1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
Manitoba
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Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada. It is one of the three provinces and Canadas fifth-most populous province with its estimated 1.3 million people. Manitoba covers 649,950 square kilometres with a varied landscape. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years, in the late 17th century, fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Ruperts Land and owned by the Hudsons Bay Company. In 1869, negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada. The rebellions resolution led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 that created the province, Manitobas capital and largest city, Winnipeg, is Canadas eighth-largest census metropolitan area. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, four of the provinces five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg. The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree, the name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit, a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba. It may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie, the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies. Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name, and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 and it adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast, and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline. The Port of Churchill is Canadas only Arctic deep-water port and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia, Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Hudson Bay is the worlds second-largest bay, Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed, once known as Ruperts Land. It was a area of the Hudsons Bay Company, with many rivers. The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, Manitobas major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipegs east side are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg. This basins rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers
3.
Burntwood River
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The Burntwood River is a river in northeast Manitoba, Canada between the Churchill River and the Nelson River. Outsiders may know it as the river passes through Thompson. It is over 320 kilometres long and flows mostly east to join the Nelson River at Split Lake, near its headwaters around Burntwood Lake, the Kississing Portage connects it to the Churchill River. The route was used by lighter Indian canoes to carry the rich Athabasca furs to Hudson Bay or, by going up the Nelson, the route was not much used by voyageurs partly because there was more Pemmican further south. Just south of the Burntwood, the Grass River, which ends at Split Lake, was a parallel canoe route. In 1790 the Hudsons Bay Company built Lakes House at the mouth of the Burntwood, in 1793 David Thompson followed a large part of the Burntwood. In 1825–26 George Simpson tried to use the Burntwood as a route from York Factory to the Pacific. Today it forms part of the Churchill River Diversion, the Wuskwatim Dam and Generating Station west of Thompson are expected to be completed in 2012. List of rivers of Manitoba Bois-Brûlés
4.
Grass River (Manitoba)
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The Grass River is a historically important waterway in the Hudson Bay drainage basin in the Northern Region of Manitoba, Canada. It begins at the Cranberry Lakes approximately 27 kilometres east of Cranberry Portage, the river was a critical route for earlier European explorers and was part of the Upper Tract of the fur trade into Canadian interior. The headwaters of the Grass River are in Third Cranberry Lake and it then flows north to Elbow Lake, and turns sharply south to Iskwasum Lake after which it continues easterly to Reed Lake. This portion of the river is within Grass River Provincial Park, after Reed Lake, the river enters Tramping Lake, followed by the Wekusko Falls, Wekusko Lake and eastwards to Setting Lake. The river then passes Sasagiu Rapids Provincial Park, and Pisew Falls Provincial Wayside Park and it then enters Paint Lake and the Paint Lake Provincial Park. Continuing in a northeast direction, the Grass River passes through several lakes before its confluence with the Nelson River near Kelsey. The river runs for 599 kilometres, and drains a watershed of 15,400 square kilometres, the shoreline is characterized by steeply sloping irregular rock ridges and poorly drained areas of muskeg. Typical of the Canadian Shield, the runs through rolling hilly terrain with abundant glacially scoured rock outcrops. Bird species include raven, common loon, spruce grouse, bald eagle, the Grass River area is largely pristine and home to moose, black bear, lynx, wolf, and beaver. There are also migrating herds of woodland caribou along the rivers length, many portions of the river are not easily accessible, but there is some trapping, hunting, and recreational fishing activity. The Grass River basin contains burbot, lake whitefish, northern pike, sucker, walleye, the Grass River was originally inhabited by the Shield Archaic peoples who migrated from the present-day Northwest Territories 5,000 years ago. The many petrographs located along the river date to this period, approximately 2,000 years ago, pottery was introduced to the region and the Woodland Cree emerged as the dominant culture in the area. In the 1700s, the became an important route for Cree hunters travelling to York Factory at Hudson Bay to trade their furs. The first recorded Europeans to travel the Grass River were the Hudsons Bay Company fur traders and explorers Joseph Smith, in 1763, from York Factory they travelled up the Grass River to Cranberry Portage and then over to Lake Athapapuskow and down into the Saskatchewan River system. Smith died on the return journey, in 1774, explorer Samuel Hearne paddled up the Grass River to establish Cumberland House. In the summer of 1794, surveyor and explorer David Thompson travelled up the Grass River for the first of many times in his career mapping the interior of North America, several fur trading posts were established along the river, most notably at Reed Lake House and Cranberry Lake. In the early 20th century there was a boom, which saw further exploration by prospectors. The course of the river was first noted in a 1760 map obtained by Moses Norton, the name Grass River was first documented on Samuel Hearnes map of 1776
5.
Lake Winnipeg
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It is the largest lake within southern Canadas borders, and it is part of the most undeveloped large watershed of southern Canada. It is the eleventh-largest freshwater lake on Earth, the lakes east side has pristine boreal forests and rivers that are being promoted as a potential United Nations World Heritage Park. The lake is elongated and is 416 km from north to south, with sandy beaches, large limestone cliffs. Manitoba Hydro uses the lake as one of the largest reservoirs in the world, there are many islands, most of them undeveloped. The lakes watershed measures about 982,900 square kilometres, and covers much of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, northwestern Ontario, Minnesota and its drainage is about 40 times larger than its surface, a ratio bigger than any other large lake in the world. Given the massive watershed and the small volume of water in the lake. It is not surprising to find it showing the effects of materials being added to it as a result of activities in the watershed. Lake Winnipeg drains northward into the Nelson River at an annual rate of 2,066 cubic metres per second, and forms part of the Hudson Bay watershed. This watershed area was known as Ruperts Land when the Hudsons Bay Company was chartered in 1670. The Saskatchewan River flows in from the west through Cedar Lake, the Red River flows in from the south, the Dauphin River enters from the west draining Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipegosis. The Bloodvein River, Berens River, Poplar River and the Manigotagan River flow in from the side of the lake which is within the Canadian Shield. A number of beaches are found on the southern end of the lake. The phosphorus levels are approaching a point that could be dangerous for human health, the Global Nature Fund has declared Lake Winnipeg as the threatened lake of the year for 2013. In 2015, there was an explosion of zebra mussels in Lake Winnipeg. The mussels are devastating to the opportunities of the lake. Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba are remnants of prehistoric Glacial Lake Agassiz, the area between the lakes is called the Interlake Region, and the whole region is called the Manitoba Lowlands. It is believed Henry Kelsey was the first European to see the lake and he adopted the Cree language name for the lake, wīnipēk, meaning muddy waters. La Vérendrye referred to the lake as Ouinipigon when he built the first forts in the area in the 1730s, later, the Red River Colony to its south took the lakes name for Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba
6.
Hudson Bay
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Hudson Bay is a large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada with a surface area of 1,230,000 square kilometres. Hudson Bays southern arm is called James Bay, the Eastern Cree name for Hudson and James Bay is Wînipekw or Wînipâkw, meaning muddy or brackish water. Lake Winnipeg is similarly named by the local Cree, as is the location for the city of Winnipeg, Hudson Bay encompasses 1,230,000 square kilometres, making it the second-largest bay in the world. The bay is shallow and is considered an epicontinental sea. It is about 1,370 km long and 1,050 km wide, on the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, on the north, with the Arctic Ocean by Foxe Basin, and Fury and Hecla Strait. Geographic coordinates, 78° to 95° W, 51° to 70° N. Hudson Bay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a sea of the Atlantic Ocean. English explorers and colonists named Hudson Bay after Sir Henry Hudson who explored the bay beginning August 2,1610 on his ship Discovery. On his fourth voyage to North America, Hudson worked his way around Greenlands west coast and into the bay, Discovery became trapped in the ice over the winter, and the crew survived onshore at the southern tip of James Bay. When the ice cleared in the spring, Hudson wanted to explore the rest of the area and they left Hudson and others adrift in a small boat. No one knows the fate of Hudson or the crew members stranded with him, in 1668, Nonsuch reached the bay and traded for beaver pelts, leading to the creation of the Hudsons Bay Company which still bears the historic name. The HBC negotiated a trading monopoly from the British crown for the Hudson Bay watershed, called Ruperts Land, france contested this grant by sending several military expeditions to the region, but abandoned its claim in the Treaty of Utrecht. See Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay, during this period, the Hudsons Bay Company built several forts and trading posts along the coast at the mouth of the major rivers. The strategic locations were bases for inland exploration, more importantly, they were trading posts with the indigenous peoples who came to them with furs from their trapping season. The HBC shipped the furs to Europe and continued to use these posts until the beginning of the 20th century, the port of Churchill is still an important shipping link for trade with Europe and Russia. HBCs trade monopoly was abolished in 1870, and it ceded Ruperts Land to Canada, starting in 1913, the Bay was extensively charted by the Canadian Governments CSS Acadia to develop it for navigation. This mapping progress led to the establishment of Churchill, Manitoba as a port for wheat exports in 1929. Due to a change in naming conventions, Hudsons Bay is now called Hudson Bay, as a result, the names of the body of water and the company are often mistaken for one another
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
River
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A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
9.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
10.
Provinces and territories of Canada
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Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
11.
Bow River
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The Bow River is a river in the Canadian province of Alberta. It begins in the Rocky Mountains and winds through the Alberta foothills onto the prairies where it meets the Oldman River and these waters ultimately flow through the Nelson River into Hudson Bay. The Bow River runs through the city of Calgary, taking in the Elbow River at the site of Fort Calgary near downtown. The Bow River pathway, developed along the banks, is considered a part of Calgarys self-image. First Nations peoples made varied use of the river for sustenance before settlers of European origin arrived, such as using its valleys in the buffalo hunt. The name Bow refers to the reeds that grew along its banks and were used by the local First Nations peoples to make bows, the river is an important source of water for irrigation and drinking water. Between the years 1910 and 1960, the Bow River and its tributaries were engineered to provide hydroelectric power and this significantly altered the rivers flow and certain ecosystems. The rivers source is from the Bow Glacier, which is part of the Wapta Icefield, the outflow from this source flows into Bow Lake in the Canadian Rockies. It flows south to the village of Lake Louise then turns east, the Ghost Lake reservoir is formed upstream from the town of Cochrane. The Bow then flows eastward to the city of Calgary, it continues on to form the South Saskatchewan River when the Bow joins with the Oldman River near Grassy Lake in southern Alberta. Its waters are shed in the Hudson Bay through the Saskatchewan River, Lake Winnipeg. Communities along the Bow include Lake Louise, Banff, Canmore, Cochrane, Calgary, the Bow Falls are on the rivers course, near Banff. The Bow River has a length of 587 km and a drainage area of 26,200 km2. The fur trader James Gaddy and the Hudsons Bay Company explorer David Thompson are traditionally considered to be the first people of European origin to discover the Bow River and they camped along the Bow with a group of Piikani during the 1787–88 winter. Before they arrived, First Nations populations had lived in the Bow region for thousands of years, among them were the Nakoda, Tsuu Tina, and the Blackfoot Confederacy, consisting of the Kainai, Piikanai, and Siksika peoples. The Kutenai had migrated westwards, possibly in the eighteenth century. First Nations used the valleys for the buffalo hunt, in which herds of buffalo were driven over cliffs or into valleys where they could be killed more easily with bows and arrows. Of all the First Nations groups that lived in the Bow River area, while other groups likely caught fish during harder times, they primarily hunted buffalo during the summer season when fishing would have been most plentiful
12.
Discharge (hydrology)
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In hydrology, discharge is the volume rate of water flow that is transported through a given cross-sectional area. It includes any suspended solids, dissolved chemicals, or biologic material in addition to the water itself, GH Dury and MJ Bradshaw are two hydrologists who devised the models showing the relationship between discharge and other variables in a river. The units that are used to express discharge include m³/s, ft³/s and/or acre-feet per day. For example, the discharge of the Rhine river in Europe is 2,200 cubic metres per second or 190,000,000 cubic metres per day. A commonly applied methodology for measuring, and estimating, the discharge of a river is based on a form of the continuity equation. In storm hydrology, an important consideration is the streams discharge hydrograph, the stream rises to a peak flow after each precipitation event, then falls in a slow recession. Because the peak flow also corresponds to the water level reached during the event. The amount of precipitation correlates to the volume of water that flows out of the river. The relationship between the discharge in the stream at a given cross-section and the level of the stream is described by a rating curve, average velocities and the cross-sectional area of the stream are measured for a given stream level. The velocity and the give the discharge for that level. After measurements are made for different levels, a rating table or rating curve may be developed. Once rated, the discharge in the stream may be determined by measuring the level, if a continuous level-recording device is located at a rated cross-section, the streams discharge may be continuously determined. Larger flows can transport more sediment and larger particles downstream than smaller flows due to their greater force, larger flows can also erode stream banks and damage public infrastructure
13.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
14.
Playgreen Lake
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Playgreen Lake is a lake in the province of Manitoba in Canada. The lake covers an area of 657 km2 and it is a part of the Nelson River watershed, the lake is the ninth largest lake in the province. It is located along the Nelson River some 10 kilometres north from the end of Lake Winnipeg. It was first mapped by noted British surveyor, map-maker, chief fur trader and explorer Peter Fidler in 1809, the Nelson River flows into Playgreen Lake from Lake Winnipeg then flows from two channels into Cross Lake. The Echimamish River on this leads to the Hayes River. The west channel flows out of the ends of Playgreen Lake, Kiskittogisu Lake and Kiskitto Lake into Cross Lake at the Manitoba Hydros Jenpeg Generating Station
15.
Cross Lake (Manitoba)
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Cross Lake is a large lake in Manitoba on the Nelson River north of Lake Winnipeg. It is long and narrow and extends 102 km east-northeast, the Nelson River west channel enters the lake at the Jenpeg Dam and the Nelson River east channel enters near the communities of Cross Lake and Cross Lake First Nation. The river then flows north to Sipiwesk Lake, the Minago River enters on the west. The lake level is regulated by Manitoba Hydro at the Jenpeg Generating Station at the end of the lake. From Moon Lake, the source of the Minago River, a portage led to South Moose Lake, on the southeast side of Cross Lake via the Walker River, Walker Lake and Kapaspwaypanik Lake the Kapaspwaypanik Portage led to the Carrot River and Oxford Lake on the Hayes River. List of lakes of Manitoba List of generating stations in Manitoba Nelson River Hydroelectric Project
16.
Manitoba Hydro
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Manitoba Hydro is the electric power and natural gas utility in the province of Manitoba, Canada. Founded in 1961, it is a provincial Crown Corporation, governed by the Manitoba Hydro-Electric Board, today the company operates 15 interconnected generating stations. It has more than 527,000 electric power customers and more than 263,000 natural gas customers, since most of the electrical energy is provided by hydroelectric power, the utility has low electricity rates. Stations in Northern Manitoba are connected by a HVDC system, the Nelson River Bipole, the internal staff are members of the Canadian Union of Public Employees Local 998 while the outside workers are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 2034. Manitoba Hydro headquarters in the downtown Winnipeg Manitoba Hydro Place officially opened in 2009, the first recorded attempt to extract useful work from a Manitoba river was in 1829 at a flour mill located on Sturgeon Creek in what is now Winnipeg. This was not successful and the equipment was later operated by a windmill. The first public electric lighting installation in Manitoba was demonstrated at the Davis House hotel on Main Street, Winnipeg, in 1880, the Manitoba Electric and Gas Light Company was incorporated to provide public lighting and power, and a year later absorbed the Winnipeg Gas Company. The first hydroelectric plant in Manitoba operated north of Brandon from 1901 to 1924, a 261-foot earth-fill dam was constructed across the Minnedosa River about a kilometer from its junction with the Assiniboine River by private investors. The plant only operated part of the year, with the load carried in the months by steam generators. An 11-kV wood-pole transmission line connected the station with the town of Brandon, the dam washed out in 1948 but remains are still visible. A second plant was built by private investors near Minnedosa in 1912, in 1920 the plant was replaced by a diesel station owned by the Manitoba Power Commission. The dam still exists today at Minnedosa Lake, by 1906, Winnipeg Electric Street Railway had constructed a hydroelectric plant on the Winnipeg River near Pinawa, and seventy miles of 60-kV transmission line. This plant operated year-round until 1951, when it was shut down to allow improved water flow to other Winnipeg River stations and its remains are still preserved as a provincial park. In reaction to this, Winnipeg Electric Street Railway dropped prices to ten cents per kilowatt-hour, in 1916, the Province established the Manitoba Power Commission with the object of bringing electric power to communities outside of Winnipeg. The Great Depression starting in 1929 put an end to growth until after World War II. The City of Winnipeg utility built coal-fired steam generators in 1924 on Amy Street, during World War Two, electric boilers at Amy Street used surplus hydroelectric power to economize on coal consumption. The City utility also implemented load management on electric water heaters, in 1949 the Province set up a new utility, the Manitoba Hydro Electric Board. In 1953 the MHEB acquired the assets of the Winnipeg Electric Street Railway, the MHEB was tasked with bringing electric power to the rural parts of Manitoba, a task which took until around 1956 to substantially complete
17.
Sipiwesk Lake
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Sipiwesk Lake is a large lake in the province of Manitoba in Canada north of Lake Winnipeg. The lake is a part of the Nelson River watershed and is located north of Cross Lake, the lake is about 78 km long. The Nelson River flows north from Cross Lake and enters the end of Sipiwesk Lake on each side of Bear Island flowing through Duck Lake located west of Bear Island. The Nelson River then flows out from the east end of Sipiwesk Lake
18.
Split Lake (Manitoba)
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Split Lake is a lake on the Nelson River in Manitoba, Canada. The settlement of Split Lake is located on a peninsula on the northern shore, the lake is about 46 km long. The Burntwood River and the Nelson River flows into the west end of Split Lake, the Grass River joins the Nelson just before it enters the lake. The Nelson flows east out from the east end of the lake, the Hudsons Bay Company had a temporary post here in 1798-99
19.
Stephens Lake (Manitoba)
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Stephens Lake is a reservoir in the province of Manitoba in Canada north of Lake Winnipeg. The reservoir was created in 1971 by the Kettle Dam and received its name of Stephens Lake in 1972. The lake is 32 km long from the inflow of the Nelson River to the outflow at the Kettle Dam, the lake is located 45 km northeast of Split Lake and 150 km west of the Hudson Bay. The Kettle Generating Station, Long Spruce Generating Station, and Limestone Generating Station dams are located upstream on the Nelson River, Gillam is located on the southeastern shore of the Lake. The lake and the town of Gillam are accessed by Manitoba Provincial Road 280
20.
Saskatchewan River
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The Saskatchewan River is a major river in Canada, about 550 kilometres long, flowing roughly eastward across Saskatchewan and Manitoba to empty into Lake Winnipeg. It reaches 1,939 kilometres to its farthest headwaters on the Bow River, both source rivers originate from glaciers in the Alberta Rockies. The St. Mary River, draining the Hudson Bay Divide region of Glacier National Park, the combined stream flows east-northeast, into Codette Lake formed by the Francois Finlay Dam at Nipawin then into Tobin Lake, formed by the E. B. It then flows northeast, passing through a region of marshes, where it is joined from the northwest by the Torch River and the Mossy River. At the northern edge of the marshes it flows east, twisting between a series of lakes into west-central Manitoba to The Pas, where it is joined from the southwest by the Carrot River. The waters of Lake Winnipeg eventually drain into Hudson Bay, via the Nelson River, the river, like the province of Saskatchewan, takes its name from the Cree word kisiskāciwani-sīpiy, meaning swift flowing river. The river and its tributaries provided an important route of transportation for First Nations, hydroelectric power plants are built on the river at Nipawin, and E. B. Campbell Dam in Saskatchewan and at Grand Rapids in Manitoba, in 2008 the presence of reproducing Prussian carp were found in the Red Deer River drainage basin which flows into the Saskatchewan River. Illegal introductions of non native species can have wide ranging negative impacts on the ecosystem. While the exact species is not yet determined the genus is Carassius, the Blue Ribbon Bow River Trout fishery may be at risk as a result of this introduction. Illegal introductions of Carassius can be very harmful, another map from 1774 shows a fairly accurate course of the river. The Saskatchewan River and its two major tributaries formed an important transportation route during the precontact, fur trade, and early settlement periods in the Canadian West. In early fur trading days the South Saskatchewan tributary was known as La Fourche des Gros Ventres, First Nations inhabiting the area of the rivers included at one time or another the Atsina, Cree, Saulteaux, Blackfoot Confederacy, Assiniboine, and Sioux. In addition to this the Hudsons Bay Company and North West Company both ran numerous fur posts up the river and its two branches throughout the late 18th to late 19th centuries, york boats and canoes formed the primary means of travel during the fur trade period. In the mid-19th century Metis settlements became important along stretches of the rivers, riverboats were introduced from the Red River of the North in the 19th century and remained an important means of transportation until the 1890s and the coming of railways to the area. The earliest settlements in Saskatchewan and Alberta generally were established around the rivers, examples include Fort Edmonton, Fort Battleford, Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. Fur trade on the river, The first European to ascended the river as far as the forks was Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye in spring 1739. There were also a number of posts that have left few records
21.
Red River of the North
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The Red River is a North American river. It empties into Lake Winnipeg, whose waters join the Nelson River, the Red is about 885 kilometres long, of which about 635 kilometres are in the United States and about 255 kilometres are in Canada. The river falls 70 metres on its trip to Lake Winnipeg, in the United States, the Red River is sometimes called the Red River of the North. This distinguishes it from the so-called Red River of the South, long a highway for trade, the Red has been designated as a Canadian Heritage River. The watershed of the Red River was part of Ruperts Land, the Red was a key trade route for the company, and contributed to the settlement of British North America. The river was used by fur traders, including the French and the Métis people. Following that, they took over French territory in Canada, settlers of the Red River Colony established farming along the river, and their primary settlement developed as Winnipeg, Manitoba. What became known as the Red River Trails, nineteenth-century oxcart trails developed originally by the Métis, supported the fur trade and they contributed to further development of the region on both sides of the international border. The Red River begins at the confluence of the Bois de Sioux and Otter Tail rivers, on the border of Wahpeton, North Dakota and Breckenridge, Minnesota. Downstream, it is bordered by the cities of Fargo, North Dakota– Moorhead, Minnesota. It continues north to the province of Manitoba in Canada, manitobas capital, Winnipeg, is at the Reds confluence with the Assiniboine River, at a point called The Forks. Together with the Assiniboine, the Red River fully encloses the basin of Devils Lake. The Red flows further north before draining into Lake Winnipeg through the Nelson River, the mouth of the Red River forms a freshwater river delta called the Netley-Libau Marsh. The Netley Marsh is west of the Red and the Libau Marsh is east, forming a 26, southern Manitoba has a comparatively long frost-free season, between 120 and 140 days in the Red River Valley. The Red River flows across the lake bed of the ancient glacial Lake Agassiz. As this continental glacier decayed, its meltwaters formed the lake, over thousands of years, sediments precipitated to the bottom of the lakebed. These lacustrine soils are the parent soils of todays Red River Valley, the river is very young, it developed only after Lake Agassiz drained, about 9,500 years ago. The word valley is a misnomer, while the Red River drains the region, it did not create a valley wider than a few hundred feet
22.
Winnipeg River
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The Winnipeg River is a Canadian river which flows from Lake of the Woods in the province of Ontario to Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba. This river is 235 kilometres long from the Norman Dam in Kenora to its mouth at Lake Winnipeg and its watershed is 106,500 square kilometres in area, mainly in Canada. About 29,000 square kilometres of area is in northern Minnesota. The watershed stretches to the height of land about 100 kilometres west of Lake Superior, the Winnipeg River watershed was the southeastern-most portion of the land granted to the Hudsons Bay Company in 1670. The rivers name means water in Cree. This river route was used by natives for thousands of years and it is the only major water route between what is now southern Manitoba and Ontario that allowed natives to easily canoe back and forth. The Red River route was much farther south and with a longer portage, La Vérendrye was one of the first explorers to establish fur trade forts near the native camps in the area. The Winnipeg River system through Whiteshell Provincial Park has many petroforms near the Whiteshell River forks where the two rivers meet and these petroforms are an ancient reminder of the importance of the area for native travel, trade, ceremonies, harvesting, and settlements. Major modern communities along the banks of the Winnipeg River include Lac du Bonnet, Pinawa, Powerview, and Pine Falls, all in Manitoba, Whitedog is the home of the Wabaseemoong First Nation. In Ontario there are dams at Kenora and Whitedog Falls, there are also many lakes along the Winnipeg River where the river widens, including Nutimik, Eleanor, Dorothy, Margaret, Natalie, and Lac du Bonnet, all in Manitoba. Nutimik, Dorothy, and Margaret lakes are all entirely within the Whiteshell Provincial Park, lakes in the Ontario portion of the river include Gun, Roughrock and Sand. Tributaries include the Rainy River, Black Sturgeon River, English River, Bird River, Lee River, Whiteshell River, Whitemouth River, and the Macfarlane River. Flows on the Winnipeg River are controlled by the Lake of the Woods Control Board which maintains a website with detailed descriptions of the river basin, once on Lake Winnipeg one could go by canoe as far as the Rocky Mountains, Arctic Ocean or Hudson Bay. This section covers the route from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg via Rainy Lake, the Rainy River, Lake of the Woods, for the route in general see Canadian canoe routes#Nelson River basin. The area was too rocky to be good beaver country, grand Portage was the second longest portage in Canada after Methye Portage. Once over the height of land rivers led west to Rainy Lake, duncan MGillivray called the Rainy the most beautiful river in the north. George Simpson and many others made similar comments, the route then went up the east side of Lake of the Woods and over the Rat Portage to the Winnipeg. The Winnipeg was notorious for its many portages and décharges, three were the Dales, Portage de lIsle and La Rivière Blanche named for its white water
23.
Devils Lake (North Dakota)
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Devils Lake is a lake in the U. S. state of North Dakota. It is the largest natural body of water and the second-largest body of water in North Dakota after the artificially created Lake Sakakawea, in 2011, it reached an unofficial historical high elevation of 1454.30 feet. The lake can reach 1458.0 before naturally flowing into the Sheyenne River via the Tolna Coulee, the city of Devils Lake, North Dakota, takes its name from the lake. The Spirit Lake Reservation is located on the southern shores. The name Devils Lake is a translation of its Lakota name. Devils Lake is located in Ramsey County and Benson County in northeastern North Dakota, the Spirit Lake Tribe occupies most of the southern shore and has been adversely affected by flooding since the 1990s. Devils Lake is the endorheic, or closed, lake of a basin of some 3,800 mi². The lake collects around 86 percent of the water runoff. Above a level of some 1,447 ft AMSL the lake spills into neighboring Stump Lake, at 1,458 ft the combined lake flows naturally into the Sheyenne River, though the lake has not reached this level in approximately 1000 years. The Sheyenne River is a tributary to the Red River, which flows into Canada, current dike protection is set at 1454 ft. Under normal conditions, Devils Lake is shallow, saline, during periods of excessive precipitation, however, the lake can be quite deep, eutrophic, with decreased salinity due to dilution. Because Devils Lake is endorheic, the lake tends to be higher in salinity than are lakes with outlets to river systems. This is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah, lower water levels increase salinity threatening fish and wildlife. Devils Lake is well known for its variations in lake levels. This owes in part to its nature as a closed-basin lake. The release of water is dependent upon evaporation and seepage, the low, flat terrain around Devils Lake consists of various coulees, channels, and basins, which may be separated during times of low water, or connected during high water. Thus the boundaries of the lake can vary greatly from year to year, the draining of wetlands to develop agricultural land in the area has aggravated flooding at Devils Lake. Drainage of the wetlands and conversion of the basins native prairie to cropland has resulted in water moving more rapidly into the lake
24.
Thompson, Manitoba
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Thompson is a city in northern Manitoba. As the Hub of the North it serves as the regional trade, Thompson is located 830 km north of the Canada–United States border,739 km north of the provincial capital of Winnipeg, and is 396 km northeast of Flin Flon. It has a population of 13,123 residents, the Thompson area was first inhabited by nomadic Paleo-Indian hunters 6000 BC. Europeans conducted a geological survey in Thompson in 1896. The modern history of Thompson began in 1956 when on February 4, the community was founded in 1957 following an agreement with the Government of Manitoba and Inco Limited. Thompson is a community and is named after Incos chairman. The population has been estimated as high as 26,000 residents prior to the recession in the 1970s, the 1957 agreement required that Inco provide financial assistance towards the Kelsey Generating System, and a spur line to connect the community with CNs Bay Line near Thicket Portage. Thompson was incorporated as a town in 1967 on Canadas Centennial Anniversary, Thompson came to be known as The Hub of the North, as it functions as a centre for politics and commerce in the region. However a decline in population occurred during the decades, levelling off around 13,000 people. The City of Thompsons 2010–2014 Strategic Plan identifies Public Safety as a core strategy, as a result, the City of Thompson has formed the Public Safety Standing Committee that is responsible for providing recommendations on initiatives and plans to enhance the safety of residents. The Action Plan includes the construction of a northern Restorative Justice facility, despite these efforts, Thompson has repeatedly ranked as one of Canadas most violent cities and is referred to as the Crime Capital of Canada by many media outlets including the Winnipeg Free Press. Its most prominent local industry is the mining, milling, smelting and refining of nickel, with additional nickel concentrates coming from Voiseys Bay, Manitoba Hydro, Calm Air, MTS and the provincial government employ the majority of the people in Thompson. Many federal and provincial government agencies have offices in Thompson, Thompson has a large retail sector, providing such things as clothing for all ages, a pet store, jewelry stores, travel agencies, vehicle dealerships, and grocery stores. Calm Air Airlines and Perimeter Aviation provide direct service between Winnipeg and Thompson, there has been intermittent jet service to Thompson, with the runway at the Thompson Airport able to accommodate a Boeing 737. Thompson Transit is the transit service operated for the city by Greyhound Canada. VIA Rail provides passenger service at the Thompson railway station which is on the Hudson Bay Railway, the city is served by Thompson Airport. Calm Air has its headquarters in the city, there is already the ECWTF car test facility owned by Ford. On October 30,2010, held the opening of the project
25.
Port Nelson, Manitoba
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Port Nelson is on Hudson Bay, in Manitoba, Canada, at the mouth of the Nelson River. Its peak population in the early 20th century was about 1000 people, immediately to the south is the mouth of the Hayes River and the settlement of York Factory. Note that some books use Port Nelson to mean the region around the mouths of the two rivers, Port Nelson was named by Thomas Button who wintered there in 1612. The Swampy Cree and the Assiniboine used the Nelson River, along with the Hayes River, although the Nelson is much larger, the Hayes was a better route into the interior. Therefore, most of the Hudsons Bay Companys trade was done from York Factory on the Hayes, in 1694-95 Father Marest recorded The Assiniboine are thirty-five or forty days journey from the fort. In the early 1900s, the Government of Canada felt that a harbour on Hudson Bay was needed for shipping grain from central Canada. In 1912 Port Nelson was selected as the site over Churchill to become the terminus of the Hudson Bay Railway, in the winter of 1912-13 the site was surveyed and construction of a wharf began in the spring, followed by buildings and other infrastructure built during the summer. The brand new Canadian research ship CSS Acadia was sent from Halifax to chart the harbour, however the whole harbour project was fraught with problems from the start. Material shortages, labour disputes, storms, fires, and boating accidents led to major delays, another setback was the necessity to completely redesign the harbour because the fast flowing Nelson River was building up silt on both sides of the wharf. Therefore, the harbour was changed to a small man-made island farther out in the river, when Canada entered the First World War, it resulted in further material and labour shortages, and more significantly, the loss of political and financial support. The project was able to continue a few years until 1918 when all work stopped. The whole project was criticized by several politicians, the media. The Hudson Bay Railway never reached Port Nelson and its tracks lay abandoned until 1927 when Churchill was chosen to become the northern shipping hub, construction was restarted and completed by 1929. A wrecked ship currently lies on the island at 57°02′19″N 92°35′37″W, in 1989 Parks Canada began the York Factory Oral History Project which included compiling stories by Swampy Cree Elders. Flora Beardy, a York Factory Cree woman conducted interviews with fourteen elders, media related to Port Nelson, Manitoba at Wikimedia Commons Port Nelson, Northern Metropolis. - March 11,2009 Passing Strangeness
26.
Hayes River
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The Hayes River is a river in Northern Region, Manitoba, Canada that flows from Molson Lake to Hudson Bay at York Factory. It was an important river in the development of Canada, and is today a Canadian Heritage River. The river begins at an elevation of 221 metres at Molson Lake which is about 90 kilometres northeast of the tip of Lake Winnipeg. A tributary of Molson Lake, Paimusk Creek, begins less than 3 kilometres east of the Nelson River and it leaves Molson Lake and flows north and northeast to Robinson Lake about 16 kilometres northeast. Just before reaching Robinson Lake the Echimamish River comes in from the west, northeast of Robinson Lake is Robinson Falls and the mile-long Robinson portage which was the longest portage between Hudson Bay and Edmonton. Somewhere in this area is Hill Gates, a narrow gorge. It flows out of the lake at Oxford House then southeast over Trout Falls to Knee Lake, exiting Knee Lake, the Hayes passes over a series of rapids and via several channels and widens into Swampy Lake. Including the rapids downstream from Knee Lake, in a 80-kilometre stretch the Hayes loses 5/7ths of its elevation in 1/6 of its length. From Swampy Lake it runs through a stretch of constant rapids, past Brassy Hill, rising 140 metres above the river,200 kilometres upriver from York Factory was Rock Depot where York boats had to be replaced by smaller canoes. It was 30 portages and 425 kilometres from Rock Depot to Norway House, different parts of the Hayes formerly had different names. Another source has, Trout, Bourbon, Jack Tent, Factory, Steel, Rabbit, and Hill Rivers, the river’s physical characteristics include whitewater rapids, large lake systems, waterfalls, deep valleys and gorges, as well as tidal flats. It is 483 kilometres long, has a discharge of 590 cubic metres per second. Long before Europeans came to Canada, Manitoba First Nations were using the Hayes River as ancient campsites according to pictographs and it traverses the traditional territory of four First Nations, Norway House Cree Nation, Bunibonibee Cree Nation, Shamattawa First Nation, and York Factory Cree Nation. It continues to be an important source of traditional harvesting for the First Nations, after the arrival of Europeans in North America, the river became an important link in the development of Canada. In 1684, the Hayes River was named for Sir James Hayes, at its mouth, the HBC established York Factory in 1684, which served as its North American headquarters until 1957. The Hayes was the route between York Factory and Norway House in the interior of the continent for explorers, fur traders, Voyageurs. To get to the Hayes from Norway House required a trip down the Nelson River. The Echimamish River is a river and connects two river systems, the Hayes River and the Nelson River
27.
York Factory
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York Factory was one of the first fur-trading posts established by the HBC, built in 1684 and used in that business for more than 270 years. The settlement was headquarters of the HBCs Northern Department from 1821 to 1873, the complex was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1936. In 1957, the HBC closed it down and it has been owned by the Canadian government since 1968 and the site is now operated by Parks Canada. There is currently no one living permanently at York Factory, aside from a residence for Parks Canada staff. The wooden structure at the site dates from 1831 and is the oldest and largest wooden structure built on permafrost in Canada. York Factory is located on the bank of the Hayes River about 11 kilometres inland. The mouth of the Nelson River is to the north, across Point of Marsh, the Hayes is a more practical canoe route, although the Nelson is much larger. Seagoing ships anchored at Five Fathom Hole 11 km from the due to the shallow bottom. The Shamattawa Airport and Gillam Airport are close, the first three HBC posts were established on James Bay about 1670. In 1684, Fort Nelson was established at the mouth of the nearby Nelson River, the company built a second fort, York Factory, on the Hayes river, naming it after the Duke of York. The establishment of these provoked a response from New France. In the Hudson Bay expedition, the French marched overland from Quebec, during King Williams War, France several times sent a naval force to Hudson Bay to capture or destroy the fort. In 1690, Pierre Le Moyne dIberville tried but was driven away by a larger English ship, in 1694, dIberville returned and captured York Factory with a show of force. English forces returned the year and retook the fort from its small French garrison. In 1697, dIberville won the Battle of Hudsons Bay, the largest Arctic naval battle in North American history, York Factory was held by the French until 1713, when it was returned to the British in the Treaty of Utrecht. At that time, the HBC again placed its headquarters at York Factory. Between 1788 and 1795, the constructed a octagonal star fort of stone. The choice of material was poor, however, as the stone and brick could not stand up to heaving permafrost, and in 1831, the three-story center section of the current compound was completed that same year, with the two-story wings finished within the two years that followed
28.
Sundance, Manitoba
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Sundance was shut down from November 1978 to early 1985 while the Limestone Generating Station construction was put on temporary hiatus. The town was mostly trailers and portable buildings with a school, grocery store. Sundance was de-commissioned in September 1992 at the completion of the Limestone Generating Station Project, google Maps satellite imagery shows that the town no longer exists and only empty lots and streets remain. The closest towns are Gillam, Thompson, Bird, Fox Lake, Amery & Churchill, today it is located within the limits of the very large Town of Gillam, by area the largest town in Manitoba. This town is the northern terminus for Provincial Road 290. Henday Converter Station of Nelson River Bipole 2 is also there, cBCs The Fifth Estate ran a program about the murder of Andrea Sherpf and Bernd Goehricke. One of the suspects, Andrew Andy Rose lived in Sundance for 3 years starting in August 1986
29.
Gillam, Manitoba
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Gillam is a town on the Nelson River in northern Manitoba, Canada. It is situated between Thompson and Churchill on the Hudson Bay Railway line, Gillam receives limited VIA rail passenger service at the Gillam railway station. Manitoba Provincial Road 280 links Gillam to the rest of Manitoba, to go beyond towards Churchill only a rail route is available year-round. The large Gillam Local Government District was established by the Manitoba government in the mid-1960s to facilitate development of hydroelectricity on the lower Nelson River, Gillam is also the home of Fox Lake Cree Nation, a First Nations Band. A majority of the members of Fox Lake Cree Nation live in the Town of Gillam or on Reserve Land in the community of Bird. The ghost town of Sundance whose purpose was to facilitate the building of the Limestone Generating Station, is also within the District of Gillam, once a busy, fully functioning town, it has since been abandoned and torn down after the completion of Limestone. Gillam is located on the shore of Stephens Lake, a reservoir created by Manitoba Hydro in 1971 by the Kettle Dam on the Nelson River. Gillam has a climate with long and extremely cold winters, briefly interrupted by short. Its inland position at 56 degrees latitude causes severe freezes in winter, the lack of warming chinook influences ensures that Gillam is colder than Fairbanks, Alaska some eight degrees latitude farther north and at a greater distance from the sea. In the 2011 Census, Statistics Canada originally reported that the Town of Gillam had a population of 1,281 living in 427 of its 553 total dwellings, a 6. 0% change from its 2006 population of 1,209. Statistics Canada subsequently amended the 2011 census results to a population of 1,317 living in 439 of its 567 total dwellings, with a land area of 1,996.34 km2, it had a population density of 0. 65971/km2 in 2011. The population of Gillam is expected to double to triple within the next 5–10 years, the Town of Gillam often has activities and events planned throughout the year. The Winter Carnival is an annual, week long series of events held in March, the Welcome Back Weekend is full of fun activities including the annual firework show which brings out a large portion of the towns population. This is held on the first weekend in September, popular summer activities in the Gillam area are fishing and boating on the many lakes and rivers, while hunters search for game animals such as bear, caribou, moose, wolf, ptarmigan and grouse. The town has community parks and playgrounds, and Pumphouse Beach is just 2 km away from town, the three hydroelectric dams near town may be toured with a guide. CBWLT joined the province-wide microwave network in the summer of 1969, CBWLT channel 8 Nelson River Bipole Amery Amery railway station Kettle Rapids railway station Luke railway station Town of Gillam website Map of Gillam at Statcan
30.
Split Lake, Manitoba
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It is located 169 kilometers west of Gillam, Manitoba and 143 kilometers northeast of Thompson on Provincial Road 280 in Manitobas far north. It is considered the point on the dangerous winter drive on MB280. 1st lady chief Doreen spence Split Lake is on the Hudson Bay Railway line that ends at the Port of Churchill, grey Goose Bus Lines and other companies such as Arctic Beverages and Old Dutch Foods provides the community with freight and goods on a daily basis. The community also has an ice fishing derby, where the first prize is usually a vehicle, as sometimes it has cash prizes. In 1908 Tataskweyak Cree Nation signed an adhesion to Treaty 5, the community of Split Lake is located on a peninsula on the northern shore of Split Lake. The Burntwood River and the Nelson River flows into the west end of Split Lake, the Grass River joins the Nelson just before it enters the lake. The Nelson flows east out from the east end of the lake, Split Lake 171 had a population of 2,107 in the 2011 Canada Census an increase of 15. 8% from the 2006 Census. Tataskweyak Cree Nation Official Website Tataskweyak Cree Nation profile
31.
Cross Lake, Manitoba
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Cross Lake is the name of two closely related, adjoining but independent communities in the Canadian Province of Manitoba. One of the Cross Lakes is the Cross Lake Indian Reserve of the Cross Lake First Nation where the urban area is called Cross Lake. The other Cross Lake is on nearby provincial Crown land, the communities are located about 520 kilometres by air north of Winnipeg, and 120 kilometres by air south of Thompson. They are situated on the shores of the Nelson River where the river enters Cross Lake, an all-weather road, PR374, connects the communities to PR373 via the Kichi Sipi Bridge. In March 2016, Cross Lake appeared in the news after First Nation officials declared a state of emergency because of an epidemic of suicides. In the 2011 Census, the Cross Lake designated place had a population of 388 living in 114 of its 123 total private dwellings. The adjoining reserves of Cross Lake 19, Cross Lake 19A, together these communities formed a population centre of 4,710 in 2011. The communities are situated on the shores of Cross Island. The lake is on the Nelson River north of Lake Winnipeg and it is long and narrow and extends 102 km east-northeast. The Nelson enters and leaves on the west side, the Minago River enters on the west. From the Minago a portage leads to Moose Lake and the Saskatchewan River. On the east side via the Walker River, Walker Lake and Kapaspwaypanik Lake the Kapaspwaypanik Portage leads to the Carrot River and Oxford Lake on the Hayes River
32.
Norway House
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Norway House is a population centre of over 5,000 people some 30 km north of Lake Winnipeg, on the bank of the eastern channel of Nelson River, in the province of Manitoba, Canada. The population centre shares the name Norway House with the community of Norway House and Norway House 17. Thus Norway House has both a Chief and a Mayor, the community is located 456 km by air north of Winnipeg,208 km by air east of The Pas, and 190 km by air south of Thompson. To drive from Winnipeg it is approximately 800 km, from Thompson it is about 300 km, major economic activities include commercial fishing, trapping, logging, and government services. Seasonal unemployment varies, with peaks as high as 70%, after the arrival of Europeans in North America, the Hayes River became an important link in the development of Canada. After Anthony Hendays explorations, Joseph Smith was sent in 1756, from York Factory and he ascended the Nelson River seeking Lake Winnipeg. He reached Little Playgreen Lake on September 21 that year, in 1816 Lord Selkirk sent out a band of Norwegians, apparently ex-convicts, to build a road from York Factory to Lake Winnipeg and a series of supply posts. They built Norway House at Mossy Point in 1817 replacing the former Jack River post at that location, in 1822 Governor Simpson passed through Norway House in the depth of winter on his way to Cumberland House. Simpson traveled through Norway House to the Columbia District in 1824-25 and he investigated a quicker route than previously used, following the Saskatchewan River and crossing the mountains at Athabasca Pass. This route, which passed through Norway House, was followed by the York Factory Express brigades. In 1825 or 1826 much of the post was destroyed by fire, in 1830, Cumberland House, formerly the most important post in the interior, was supplanted by Norway House. From the 1830s, the Councils of the Hudsons Bay Company and these meetings would involve planning decisions for the following year and promotions from clerk to Chief Trader and from Chief Trader to Chief Factor. Such promotions were within the authority of the Governor and Committee, the recommendations of the council would be given to Governor Simpson who would make his recommendations to London. The last of the great Northern Council meetings that were started by Simpson a half earlier, was convened at Norway House by Donald Smith in July 1870. Surviving buildings include the Archway Warehouse, the Gaol and the Powder Magazine, the northern community of Norway House had a population of 308 in 2011 a decrease of 38. 0% since 2006. The community included 155 private dwellings on an area of 110.15 square km. Norway House 17 had a population of 4,758 in 2011 an increase of 16. 9% since 2006, the community included 1,179 private dwellings on a land area of 72.99 square km. These two adjoining communities form a centre of 5,066
33.
Arctic Ocean
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The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the worlds five major oceans. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean, located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America. It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter, the summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center uses satellite data to provide a record of Arctic sea ice cover. The Arctic may become ice free for the first time in human history within a few years or by 2040, for much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as growlers or bergy bits, his Thule was probably Norway, early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land or water. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank and this lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an Open Polar Sea was persistent, john Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane, even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea. Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick. Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a crossing of the Arctic Ocean. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support. The first nautical transit of the pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus. Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean, scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes. In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested, the Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2, almost the size of Antarctica. The coastline is 45,390 km long and it is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea, countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are, Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Canada and the United States. There are several ports and harbours around the Arctic Ocean In Alaska, in Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill in Manitoba, Nanisivik in Nunavut, Tuktoyaktuk or Inuvik in the Northwest territories
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Churchill, Manitoba
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Churchill is a town in northern Manitoba, Canada on the west shore of Hudson Bay, roughly 110 kilometres from the Manitoba–Nunavut border. It is most famous for the polar bears that move toward the shore from inland in the autumn. Churchill is located along the Hudson Bay at the 58th parallel north far above where most Canadian populated areas are located, Churchill is located far from any other towns or cities, with Thompson, approximately 400 km to the south, being the closest larger settlement. Manitobas provincial capital, Winnipeg, is approximately 1,000 km south of Churchill, a variety of nomadic Arctic people lived and hunted in this region. The Thule people arrived around the year 1000 from the west, the Dene people arrived around the year 500 from farther north. Since before the time of European contact, the region around Churchill has been inhabited by the Chipewyan. Europeans first arrived in the area in 1619 when a Danish expedition led by Jens Munk wintered near where Churchill would later stand, only 3 of 64 expedition members survived the winter and sailed one of the expeditions two ships, the sloop Lamprey, back to Denmark. Danish archaeologists in 1964 discovered remains of the ship, the Unicorn. The discoveries were all taken to Denmark, some are on display at the National Museum in Copenhagen, the trading post and river were named after John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, who was governor of the Hudsons Bay Company in the late seventeenth century. The fort was mostly to capitalize on the North American fur trade. It dealt mainly with the Chipewyan natives living north of the boreal forest, much of the fur came from as far away as Lake Athabasca and the Rocky Mountains. As part of the Anglo-French dispute for North America, in 1731–1741 the original fort was replaced with Prince of Wales Fort, in 1782 the fort was captured by the French, led by La Pérouse. Since the British, under Samuel Hearne, were outnumbered and in any event were not soldiers. The French made an attempt to demolish the fort. The worst effect was on the natives, who had dependent on trade goods from the fort. Extensive reconstruction and stabilization of the remains have taken place since the 1950s. In 1783, Hearne returned to build a new fort, a short distance upriver, due to its distance from areas of heavy competition between the North West Company and the Hudsons Bay Company, it remained a stable, if not profitable, source of furs. Between the years of decline in the fur trade and surfacing of western agricultural success, Churchill phased into, initially Port Nelson was selected for this purpose in 1912
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Silt
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Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as sediment mixed in suspension with water in a body of such as a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body, Silt has a moderate specific area with a typically non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually has a floury feel when dry, and a slippery feel when wet, Silt can be visually observed with a hand lens. Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand-sized quartz crystals of primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice and these involve chemical weathering of rock and regolith, and a number of physical weathering processes such as frost shattering and haloclasty. The main process is abrasion through transport, including fluvial comminution, aeolian attrition and it is in semi-arid environments that substantial quantities of silt are produced. Silt is sometimes known as rock flour or stone dust, especially produced by glacial action. Mineralogically, silt is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar, sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt is known as siltstone. Liquefaction created by an earthquake is silt suspended in water that is hydrodynamically forced up from below ground level. In the Udden–Wentworth scale, silt particles range between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm, larger than clay but smaller than sand particles, ISO14688 grades silts between 0.002 mm and 0.063 mm. In actuality, silt is chemically distinct from clay, and unlike clay, grains of silt are approximately the size in all dimensions, furthermore. Clays are formed from thin plate-shaped particles held together by electrostatic forces, according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture Soil Texture Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.05 mm particle size. The USDA system has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, in the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASHTO Soil Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.075 mm particle size. Silts and clays are distinguished mechanically by their plasticity, Silt is easily transported in water or other liquid and is fine enough to be carried long distances by air in the form of dust. Thick deposits of silty material resulting from deposition by aeolian processes are called loess. Silt and clay contribute to turbidity in water, Silt is transported by streams or by water currents in the ocean. When silt appears as a pollutant in water the phenomenon is known as siltation, Silt, deposited by annual floods along the Nile River, created the rich, fertile soil that sustained the Ancient Egyptian civilization. In south east Bangladesh, in the Noakhali district, cross dams were built in the 1960s whereby silt gradually started forming new land called chars, the district of Noakhali has gained more than 28 square miles of land in the past 50 years
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First Nations
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The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
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Thomas Button
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Born about 1575, he was the fourth son of Miles Button of Worlton, Glamorgan, and his wife Margaret, daughter of Edward Lewis. His fathers family had been landowners, originally at Bitton in Gloucestershire, around 1595 he married Elizabeth, daughter of landowner Sir Walter Rice of Newton House, Llandeilo, and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Edward Mansell of Margam. This made him a nephew of the prominent naval officer Sir Robert Mansell, in April 1612 he was given command of two navy ships, Resolution and Discovery, to lead an expedition in search of the North-West Passage. Sailing from England about the beginning of May 1612, they reached the mouth of a river which he named the Nelson after the ships master and they wintered at what is now known as Port Nelson and the next year headed north to search for the Northwest Passage. They lost the Resolution to sea ice and continued on to 65° North and he discovered and named Mansel Island and returned to England in September 1613. He is credited with exploring and securing the west coast of Hudson Bay for his country, the region would again be visited twelve years later in 1631 by Captains Thomas James and Luke Foxe. Supposedly, upon discovering a cross erected by Button at Port Nelson, Captain Foxe christened the shore north of the Nelson River as New North Wales, the first maps of areas near Hudson Bay were struck from his explorations and from those of his predecessor, Henry Hudson. On his return, he was appointed Admiral of the Irish coasts and he was buried on 8 April 1634 at the church of St Margarets, Westminster, survived by his wife and five of their seven children. He left no will and his Welsh lands passed to his eldest son, Miles, after waiting three years, his widow received 650 pounds from the government in settlement of pay and expenses he was owed. Manitoba Historical Society Biography of Button
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Hudson's Bay Company
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The Hudsons Bay Company, commonly referred to as The Bay, is a Canadian retail business group. HBCs head office is in the Simpson Tower in Toronto, Ontario, the company is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange under the symbol HBC. It was once the worlds largest landowner, with the area of the Hudson Bay watershed, known as Ruperts Land, having 15% of North American acreage. From its long-time headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay, the company controlled the fur trade throughout much of the English, undertaking early exploration, its traders and trappers forged relationships with many groups of aboriginal peoples. Its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in areas of Western Canada. By the mid-19th century, the company evolved into a business selling everything from furs to fine homeware. They quickly introduced a new type of client to the HBC – one that shopped for pleasure and not with skins, in July 2008, HBC was acquired by NRDC Equity Partners, which also owns the upmarket American department store Lord & Taylor. From 2008 to 2012, the HBC was run through a company of NRDC, Hudsons Bay Trading Company. Since 2012, the HBC directly oversees its Canadian subsidiaries Hudsons Bay and Home Outfitters, on 29 July 2013, the HBC announced its takeover of Saks, Inc. operator of the Saks Fifth Avenue brand. The merger was completed on 3 November 2013, in September 2015, HBC acquired the German department store chain Galeria Kaufhof and its Belgian subsidiary from Metro Group for $3.2 billion U. S. In May 2016, HBC announced it would expand to the Netherlands by taking over up to 20 former Vroom & Dreesmann sites by 2017, v&D was an historic Dutch department store chain that went bankrupt and shut down in early 2016. HBC said the expansion would cost CAD $340 million and create 2,500 jobs in the stores, the Dutch stores would operate under the Hudsons Bay and Saks Off Fifth brands. In January 2016, HBC announced it would also expand deeper in the space with its acquisition of online flash sales site. In the 17th century the French had a de facto monopoly on the Canadian fur trade with their colony of New France. Assuming this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, despite this refusal, in 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers set out for the upper Great Lakes basin. A year later returned with premium furs, evidence of the potential of the Hudson Bay region. Subsequently, they were arrested for trading without a licence and fined, determined to establish trade in the Hudson Bay, Radisson and Groseilliers approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plans merits but their speculative voyage in 1663 failed when their ship ran into pack ice in Hudson Strait, boston-based English commissioner Colonel George Cartwright learned of the expedition and brought the two to England to raise financing
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Pierre-Esprit Radisson
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Pierre-Esprit Radisson was a French fur trader and explorer. He is often linked to his brother-in-law Médard des Groseilliers, the decision of Radisson and Groseilliers to enter the English service led to the formation of the Hudsons Bay Company. His career was notable for its repeated transitions between serving Britain and France. An affidavit from 1697 and a petition from 1698 contain statements from Radisson himself indicating that he was 61 and 62 years old respectively, which would place his year of birth at 1636. However, a 1681 census of New France indicated that he was, at the time,41 years old, in Radissons own writings, he claims that his family, the Hayet-Radissons, originally stemmed from the town of St. Malo. However, records seem to suggest that his family more likely came from either Paris or Avignon, baptismal Records from Carpentras, a city near Avignon, concerning Radissons father provide evidence in support of the latter option. As Radisson himself describes in his writings, he immigrated from France to Canada on the 24th of May, information regarding Radissons arrival in New France is scarce, but it is theorized that he arrived with, or as a result of, his half-sister Marguerite Hayet. It is also unknown whether or not he arrived alongside other members of his family, namely his two sisters Élisabeth and Françoise. According to Radissons account, in the year he had been hunting fowl with several other men near his home in Trois-Rivières when he was captured by the Iroquois. Initially a petty squabble had separated him from his friends and by the time he had found them and this assimilation was the custom for the Mohawk, who often replaced people lost to disease and warfare and adopted young captives from other tribes and European nations. After approximately six weeks of gradual integration, Radissons assimilation and partial adoption of Iroquois nationality was largely solidified, however, shortly thereafter, while out hunting with three Iroquois, Radisson reluctantly agreed to attempt escape after meeting an Algonquin man who offered to help him return to Trois-Rivières. Eventually he was released, and, overwhelmed with relief, described the experience as a moment in all my paines and griefs ceased. Bids me be merry, makes me sing, to wich I consented with all my heart, afterwards, following the healing of his torture wounds and a subsequent 5 months war-party expedition, Radisson departed for a trading trip, alongside other Mohawk warriors, at Fort Orange. Upon arriving at Fort Orange, then controlled by the Dutch, he was recognized as a Frenchman and offered freedom by the local governor, who was willing to pay his ransom. Radisson initially refused but, after returning to the Iroquois village, later regretted the decision, returning to Fort Orange once more, he met a Jesuit Priest, Joseph Antoine Poncet, who made him a great offer. Radisson never elaborates on what that offer other than the fact that it required him to return to Holland in early 1654. He returned to Trois-Rivières later that year and, over the three years, embarked on several missionary expeditions. The expedition ended in 1658 after rising tensions with local Iroquois caused the French to flee rather abruptly, Radisson returned to Quebec soon thereafter
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Hydroelectricity
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Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower generated 16. 6% of the total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013, China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants, the average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U. S. cents per kilowatt-hour. With a dam and reservoir it is also a source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical-, by the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well, in 1878 the worlds first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. It was used to power an arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No.1 near Niagara Falls in the U. S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30,1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, by 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the U. S. and Canada. By 1889 there were 200 in the U. S. alone, at the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism with over one million visitors, by 1920 as 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land, as the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes to include flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for development and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century, Hydropower was referred to as white coal for its power and plenty. Hoover Dams initial 1,345 MW power station was the worlds largest hydroelectric station in 1936
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Nelson River Hydroelectric Project
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The Nelson River Hydroelectric Project refers to the construction of a series of dams and hydroelectric power plants on the Nelson River in Northern Manitoba, Canada. The project is owned and operated by Manitoba Hydro, the utility in the province. Between 1955 and 1960, studies were carried out to determine what resources would be available for future hydraulic generation in Manitoba, the stations at Kelsey, Kettle, Long Spruce and Limestone were built on the lower Nelson River to support both Manitoba load growth and export plans. Limestone, the largest generating station in Manitoba, is located on the Lower Nelson only 90 km from Hudson Bay, long-term firm power sales contracts were signed with Northern States Power Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota. Control dams and excavated channels have transformed Lake Winnipeg into a 25000 km² reservoir for the Nelson hydroelectric system, when these lines began operation as the Nelson River Bipole in 1972, they were the longest and highest-voltage direct current lines in the world. The Dorsey converter station is 26 km northwest of Winnipeg, Manitoba, one of the key elements of the Nelson project was the diversion of much of the Churchill River into the Nelson watershed. The 1,609 km long Churchill River originates in northern Alberta and drains into Hudson Bay at Churchill, currently the Missi Falls Control Structure at the mouth of South Indian Lake reduces the flow of the Churchill River to 15% of its natural flow. This causes South Indian Lake to rise 3 metres, as opposed to the 10.6 metres envisioned in the original plan, the diverted water flows through the 9.3 km South Bay Diversion Channel into the Rat River, which is in the Nelson River watershed. The outflow of Rat River into the Burntwood and subsequently Nelson River is controlled by the Notigi Control Structure, before the construction of the Diversion, the Manitoba portion of the Churchill River was estimated to have 3 Gigawatts of hydroelectric potential. The river was however 160 km further north than the Nelson River, jointly harnessing the water increased the flow of the Nelson River by 40%, while the flow of the Burntwood River is now 9 times pre-diversion levels. In 1973 Manitoba Hydro was granted a license to divert 850 m3/s of water from the Churchill River. Construction began the year and finished in 1976. Diversion began 9 September 1976 with full planned potential reached on 20 August 1977, new Hydraulic Generation and HVDC Transmission. Studies are continuing to permit construction of new generating projects along the Nelson River. The Keeyask station will have a capacity of approximately 630 megawatts, final design and construction have started. The 1380 megawatt Conawapa project was initiated but postponed indefinitely in 1992 when Ontario Hydro elected not to purchase energy from Manitoba. Planning activities are continuing, but no commitment has been made. The in-service date would be after that for Keeyask, with current estimated load growth requiring first power in 2021, the station at Notigi would be rated approximately 100 megawatts, but no in-service date has been set for this project
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Nelson River DC Transmission System
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It is now recorded on the list of IEEE Milestones in electrical engineering. The system transfers electric power generated by hydroelectric power stations along the Nelson River in Northern Manitoba across the wilderness to the populated areas in the south. Each HVDC transmission line has two overhead conductors to carry the positive and negative feeds. There are no intermediate switching stations or taps, both bipolar systems have extensive ground return electrodes to allow use in monopolar mode. Construction in 1966 of the 1,272 MW Kettle Rapids generating station required a long line to connect it to load centers in the southern part of Manitoba. The Government of Canada agreed to finance installation of an HVDC line to be repaid by Manitoba Hydro when the load growth permitted the utility to assume the debt due to the line, delivery of direct current electric power began on June 17,1972. One unit of the Kettle generating station was completed before the direct current converters were completed, the line required construction of over 3,900 guyed towers and 96 self-supporting towers across varied terrain. Permafrost in some areas led to settling of up to 3 feet. The loan by the Government of Canada was discharged when Manitoba Hydro bought the line, in 1997 a tornado damaged 19 towers of the DC lines. During repairs, some customers were advised to curtail load. A third such line, called Bipole 3 has been proposed, the transmission system is currently composed of two bipole transmission lines with their converter stations and ground return electrodes to enable monopole operation. Bipole 1 runs 895 kilometres from Radisson to Dorsey and it was originally rated to run at a maximum potential difference of ±450 kilovolts and a maximum power of 1620 megawatts. This results in a current of 1800 Amperes. Bipole 1 consists of six, 6-pulse converter groups at each end, when it was built between March 1971 and October 1977, mercury-arc valves were used to rectify the alternating current. These valves, supplied by English Electric each had six columns in parallel and were the most powerful mercury arc valves ever built. Between 1992 and 1993 the mercury arc valves of Pole 1 were replaced with thyristor valves by GEC Alsthom, increasing the maximum power, the mercury arc valves of Pole 2 were replaced later by Siemens. By the end of 2004 the last of the mercury arc valves in Pole 2 had been replaced by thyristor valves, the Bipole 2 transmission line runs 937 kilometres from Henday to Dorsey. Bipole 2 can transfer a maximum power of 1800 MW at a potential of ±500 kV, Bipole 2 consists of four 12-pulse converter groups at each end and was put into service in two stages
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Natural Resources Canada
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It was created in 1995 by amalgamating the now-defunct Departments of Energy, Mines and Resources and Forestry. Natural Resources Canada works to ensure the development of Canadas natural resources, including energy, forests. NRCan also uses its expertise in earth sciences to build and maintain a knowledge base of our landmass. To promote internal collaboration, NRCan has implemented a departmental wide wiki based on MediaWiki, under the Canadian constitution, responsibility for natural resources belongs to the provinces, not the federal government. However, the government has jurisdiction over off-shore resources, trade and commerce in natural resources, statistics, international relations. The current Minister of Natural Resources is Jim Carr as of November 4,2015, the department is governed by the Resources and Technical Surveys Act, R. S. C. C. R-7 and the Department of Natural Resources Act, S. C, structured along business lines according to types of natural resources and areas of interest
