U. S. News & World Reports Americas Best High Schools survey. In 2010, a student at the school was honored as a Presidential Scholar, a student at the school won the Intel Science Talent Search in 2009 after another South Eugene student placed third in 2007, other students have been named finalists or semifinalists in recent years. South Eugene High School hosts a branch of the Eugene International High School which offers International Baccalaureate courses as well as the International Baccalaureate Diploma, the main campus of South Eugene High School offers numerous Advanced Placement courses as well as Honors courses. The school has athletic teams and other student activities, such as band, choir, theater, orchestra and visual arts. South Eugene High School also offers a variety of clubs
34.
Bachelor's degree
–
A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
35.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
36.
Maurine Neuberger
–
Maurine Brown Neuberger-Solomon, best known as Maurine Neuberger was an American politician who served as a United States senator for the State of Oregon from November 1960 to January 1967. She was the fourth woman elected to the United States Senate and she and her husband, Richard L. Neuberger, are regarded as the Senates first husband-and-wife legislative team. To date, she is the only elected to the U. S. Senate from Oregon. Neuberger was born in Cloverdale, Tillamook County, Oregon and she attended public schools, the Oregon College of Education at Monmouth from 1922 to 1924, graduated from the University of Oregon in 1929 with a Bachelor of Arts. She is an alumna of the Delta Zeta sorority and she was selected to Mortar Board National College Senior Honor Society in her junior year. She then undertook study at the University of California at Los Angeles from 1936 to 1937. Brown was a teacher in Oregon public schools between 1932 and 1944, in 1937, while teaching in a Portland high school, she met Richard L. Neuberger, the couple married in 1945, after Neuberger completed his service in World War II. Richard Neuberger was subsequently elected to the Oregon State Senate in 1948, Maurine Neuberger entered politics herself in 1950 when she was elected a member of the State House of Representatives and served from 1950 to 1955. In 1952, when she was reelected to the state House and her husband was reelected to the state Senate, during this period she was also a member of the board of directors of the American Association for the United Nations. Richard was elected to the United States Senate in 1954, in 1960, Richard died from cancer. Maurine then won an election on November 8,1960. Hall S. Lusk had been appointed by the governor to the Senate upon Richards death, after the election, Maurine completed Richards remaining term from November 9,1960, to January 3,1961. At the same time as the election, she won the general election for the term commencing January 3,1961. Her activities in government focused on consumer, environmental and health issues, in 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed her to be a member of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. She was a resident of Portland, Oregon until her death on February 22,2000 at the age of 93, interment in Beth Israel Cemetery, Portland, Women in the United States Senate United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, portlands Walk of the Heroines, Maurine Neuberger at the Wayback Machine Jensen, Kimberly. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, biography from the Oregon Historical Society
37.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
38.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
39.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
40.
Allard K. Lowenstein
–
Allard Kenneth Lowenstein was an American Democratic politician, including a U. S. Representative of the 5th Congressional District in Nassau County, New York for one term in 1969 to 1971. His work in the Civil Rights Movement and the movement has been cited as an inspiration by public figures including U. S. Secretary of State John Kerry. Senators Bill Bradley, Gary Hart and Donald W. Riegle, Lowenstein was born in Newark, New Jersey. He was a graduate of Horace Mann School in New York City, as an undergraduate, he was president of the National Student Association and the Dialectic Society. Lowenstein received a J. D. from Yale Law School in 1954, after completing his law degree, Lowenstein became a college professor and administrator, holding posts at Stanford University, North Carolina State University, and City College of New York. In 1949 Lowenstein worked as an assistant on the staff of Senator Frank Porter Graham. In the 1960s Lowenstein spent time in Mississippi as part of the Freedom Summer, in 1959, Lowenstein made a clandestine tour of South-West Africa, now Namibia. While he was there, he collected testimony against the South African-controlled government, in 1960 Lowenstein was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention. In 1964, he attended the 1964 Republican National Convention with his close friend, in 1966 he helped Senator Robert F. Kennedy in writing his famous Day of Affirmation Address, given to the National Union of South African Students at the University of Cape Town. Lowenstein was elected to Congress in Long Island, New York, lent by 9,300 votes, effectively gerrymandered out of office by the Republican-controlled state legislature, which determined the districts boundaries. Long Islands generally liberal Five Towns region had been removed from the district, Lowenstein captured 46% of the vote in the new district. The 1970 election was viewed nationwide as a referendum on President Richard Nixons conduct of the Vietnam War, in 1971, Lowenstein became head of the Americans for Democratic Action and spearheaded the Dump Nixon movement, earning himself the number 7 spot on Nixons Enemies List. In 1972, Lowenstein ran unsuccessfully for Congress in Brooklyn against Congressman John J. Rooney, despite their party and ideological differences, Rumsfeld joined Lowenstein on the victory platform upon Lowensteins election to Congress in 1968. Rumsfelds public reversal contributed to Lowensteins reelection defeat and the end of their friendship, Lowenstein was married to Jennifer Lowenstein from 1966 to 1977 and the two had three children, Frank Graham, Thomas Kennedy, and Katharine Eleanor. Their children ultimately pursued careers in public service and he is directly related to Samuel Allard Frey. Lowenstein was murdered in his Manhattan office on March 14,1980, at age 51 by a mentally ill gunman, Dennis Sweeney. At his funeral in New York City on March 18,1980, eulogies were delivered at his familys request by William F. Buckley, Jr. a veteran of the United States Army, Lowenstein is buried in Arlington National Cemetery
41.
Mississippi
–
Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
42.
Civil and political rights
–
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
43.
Highway revolts
–
Melbourne saw protests against the 1969 Melbourne Transportation Plan, mostly by those in the impacted inner-city areas. In 1974,150 residents protesting plans for the F-19 freeway through Collingwood put themselves in front of construction equipment in an attempt to halt construction, in 1978, protesters rallied to defend Gardiners Creek in Kooyong, which was in the path of the South Eastern Freeway. In 1984, over 100 protesters rallied against the widening of Punt Road to become the Hoddle Highway, many of the unbuilt freeways were eventually cancelled by change of government, but some projects were later resurrected. The aggressive police response was criticised, and led to the disbandment of the group. In 1989,200 protesters rallied against a proposed north-west tollway, in 1991,150 anti-freeway protesters rallied outside Parliament House. In 1995, over 400 people protested the M2 Hills Motorway, tasmanian Aboriginals have conducted protests against the construction of the Brighton Bypass. They have stated that construction of the bypass will suffer the loss of their Heritage, in Halifax, Nova Scotia the construction of an elevated waterfront freeway, Harbour Drive, was halted in the 1970s after local opposition to the proposed destruction of many historic buildings. All that remains of the project today is the Cogswell Interchange, several areas were destroyed to make room for highways in the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, Old Montreal has undergone significant rehabilitation and is now a residential and commercial district. Part of the expressway has been covered over and the section immediately north of Montreal City Hall is also slated to be covered. Another cancelled project would have seen Rue Berri converted into a north-south expressway, only the portion south of Rue Cherrier was built. The current plan is to widen the current 4-lane road into an urban boulevard rather than converting it into a full-scale expressway. Some large road projects from the heyday of the automobile have since been removed at public demand. One of the most prominent was an interchange at the corner of Avenue du Parc and Avenue des Pins. The elevated structure was demolished in the early 2000s and replaced with a simpler, another current project aims to replace the Bonaventure Expressway with another urban boulevard along a long stretch of cut-off waterfront. During the 1950s, Toronto experienced the sort of urban sprawl that was sweeping through the United States. Suburbs grew along existing highway corridors, stretching the city east and west and these highways ended at the city limits, however, and there was little route capacity within the city itself. This caused enormous traffic problems within the city, and a network of new highways to address the problem became part of the Official Plan in 1959, as construction of the network started, the mood of the citizens changed
44.
Labor union
–
The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
