1.
University of Newcastle (Australia)
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The University of Newcastle, informally known as Newcastle University, is an Australian public university established in 1965. It has a campus in Callaghan, a suburb of Newcastle. The university also operates campuses in Ourimbah, Port Macquarie, Singapore and it pioneered use of the Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test in the early 1990s. UMAT has since been accepted widely by different medical schools across Australia as a selection criteria. The University of Newcastle is a member of Universities Australia and the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, in 2015 Times Higher Education ranked the University of Newcastle number 2 in Australia and number 30 in the world for universities under 50 years of age. The earliest origins of the present-day University of Newcastle can be traced to the Newcastle Teachers College, NUC was created as an offshoot of the New South Wales University of Technology and was co-located with the Newcastle Technical College at Tighes Hill. At the time of its establishment, NUC had just five students and study was restricted to engineering, mathematics. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Newcastle residents campaigned for NUC to be re-constituted as a university in its own right. The new university was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in London. In 1966, the University relocated from Tighes Hill to a largely undeveloped bushland site in Shortland, students at the university celebrate Autonomy Day on 1 July of each year. According to unverified sources, official autonomy was marked on 1 January 1965 with a symbolic ceremonial bonfire held at the site of the Great Hall. This celebration is said to have been officiated by Professor Godfrey Tanner who is said to have poured wine libations onto the ground as to sanctify the land upon which the University rests. Since the university became autonomous on 1 January 1965 autonomy day should be held on 1 January. 1 July actually coincided with the New South Wales University of Technology’s autonomy from the Public Service Board’s authority on 1 July 1954, according to Don Wright, students interpreted Autonomy Day as celebrating the autonomy of the University of Newcastle from the University of New South Wales. The students were entitled to give the celebration whatever meaning they chose, the fact that they called it ‘autonomy day’ heightened the students’ sense of the importance of autonomy and their need to defend it against outside interference. In 1989, the Dawkins reforms amalgamated the Hunter Institute of Higher Education with the University of Newcastle, the Hunter Institute was located in a series of buildings on land immediately adjacent to the University at Callaghan and amalgamation expanded the campus to some 140 hectares. Under the reforms, the University also gained the Newcastle branch of the NSW Conservatorium of Music located in the central business district. In 1998, the university established a partnership with the Institut Wira, in 2002, Ian Firms, a lecturer, failed a large number of student papers from Wira for academic dishonesty, but his actions were reversed by the Newcastle administration and he was discharged
2.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
3.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
4.
Durham University
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Durham University is a collegiate public research university in Durham, North East England, with a second campus in nearby Stockton-on-Tees. It was founded by an Act of Parliament in 1832 and granted a Royal Charter in 1837 and it was one of the first universities to commence tuition in England for more than 600 years and claims to be the third oldest university in England, although this is disputed. The Durham University estate includes 63 listed buildings, ranging from the 11th-century Durham Castle to a 1930s Art Deco Chapel, the university also owns and manages the Durham World Heritage Site in partnership with Durham Cathedral. The universitys ownership of the World Heritage Site includes Durham Castle, Palace Green, the chancellor of the University is Sir Thomas Allen, who succeeded Bill Bryson in January 2012. As a collegiate university, its functions are divided between the academic departments of the university and 16 colleges. The university is a member of the Russell Group of leading UK universities after previously being a member of the 1994 Group, Durham is also affiliated with several university groups including the N8 Research Partnership, the Matariki Network of Universities and the Coimbra Group. The university is currently ranked 4th to 6th by recent national league tables of the British universities, in terms of average UCAS points of new entrants in 2014, Durham ranked 4th with the average entrant amassing 524 UCAS points. Long established as the rival to Oxford and Cambridge, the university attracts a largely middle class student body according to The Timess Good University Guide. In 2014, Durham had the fifth highest proportion of educated students at 36. 6%. The university was Sunday Times University of the Year for 2005, also making the shortlist for the 2004 and 2016 awards, Durham graduates have long used the Latin post-nominal letters Dunelm after their degree, from Dunelmensis. However, there was concern expressed by Oxford and Cambridge that the awarding of degree powers could hinder their position. The act received Royal Assent from King William IV on 4 July 1832, the University opened on 28 October 1833. In 1834 all but two of the bishops of the Church of England confirmed that they would accept holders of Durham degrees for ordination, accommodation was provided in the Archdeacons Inn from 1833 to 1837. On the accession of Queen Victoria an order of the Queen-in-Council was issued granting the use of Durham Castle to the university, in 1846, Bishop Hatfields Hall was founded, providing for the opportunity for students to obtain affordable lodgings with fully catered communal eating. Those attending University College were expected to bring a servant with them to deal with cooking, cleaning, elsewhere, the university expanded from Durham into Newcastle in 1852 when the medical school there became a college of the university. This was joined in 1871 by the College of Physical Sciences and these merged to form a mixed college in 1975. From 1896 these were associated with the university and graduates of St Hilds were the first female graduates from Durham in 1898, during the expansion phase the University also became the first English university to establish relationship with overseas institutions. Firstly in 1875 with Codrington College, Barbados, and secondly in early 1876 with Fourah Bay College, under the arrangements the two colleges became affiliated colleges of the university with their students sitting examinations for and receiving Durham degrees
5.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
6.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
7.
Liam Donaldson
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Sir Liam Joseph Donaldson FMedSci is a British doctor and the current Chancellor of Newcastle University. He was previously the Chief Medical Officer for England, the 15th occupant of the post since it was established in 1855, as such he was principal advisor to the United Kingdom Government on health matters and one of the most senior officials in the National Health Service. In the 2002 New Year Honours, Liam Donaldson received a knighthood in recognition of his achievements in health and health care, on 1 July 2010 he was appointed the Chairman of the Independent Monitoring Board overseeing the polio eradication initiative coordinated by the World Health Organization. Donaldson qualified in medicine from the University of Bristol in 1972 and he graduated with an MSc in anatomy from the Birmingham University in 1976. Donaldson was appointed as Chief Medical Officer in 1998 and he began his career as a surgeon before training in public health. Donaldson is Visiting Professor in the University of Leicesters Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, on 1 August 2009 Donaldson became Chancellor of Newcastle University, replacing Lord Patten, who stood down after 10 years in office. He is also Chair of the World Alliance for Patient Safety, Donaldson has degrees from, the University of Bristol, where he attended Wills Hall. Sir Liam was involved in devising the Modernising Medical Careers system and this has been very controversial since its inception, with officials from the DH proclaiming success although it has been outrightly rejected by a large group of trainees and consultants. It champions competence rather than excellence and substantially reduces the length of the programme required to become a consultant. In an unprecedented demonstration against this system, around 12,000 junior doctors marched against MMC, subsequently, Professor Alan Crockard the National Director of MMC resigned stating that the project had lacked clear leadership from the top for a very long time. His colleague Professor Shelley Heard has also resigned, the BMA and senior doctors have called repeatedly for his resignation in this matter. Despite Prime Minister Gordon Browns opposition to the move, Donaldson said he would continue to push his case and he has also written a foreword for a book on clinical audit
8.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
9.
Newcastle upon Tyne
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Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
10.
Tyne and Wear
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Tyne and Wear is a metropolitan county in the North East region of England around the mouths of the rivers Tyne and Wear. It came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972 and it consists of the five metropolitan boroughs of South Tyneside, North Tyneside, City of Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and City of Sunderland. It is bounded on the east by the North Sea, and has borders with Northumberland to the north, Tyne and Wear County Council was abolished in 1986, and so its districts are now unitary authorities. However, the county continues to exist in law and as a geographic frame of reference. The Local Government Act 1888 constituted Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, between the county boroughs, various other settlements also formed part of the administrative counties of Durham and of Northumberland. The need to reform local government on Tyneside was recognised by the government as early as 1935, the second-tier units would form by amalgamating the various existing boroughs and districts. The county boroughs in the area would lose their status, within this area, a single municipality would be formed covering the four county boroughs of Newcastle, Gateshead, Tynemouth, South Shields and other urban districts and boroughs. A minority report proposed amalgamation of Newcastle, Gateshead, Wallsend, Jarrow, Felling, Gosforth, the 1937 proposals never came into operation, local authorities could not agree on a scheme and the legislation of the time did not allow central government to compel one. Tyneside was a Special Review Area under the Local Government Act 1958, the Local Government Commission for England came back with a recommendation to create a new county of Tyneside based on the review area, divided into four separate boroughs. The Redcliffe-Maud Report proposed a Tyneside unitary authority, again excluding Sunderland, the Bill as presented in November 1971 pruned back the southern edge of the area, and gave it the name Tyneside. The name Tyneside proved controversial on Wearside, and a government amendment changed the name to Tyne, although the metropolitan county council was abolished in 1986, several joint bodies exist to run certain services on a county-wide basis. Most notable is the Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Authority, which co-ordinates transport policy, also through Nexus, the authority subsidises socially necessary transport services and operates a concessionary fares scheme for the elderly and disabled. The Passenger Transport Authority is an authority, raising funds by imposing a levy on the Council Tax of the five constituent authorities of Tyne. In April 2014 Nexus became a body of the new North East Combined Authority. These joint bodies are administered by representatives of all five of the constituent councils, in addition the Northumbria Police force, which covers the whole of Northumberland and Tyne and Wear, is one of several joint forces in England spanning two or more counties. The force was created in 1974, and so is not a by-product of the abolition of the county council, Tyne and Wear either has or closely borders two official Met Office stations, neither located in one of the major urban centres. The locations for those are in marine Tynemouth where Tyne meets the North Sea east of Newcastle, there are some clear differences between the stations temperature and precipitation patterns even though both have a cool-summer and mild-winter oceanic climate. Tyne and Wear is divided into 13 Parliamentary constituencies, at the level of local government, three of the regions five unitary authorities were controlled by Labour in 2005, the exceptions being Newcastle City Council and North Tyneside Council
11.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
12.
Sky blue
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Sky blue is the name of a colour that resembles the colour of the sky at noon. The entry for sky-blue in Murrays New English Dictionary reports a first sighting of the term in the article on silver in Ephraim Chamberss Cyclopaedia of 1728, however, many writers had used the term sky blue to name a colour before Chambers. For example, we find sky blue in A Collection of Voyages and Travels,2, p.322, where John Nieuhoff describes certain flowers, they are of a lovely sky blue colour, and yellow in the middle. The sense of colour may have been first used in 1585 in a book by Nicolas de Nicolay where he stated the tulbant of the merchant must be skie coloured. Displayed at right is the web colour sky blue, Celeste is the colloquial name for the pale turquoise blue colour associated with Italian bicycle manufacturer Bianchi S. p. A and sometimes known as Bianchi Green. In Italian, as the name indicates, it is an attempt to reproduce the colour of clear skies, in English, this colour may also be referred to as Italian sky blue. Bleu celeste is a rarely occurring tincture in heraldry and this tincture is sometimes also called ciel or simply celeste. It is depicted in a lighter shade than the range of shades of the more traditional tincture azure, Bianchi bicycles are traditionally painted celeste, also known as Bianchi Green. Contradictory myths say celeste is the colour of the Milan sky, the eye colour of a queen for whom Edoardo Bianchi made a bicycle. The exact shade of turquoise used by the company has varied over time, in Anglophone countries Celeste is sometimes reported as Pantone -#332, and with various other shades. Displayed at right is the web colour sky blue. It is close in shade to baby blue, displayed at right is the colour medium sky blue. This is the colour that is called sky blue in Crayola crayons and this colour was formulated by Crayola in 1958. Sky blue appears in the 32,48,64,96 and 120 packs of crayons, displayed at right is the colour vivid sky blue. Deep sky blue is an azure-cyan colour associated with sky blue. Deep sky blue is a web colour and this colour is the colour on the colour wheel halfway between azure and cyan. The traditional name for this colour is Capri, the first use of Capri as a colour name in English was in 1920. Specifically, the colour Capri is named after the colour of the Blue Grotto on the island of Capri. as it appears on a sunny day
13.
Geordie
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Geordie /ˈdʒɔːrdi/ is both a regional nickname for a person from the larger Tyneside region of North East England and the name of the Northern English dialect spoken by its inhabitants. The term is associated with Tyneside, south Northumberland and northern parts of County Durham and this linguistic conservatism can be seen today to the extent that poems by the Anglo-Saxon scholar the Venerable Bede translate more successfully into Geordie than into present-day Standard English. Thus in Northern England and the Scottish borders area, then dominated by the kingdom of Northumbria, later Irish and Scottish admixture influenced the dialect. In more recent years, the North East area has received migrants from the rest of the world as well, in recent times, the word Geordie can refer to a supporter of Newcastle United, despite many Geordies supporting other local teams. The Geordie Schooner glassware is used to serve beer in the United States, the Geordie dialect and self-identification as a Geordie are primarily associated with those of a working-class background. A2008 newspaper survey found the Geordie accent the most attractive in England, the term itself, according to Brockett, originated from all the North East coal mines. The catchment area for the term Geordie can include Northumberland and County Durham or be confined to an area as small as the city of Newcastle upon Tyne, people from Sunderland, where they traditionally considered themselves Geordies, have differentiated themselves as Mackems in recent decades. The earliest known recorded use of the term found by an Oxford English Dictionary word hunt occurred only as late as 1988, Geordie is occasionally called Tyneside English. One explanation is that it was established during the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715, the Jacobites declared that the natives of Newcastle were staunch supporters of the Hanoverian kings, in particular of George I during the 1715 rebellion. This contrasted with rural Northumbria, which supported the Jacobite cause. If true, the term may have derived from the popular anti-Hanoverian song Cam Ye Oer Frae France, which calls the first Hanoverian king Geordie Whelps, a play on George the Guelph. Using the chronological order of two John Trotter Brockett books, Geordie was given to North East pitmen, later he acknowledges that the pitmen also christened their Stephenson lamp Geordie. It occurs in the titles of two songs by songwriter Joe Wilson, Geordy, Haud the Bairn and Keep your Feet Still, Newcastle publisher Frank Grahams Geordie Dictionary states, The origin of the word Geordie has been a matter of much discussion and controversy. All the explanations are fanciful and not a piece of genuine evidence has ever been produced. In Grahams many years of research, the earliest record he found of the use was in 1823 by local comedian Billy Purvis. Purvis had set up a booth at the Newcastle Races on the Town Moor, noo, yor a fair doon reet feul, not an artificial feul like Billy Purvis. Gan an get thy picks agyen, thou may de for the city, but never for the west end o wor toon. Graham is backed up historically by John Camden Hotten, who wrote in 1869, Geordie, general term in Northumberland and Durham for a pitman, origin not known, the term has been in use more than a century
14.
Russell Group
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The Russell Group is a self-selected association of twenty-four public research universities in the United Kingdom. In 2010, Russell Group members received approximately two-thirds of all university research grant, the group is widely perceived as representing the best universities in the country. Russell Group members award 60% of all doctorates gained in the United Kingdom, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, 68% of world-leading research and 68% of research with an outstanding impact was carried out in Russell Group universities. The Russell Group is so named because the first informal meetings of the Group took place at the Hotel Russell in Russell Square, in 1998 Cardiff University and Kings College London joined the group. In November 2006 Queens University Belfast was admitted as the member of the group. In the same month Wendy Piatt, the deputy director in the Prime Ministers strategy unit, was announced as the groups new Director General. In March 2012 it was announced that four universities – Durham, Exeter, Queen Mary University of London, all of the new members had previously been members of the 1994 Group of British universities. In January 2013 it was announced that the Russell Group would establish a board to advise the English exams watchdog Ofqual on the content of A-Levels. The Russell Group is led by acting Director Dr Tim Bradshaw following the departure of Wendy Piatt and it is chaired by Prof Sir David Greenaway, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Nottingham. The Russell Group currently has twenty four members, of twenty are from England. Four Russell Group members are constituent colleges of the University of London, the table below gives the members of the group, along with when they joined, their total number of students, and their income. Notes, † Includes Cambridge Assessment and Cambridge University Press, excludes colleges, the only English Russell Group institution to receive an allocation below £20M was the LSE, which ranked 22nd behind the Universities of Leicester and Lancaster. In 2010/11,19 of the 20 UK universities with the highest income from grants and contracts were members of the Russell Group. In terms of research funding allocations from the Higher Education Funding Council for England in 2007/8. LSE was 21st, due to its focus on less costly social sciences research, Queens University Belfast, Cardiff, Glasgow and Edinburgh, were not included in this table, as they are not English institutions. The Russell Group institutions received 82% of the total HEFCE research funding allocation, the research funding figures depend on factors other than the quality of research, in particular there are variations due to institutional size and subject spread. In 2008,18 of the then 20 members were positioned in the top 20 of Research Fortnights Research Assessment Exercise Power Table, the other two places were occupied by Durham University and Queen Mary University of London, which were not then Russell Group members but have since joined. The two Russell Group institutions outside the top 20 were QUB and the LSE, while the two universities to have since joined were York and Exeter
15.
Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
16.
Universities UK
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Universities UK is an advocacy organisation for universities in the United Kingdom. The current president is Dame Julia Goodfellow, vice-chancellor of the University of Kent, the current Chief Executive is Nicola Dandridge. In 1918 the first consultative meeting of all vice-chancellors was held, at that time, the committee consisted of just twenty-two universities and university colleges. In the early 1980s, they commissioned the Jarratt report, published in 1985, on 1 December 2000, CVCP’s name, logo and identity were changed to Universities UK in order to reflect changes which had taken place in the organisation in recent years. Universities UKs task is to support the work of universities and promote their interests, there is also an additional group, Universities Scotland, whose membership comprises the Universities UK members in Scotland. Universities Scotland promotes and supports the work of Universities UK, the percentage of state educated school students at the prestigious Russell Group universities has been falling. State educated secondary school pupils eligible for school meals are very much less likely to go to Oxbridge than privately educated pupils. Overall more young people are entering university than previously and it is hoped this will improve social mobility, cutbacks in government funding for students may deter poorer potential students from going to university according to the education charity, Sutton Trust. Following comments by Prime Minister David Cameron that universities should not enforce gender segregation on audiences the case study which triggered this debate was withdrawn. The Efficiency and effectiveness in higher education, A report by the Universities UK Efficiency, in response to the report the Efficiency Exchange was set up to help higher education institutions to share ideas and good practice. The Exchange facilitates the sharing of resources, Universities UK health work programme addresses the NHS education reforms, research and innovation and AHSNs, healthcare employment and health education regulation. In 2012 A picture of health and education was published which depicts the vital connections between higher education and healthcare, in July 2015 UUK launched a campaign in support of the UKs continuing membership of the EU which generated wide media coverage. This was criticised by some Conservative and UKIP Members of the European Parliament who said such political activity undertaken by a registered charity which is largely state-funded was wrong
17.
Research university
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Such universities can be recognized by their strong focus on innovative research and the prestige of their brand names. From the late 20th century to the present, U. S. research universities have dominated most international college and university rankings
18.
North East England
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North East England is one of the nine regions of England that are classified at the first level of NUTS for statistical purposes. It covers Northumberland, County Durham, Tyne and Wear, the region is home to three large conurbations, Teesside, Wearside, and Tyneside, the latter of which is the largest of the three and the eighth most populous conurbation in the United Kingdom. The city of Durham is the county town of County Durham, other large settlements in the region include Darlington, Gateshead, Hartlepool, Middlesbrough, South Shields, Stockton-on-Tees and Washington. The region is hilly and sparsely populated in the North and West. The highest point in the region is The Cheviot, in the Cheviot Hills, Peters Church in Monkwearmouth, Sunderland and St. Pauls in Jarrow also hold significant historical value and have a joint bid to become a World Heritage Site. The area has a strong religious past, as can be seen in such as the Lindisfarne Gospels. The work of the 7th-century Cuthbert, Bede and Hilda of Whitby being hugely influential in the church and are still venerated today. Bede is regarded as the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar and his best known work is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People. This body of work is thought to have been done in honour of Cuthbert, British history changed forever that day and three hundred years of Viking raids, battles and settlement were to persist until William the Conqueror defeated King Harold at Hastings in 1066. The last independent Northumbrian king from 947–8 was Eric Bloodaxe who died in battle at the Battle of Stainmore, Westmorland, after Eric Bloodaxes death, all England was ruled by Eadred the grandson of Alfred the Great and so began the machinery of national government. Today the Viking legacy can still be found in the language and place names of Northeast England, the name Newcastle comes from the new castle built shortly after their conquest in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. North East England has a climate with narrower temperature ranges than further south in England. Met Office operates several stations in the region. The stations nearest significant urban areas are Durham, Stockton-on-Tees and Tynemouth, the warmest summers in the region are found in Stockton-on-Tees and the Middlesbrough area with a 1981-2010 July average high of 20.4 °C. The summers on the coastlines are clearly cooler than in the southern and central inland areas. Moving further inland, frosts during winter gets more common due to the higher elevation and these companies are members of the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster. The early chemical industry in this region was however primarily Tyneside based and associated with the manufacture of soap and glass. The most important chemical activity in the 18th and 19th centuries was the manufacture of alkali to make soap, what came out of the industrial revolution was a period when the Northeast of Englands economy was dominated by iron and steel, coal mining and shipbuilding
19.
Edward Fenwick Boyd
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Edward Fenwick Boyd was an English industrialist who became the fourth President of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. He held a role in the Mining Institute from its inauguration in 1852 as Treasurer. As president, Boyd oversaw the installation of the Nicholas Wood Memorial Hall, Edward Fenwick Boyd was born on 30 August 1810 at Moor House, Leamside Durham. He was the son of William, a banker and partner in the Newcastle Old Bank. His earliest experience of education was with Henry Atkinson at the High Bridge and it was here he found a passion and talent for art. Upon leaving school he ‘served his time’, firstly, at Cocken White House Pit before moving to Bowes’ House Pit where he met Thomas Crawford and it was believed that Boyd’s connection with Crawford provided him with his initial understanding of the business. Between October 1830 and May 1831, Boyd attended Edinburgh University however he maintained a connection with the industry at Towneley Main Colliery. Through this connection and work with Mr Dunn, Boyd obtained his first appointment as under viewer, five years later, Boyd moved to Urpeth and became resident viewer of Urpeth Colliery. As his professional life was beginning to start, also was his personal life. In 1841 he married Ann, daughter of George Anderson, between 1846 and 1852 the couple went on to have four children, Juliana, George, Robert and Hugh and in 1856 Boyd bought the property at Moor House and built himself and his family a house. He resigned his position as manager of the Urpeth Colliery and was proposing to take life more easily. However the fall of the Northumberland and Durham District Bank during the crisis of 1857 meant this was no longer possible. He continued with his previous ventures and took on many new agencies making this time of his life the busiest to date, in 1858 he became Chief Mining Engineer of the Consett Iron Company and until 1872 he directly superintended the working of their various collieries. However, it was not until 1850 that legislation was passed requiring collieries to appoint inspectors, Mine plans were expected to be kept and produced and all fatal accidents were to now be reported to the Home Office. Similar to the disaster at St Hilda’s, an explosion at Seaton Colliery on 9 June 1852 acted as a catalyst for the founding of the NEIMME, leading figures such as Nicholas Wood, T. E. His dedication and hard working ethic resulted in his election as the fourth President of the NEIMME in 1869 following that of George Elliot. The foundation of the College of Physical Science in 1871, the fore-runner of Newcastle University, is considered to be one of Boyd’s most significant achievements during his presidency. Schooling was a hot topic amongst the members since the founding of the NEIMME
20.
Red brick university
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The term is now used more broadly to refer to British universities founded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in major cities. Six of the original institutions, or their predecessor institutes. Eight of the nine institutions are members of the Russell Group, the term red brick or redbrick was first coined by Edgar Allison Peers, a professor of Spanish at the University of Liverpool, to describe the civic universities. Although Peers used red brick in the title of the book, he used redbrick adjectivally in the text. He is said to have regretted his use of red brick in the title. Peers reference was inspired by the fact that The Victoria Building at the University of Liverpool is built from a distinctive red pressed brick, with terracotta decorative dressings. On this basis the University of Liverpool claims to be the red brick institution, although the titular. The University of Birmingham grew from the Mason Science College, a red brick. In this sense they owed their structural heritage to the Humboldt University of Berlin, scotlands ancient universities were founded on a different basis between 1400 and 1600. These universities developed out of various 19th-century private research and education institutes in industrial cities, the 1824 Manchester Mechanics Institute formed the basis of the Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and thus led towards the current University of Manchester formed in 2004. The University of Birmingham has origins dating back to the 1825 Birmingham Medical School, the University of Leeds also owes its foundations to a medical school, the 1831 Leeds School of Medicine. Reading was established as a college by Oxford University in 1892, incorporating pre-existing schools of art and science. All of the redbricks, with the exception of Reading, were non-residential, in contrast to Oxford, Cambridge, graduates of Oxford, Cambridge, and London had already been enfranchised and graduates of the University of Wales were enfranchised at the same time. Reading University was added to the Combined English Universities constituency in 1928, the constituency was abolished in 1950. Various other civic institutions with origins dating from the 19th and early to mid-20th centuries have also described as Red Brick. According to historian William Whyte of the University of Oxford, Truscotts original definition includes the University of Dundee, Newcastle University, notably, Whyte does not include Reading or Nottingham, which Truscot lists in his second edition. The Robbins Report lists Reading, Nottingham, Southampton, Hull, Exeter and Leicester, as a result it meets the dictionary definition of a red brick university, and is sometimes named as such. The term red brick is also used more widely to mean any of the non-ancient universities
21.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
22.
William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong
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William George Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong CB FRS was an English industrialist who founded the Armstrong Whitworth manufacturing concern on Tyneside. He was also an eminent scientist, inventor and philanthropist, in collaboration with the architect Richard Norman Shaw, he built Cragside in Northumberland, the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectricity. He is regarded as the inventor of modern artillery, Armstrong was knighted in 1859 after giving his gun patents to the government. Armstrong was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, at 9 Pleasant Row, Shieldfield, although the house in which he was born no longer exists, an inscribed granite tablet marks the spot on which it once stood. At that time the area, next to the Pandon Dene, was rural and his father, also called William, was a corn merchant on the Newcastle quayside, who rose through the ranks of Newcastle society to become mayor of the town in 1850. An elder sister, Anne, born in 1802, was named after his mother, Armstrong was educated at private schools in Newcastle and Whickham, near Gateshead, until he was sixteen, when he was sent to Bishop Auckland Grammar School. While there, he visited the nearby engineering works of William Ramshaw. During his visits he met his wife, Ramshaw’s daughter Margaret. Armstrong’s father was set on him following a career in the law, and so he was articled to Armorer Donkin and he spent five years in London studying law and returned to Newcastle in 1833. In 1835 he became a partner in Donkin’s business and the firm became Donkin, Stable, Armstrong married Margaret Ramshaw in 1835, and they built a house in Jesmond Dene, on the eastern edge of Newcastle. Armstrong worked for years as a solicitor, but during his spare time he showed great interest in engineering. Armstrong was a keen angler, and while fishing on the River Dee at Dentdale in the Pennines, he saw a waterwheel in action. It struck Armstrong that much of the power was being wasted. When he returned to Newcastle, he designed an engine powered by water. Unfortunately, little interest was shown in the engine, Armstrong subsequently developed a piston engine instead of a rotary one and decided that it might be suitable for driving a hydraulic crane. In 1846 his work as an amateur scientist was recognized when he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households of Newcastle. He claimed that his hydraulic crane could unload ships faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes, the Corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside. The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to consider setting up a business to manufacture cranes and he therefore resigned from his legal practice
23.
Colleges of Durham University
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They also provide funding and/or accommodation for some of the research posts in the University. All students at the University are required to be members of one of the colleges, Durham University has 16 colleges, of which University College is the oldest, founded in 1832. The newest college is Josephine Butler, founded in 2006, the last single sex college, St Marys, became mixed in 2005 with the admittance of male undergraduates. One college, Ustinov, admits only postgraduates, however, unlike at Oxford and Cambridge (and federal universities such as London and the University of the Highlands and Islands, there is no formal teaching at most Durham colleges. The colleges dominate the residential, social, sporting, and pastoral functions within the university, formal dinners are held at many colleges, gowns are often worn to these events. There is a deal of intercollegiate rivalry, particularly in rowing. There is also rivalry between the colleges of the Bailey and the newer colleges of the Hill. The University is collegiate in structure, there are four different sorts of college, Maintained Colleges and Societies, Recognised Colleges, Licensed Halls of Residence, and Affiliated Colleges. Maintained Colleges are governed directly by, and are dependent on. Their principals and staff are appointed by University Council, the maintained colleges are overseen by the Deputy Warden, who is also a member of the University Executive Committee. Recognised Colleges are recognised as colleges of the University, but they are incorporated as separate institutions. They are in effect accredited, being governed, financed and managed independently of the University, however, as a condition of their ongoing recognition by the University, the Universitys Council must approve the appointment of their principals and be notified of changes to their constitutions. This states that Council may, on the recommendation of Senate, there are currently no affiliated colleges. Previous affiliated colleges have included Codrington College in Barbados, Fourah Bay College in Sierra Leone, Affiliated colleges are not generally considered part of the collegiate structure of the University. The University validates degrees at other colleges not recognised under any of the above categories, current arrangements include the validation of the Church of Englands Common Award at a number of theological colleges. The Royal Academy of Dance also used to teach courses leading to degrees validated by Durham, most of the colleges located in Durham itself can be grouped into two areas of the city. Bailey colleges are located on the peninsula formed by a meander of the River Wear. Queens Campus, Stockton, is 23 miles south of Durham, the student numbers in the table below are up to date for the 2010/11 year
24.
Act of Parliament
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Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
25.
Haymarket, Newcastle
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Haymarket is an area in the north of the city centre of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. The area functions as a transport hub with Eldon Square bus station, Haymarket bus station. Although mainly an area, Haymarket features the facades of Newcastle University, Northumbria University. It is also the location of the Church of St Thomas the Martyr, the main pedestrianised shopping street in the city, Northumberland Street, meets Haymarket at its northern end. Haymarket Metro station has completely rebuilt, at a cost of £20 million. This new development called Haymarket Hub also includes new retail outlets and it was nominated for the Carbuncle Cup in 2010. The sculpture incorporated a feature, which was turned off due to budget constraints. In 2008 the figures were removed and stored on a piece of land close to the city centre. Some of the figures were eventually auctioned by the City Council on eBay in 2011
26.
Town Moor, Newcastle upon Tyne
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The Town Moor is a large area of common land in Newcastle upon Tyne. It covers an area of around 1000 acres or 400ha, and is larger than Hyde Park and Hampstead Heath combined, and also larger than New York Citys Central Park. It stretches from the city centre and Spital Tongues in the out to Cowgate/Kenton Bar to the west. At the south-eastern corner lies the Exhibition Park, but the rest of the Town Moor is not laid out as a park and is mostly treeless. Freemen of the city have the right to graze cattle on the moors, the ornithologist and landscape architect John Hancock, after whom the nearby Hancock Museum is named, produced a planned layout for the Town Moor in 1868, which was only partly realised. In 1873 a political demonstration in favour of male suffrage took place on the moor which attracted 200,000 people. The Hoppings, said to be Europes largest travelling fun fair, is held on the Town Moor during the last week in June, the area of common land is actually split up into two sections, of which the Town Moor is but the major part. The area is intersected by the A189 road and the section on the side of the road is known as Nuns Moor. The moor has recently had a pathway re-laid with more street lighting, the Town Moor is mentioned in the Maxïmo Park song The Undercurrents
27.
Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll
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Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, VA, CI, GCVO, GBE, RRC, GCStJ, was the sixth child and fourth daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Her early life was spent moving among the royal residences in the company of her family. When her father, the Prince Consort, died on 14 December 1861, Louise was an able sculptor and artist, and several of her sculptures remain today. She was also a supporter of the feminist movement, corresponded with Josephine Butler and she held that the subject of Domestic Economy lies at the root of the – highest life of every true woman. Before her marriage, Louise served as a secretary to her mother. The question of Louises marriage was discussed in the late 1860s, suitors from the royal houses of Prussia and Denmark were suggested, but Victoria wanted new blood in the family and therefore suggested a high-ranking member of the aristocracy. Despite a happy beginning, the two drifted apart, possibly because of their childlessness and the Queens constraints on their activities, in 1878, Lorne was appointed Governor General of Canada. Louise became viceregal consort, but her stay was unhappy as a result of homesickness, following Victorias death in 1901, Louise entered the social circle established by her brother, the new king, Edward VII. Louises marriage survived thanks to long periods of separation, but the couple reconciled in 1911, and she was devastated by her husbands death in 1914. After the end of the First World War in 1918, at the age of 70, she began to retire from public life, undertaking few public duties outside Kensington Palace, Louise was born on 18 March 1848 at Buckingham Palace, London. She was the daughter and sixth child of the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria. As the daughter of the sovereign, Louise was styled Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise from birth and her birth coincided with revolutions which swept across Europe, prompting the Queen to remark that Louise would turn out to be something peculiar. The Queens labour with Louise was the first to be aided with chloroform, Albert and Victoria chose the names Louisa Caroline Alberta. Though christened Louisa in Buckingham Palaces private chapel by John Bird Sumner and her godparents were Duke Gustav of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, The Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen, and The Hereditary Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Like her siblings, Louise was brought up with the programme of education devised by her father, Prince Albert. The young children were taught practical tasks, such as cooking, farming, household tasks, from her early years, Louise was a talented and intelligent child, and her artistic talents were quickly recognised. On his visit to Osborne House in 1863, Hallam Tennyson, because of her royal rank, an artistic career was not considered. However, the Queen first allowed her to art school under the tutelage of the sculptor Mary Thornycroft
28.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
29.
Golden jubilee
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A golden jubilee is a celebration held to mark a 50th anniversary. The golden jubilee is a ceremony to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the accession of the king. The first Golden Jubilee of Thailand was the celebration of King Bhumibol Adulyadej, King Rama IX celebrated his golden jubilee on 9 June 1996, having acceded to the throne in 1946 which makes him Thailands longest-reigning monarch and the longest-living monarch today. The largest faceted diamond in the world, known as the Golden Jubilee Diamond, was purchased as a gift for the King on the 50th anniversary of his coronation by Thai businessmen, currently, the diamond is located in the Royal Thai Palace as part of the crown jewels. In 1996, Banharn Silpa-archa, the Prime Minister, and the Thai people celebrated the King with a large celebration, the symbol of the golden jubilee of King Bhumibol Adulyadej was designed by Wiyada Charoensuk, who won the contest for the design. The golden jubilee of George III of the United Kingdom was celebrated on 25th October 1809, Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her golden jubilee in 2002, having ascended the throne in 1952. In 1887 the United Kingdom and the British Empire celebrated Queen Victorias golden jubilee, Victoria marked 20 June 1887—the fiftieth anniversary of her accession—with a banquet, to which fifty European kings and princes were invited. Although she could not have been aware of it, there was a plan by Irish Republicans to blow up Westminster Abbey while the Queen attended a service of thanksgiving and this assassination attempt, when it was discovered, became known as the Jubilee Plot. At the time, Victoria was a popular monarch. Emperor Wu of Han dynasty Kangxi Emperor of Qing dynasty Qianlong Emperor of Qing dynasty Yeongjo of Joseon In Japan, Emperor Hirohito, celebrated his golden jubilee on 10 November 1976. Showa Memorial Park was established as part of a project to commemorate his golden jubilee, for the year 2015, the Singapore50 initiative is launched in Singapore to celebrate 50 years of independence from Malaysia. The logo is meant to identify with the SG50 celebrations, national Day Parade ceremonies for that year are themed Majulah Singapura - Our Golden Jubilee. In Bavaria, Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria celebrated his jubilee as Elector Palatine in 1792. In Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Grand Duke Karl August celebrated his golden jubilee in 1826, in Austria-Hungary, Emperor Franz Josef celebrated his golden jubilee in 1898. In Baden, Grand Duke Frederick I celebrated his golden jubilee in 1906, in Liechtenstein, Prince Johann II celebrated his golden jubilee in 1908. In Greece, King George I was assassinated mere weeks before his golden jubilee was due to be celebrated in 1913, in Montenegro, Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš celebrated his golden jubilee in 1914. In Norway, King Haakon VII celebrated his golden jubilee in 1955, in Burundi, King Mwambutsa IV Bangiriceng celebrated his golden jubilee in 1965. In Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie celebrated his jubilee, dating from when he became regent
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Lowthian Bell
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Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, 1st Baronet, FRS was a Victorian ironmaster and Liberal Party politician from Washington, County Durham, in the north of England. He was described as being as famous in his day as Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Bell was an energetic and skilful entrepreneur as well as an innovative metallurgist. He was involved in partnerships with his brothers to make iron and alkali chemicals. He was a director of companies including the North Eastern Railway. Bell was the son of Thomas Bell, one of the founders of the iron and alkali company Losh, Wilson and Bell, and his wife Katherine Lowthian. He was born in Newcastle-upon-Tyne and educated at Dr Bruces academy in Percy Street, Newcastle, followed by studying physical science at Edinburgh University and he gained experience in manufacturing alkalis at Marseilles before returning to Newcastle in 1836 to work in his fathers Walker iron and chemical works. Bells industrial life was complex, involvement in up to three different partnerships at the time, created a conflict of loyalties causing allegiances to each to vary over the years. Inspired to become an entrepreneur he took over the Walker ironworks on his fathers death in 1845, in 1850 at Washington, County Durham, Bell made a breakthrough discovering a new process for manufacturing lead oxychloride. His partners and co-founders of the Washington chemical company, named after his home, were his brother-in-law Robert Benson Bowman, Pattinson was the inventor responsible for the process separating silver from lead that bears his name. Under an 1850 Indenture, Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, Pattinson, Bell decided the partnership might be incompatible with his continued involvement in the running of Losh, Wilson and Bell. In September 1849 he wrote to Losh and Wilson informing them that the partnership with Pattinson would necessitate my relinquishing the office I at present hold in your firm. Establishing a partnership with Robert Stirling Newall in 1850, Bell set up the first factory in the world with machines able to manufacture steel rope and submarine cable. Two years later his brothers Thomas Bell and John Bell joined him to build an iron works at Port Clarence. By 1853 there were three blast furnaces, each with a capacity of just over 6000 cubic feet, making them the largest in Britain at the time. The Bell brothers company operated its own mines at Normanby and Cleveland. By 1878 the firm was producing 200,000 tons of iron per annum, Bell was a professional metallurgist and industrial chemist, constantly pioneering processes such as the recycling of heat from escaping flue gases, and trialling many process improvements. 1n 1859 Bell opened Britains first factory able to manufacture aluminium, on the day it opened at Washington, Bell toured Newcastle in his carriage, saluting the crowds with an aluminium top hat. The plant used the new Deville sodium process, in 1863, Bell exhibited several pounds of the recently discovered element thallium when the British Association met in Newcastle that autumn
31.
Metallurgy
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The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes, the production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production. The roots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek, μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, worker in metal, from μέταλλον, métallon, metal + ἔργον, érgon, in the late 19th century it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the common one in the USA. The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c.40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as daggers from heaven. Certain metals, notably tin, lead and copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennia BC and was found in the sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site, other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela, Los Millares, and Stonehenge. However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. These first metals were single ones or as found, about 3500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, representing a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a variety of past cultures. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, Agricola has been described as the father of metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore, in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically
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Lord mayor
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The lord mayor is the title of the mayor of a major city in the United Kingdom or Commonwealth realm, with special recognition bestowed by the sovereign. In Australia, Lord Mayor is a status granted by the monarch to mayors of major cities. Australian cities with lord mayors, Adelaide, Brisbane, Darwin, Hobart, Melbourne, Newcastle, Parramatta, Perth, Sydney, see list of cities in Australia. In Canada, the town with a lord mayor in the traditional sense is Niagara-on-the-Lake. Unusually, the council of Brantford, Ontario has taken upon itself to appoint an honorary Lord Mayor Walter Gretzky in addition to the elected mayor. This is the example of a council granting the cachet itself, rather than the cachet being granted by a higher authority. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland it is a ceremonial post conferred by letters patent. See List of lord mayoralties and lord provostships in the United Kingdom, most famously referring to the Lord Mayor of London, who only has jurisdiction over the City of London, as opposed to the modern title of Mayor of London governing Greater London. In Uganda, the jurisdiction with a lord mayor is Kampala. In the Republic of Ireland, the posts of Lord Mayor of Dublin and Lord Mayor of Cork still exist, in Denmark, as the translation of Danish Overborgmester, it is the title of the highest mayor of Denmarks capital city, Copenhagen. In Germany, it is used to translate German Oberbürgermeister. As in Austria, Germanys mayors serve as the executive leaders of their cities and are elected officials. In Romania and Moldova, the mayors of the capitals are named Primar General which means General Mayor, the name is ceremonial and it has no higher powers than mayors of other cities. In Hungary, the mayor of the capital Budapest is called főpolgármester which means chief mayor or grand mayor, only the capital has a főpolgármester. Between 1873 and 1945, the Lord Mayor of Budapest was representative of the Hungarian government at the municipal authority. In ancient China, jīng zhào yĭn was the given to the mayor of capital city. In Estonia, the mayor of the capital, was named Lord Mayor from 1938 to 1940, in Czech Republic, the mayor of the capital Prague and so-called statutory cities is called Primátor. In Sweden, the titles of mayor and lord mayor have no direct equivalent since the 1970s, the executive leader of Swedish municipalities is one of sometimes several Kommunalråd in the function of Chair of the Municipal Board
33.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
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Graduation
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Graduation is getting a diploma or academic degree or the ceremony that is sometimes associated with it, in which students become graduates. Before the graduation, candidates are referred to as graduands, the date of graduation is often called graduation day. The graduation ceremony itself is also called commencement, convocation or invocation, in the United States and Canada, the term is additionally increasingly being used to refer to the advancement from a primary or secondary school level. When ceremonies are associated, they include a procession of the academic staff and candidates. At the college and university level the faculty will usually wear academic dress at the ceremonies, as will the trustees. After degree completion, graduates can be referred to by their graduating year, in some places, graduation parties to celebrate graduation from school, college or university are popular. In a recent 2014 nationwide survey in the United States, $985 was the amount spent on graduation parties. When a student graduates without attending the ceremony, then it is called graduation in absentia, the procedures and traditions surrounding academic graduation ceremonies differ around the world. In a graduation ceremony the students dress up in special graduation caps, Graduation traditions are varied across universities observing different cultures. Most universities across Sweden are research-oriented and may present its students with bachelors, masters, universities across the country are based through the Higher Education Ordinance. A large number of candidates continue their education onto secondary and upper secondary education, most of the national programs provide Swedish, English, Math and Science among majors. In Zimbabwe, graduation ceremonies are associated with the guest of honor who most of is the ceremonial head of the institution. At state universities the President of Zimbabwe officiates as chancellor and guest of honor, every graduate of a state university in Zimbabwe can claim to have shaken the Presidents hand. The person most associated with graduation at those institutions is President Robert Gabriel Mugabe, at other State Institutions of higher learning the vice Presidents or any other Senior Government officials may preside. Ceremonies for graduating students date from the first universities in Europe in the 12th century, at that time Latin was the language of scholarship. A universitas was a guild of masters with licence to teach, degree and graduate come from gradus, meaning step. The first step was admission to a bachelors degree, the second step was the masters step, giving the graduate admission to the universitas and license to teach. The typical dress for graduation are gowns and hoods or hats adapted from the dress of university staff in the Middle Ages
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Joseph Oswald
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Joseph Oswald was a British architect. He was the son of fellow architect Septimus Oswald and he was educated at Newcastle Grammar School, and then articled to his father, before becoming his assistant. From 1876-91, he was in partnership with his father as S. Oswald & Son and his son Gilbert Oswald later joined the practice. After the death of Harold in 1938 and Gilbert in 1945, the firm designed a number of public houses, and Harold Oswald specialised in designing race courses. He was the architect of The Victoria, an 1899 Grade II listed public house at 86 Hallgarth Street and it is on the Campaign for Real Ales National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors. As well as designing pubs for Newcastle Breweries, he was the architect of their offices there in Haymarket in 1901
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Newcastle Breweries
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The company was listed on the London Stock Exchange until it was acquired by Heineken and Carlsberg in 2008 and its assets split between them. The name Scottish & Newcastle UK continued to be used until 2009 for the UK trading operation of Heineken International until it was renamed Heineken UK, the former S&N Pub Enterprises leased pub division has been renamed Star Pubs & Bars. The Company was founded by Grizel Syme who ran her second husbands brewery, this brewery. It merged with McEwans in 1931 becoming Scottish Brewers, in 1960 it merged again this time with Newcastle Breweries to form Scottish & Newcastle. By 1985, the company had become a regional brewer focused on Scotland, by 1995, with the purchase of rival brewing business Courage, S&N had become the UK’s leading brewer, producing around 15 Mhl per annum. Its UK brewing division became known as Scottish Courage but this reverted to S&N UK in February 2006 and its Managed Pub division was known as S&N Retail with around 2,500 outlets in the estate. In early 2000, S&N expanded outside the UK via a number of acquisitions in Western Europe, the remaining 50% of BBH was owned by Carlsberg, which gained full control after the takeover of S&N in 2008. In July 2003, S&N acquired the Bulmers cider business, adding the Strongbow, Scrumpy Jack and Woodpecker brands to its portfolio, together with the UKs biggest cider mill and orchards in Hereford. In 2004 some radical cost-cutting measures were introduced, particularly within the UK where it was noted by analysts that the cost base was too high, during the year, the Fountain Brewery in Edinburgh was closed, followed some months later by the Tyne Brewery in Newcastle. The company began to use Transit Points in Chelmsford and Faversham as cheap alternatives to full working depots. Reciprocal acquisitions saw the Caledonian Brewery in Edinburgh and the Northern Clubs Federation Brewery in Gateshead added to the business, in February 2005, Scottish & Newcastle and Carlsberg UK finalised a joint venture to carry out Technical Services work in the UK. Service Dispense Equipment Limited was formed from the assets of both businesses. This work is now contracted by the JV, to a new company Innserve Ltd, Innserve supplies, installs and maintains drinks dispense systems in 98,000 Pubs and bars around the UK. In 2006, S&N entered into a joint venture with the Swiss based freight company, Kuehne, some 3,000 S&N employees transferred to the new business. 2% abv pale lager produced by Scottish Courage from the 1980s to 2003. The brand was marketed in the 1980s with a series of advertisements featuring a bear, George, with a shiny, yellow jacket, the first batch of the adverts in 1983 were the final directorial work of legendary film director Orson Welles. On 17 October 2007, Heineken International and Carlsberg jointly announced that they were considering forming a consortium to bid for, no formal offer had been put to S&N at the time. On 25 October, however, Heineken and Carlsberg announced that they had submitted a proposal to S&N. They invited S&N to discuss an offer, the terms as to which they were prepared to proceed included a bid of 720 pence per share
37.
Solar cell
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A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance. Solar cells are the blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light and they are used as a photodetector, detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a cell requires three basic attributes, The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. The separation of carriers of opposite types. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit, in contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A photoelectrolytic cell, on the hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell. Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules that generate power from sunlight. A solar array generates power using solar energy. Multiple solar cells in a group, all oriented in one plane. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-facing side, Solar cells are usually connected in series and parallel circuits or series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Strings of series cells are usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, though as of 2014, individual power boxes are often supplied for each module, and are connected in parallel. Although modules can be interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, otherwise, shunt diodes can reduce shadowing power loss in arrays with series/parallel connected cells. The photovoltaic effect was demonstrated first by French physicist Edmond Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, he built the worlds first photovoltaic cell in his fathers laboratory, willoughby Smith first described the Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nature. In 1883 Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating the semiconductor selenium with a layer of gold to form the junctions. In 1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first cell based on the photoelectric effect discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887
38.
Geothermal heating
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Geothermal heating is the direct use of geothermal energy for heating some applications. Humans have taken advantage of geothermal heat this way since the Paleolithic era, approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of geothermal heating in 2004. As of 2007,28 GW of geothermal heating capacity is installed around the world, thermal efficiency is high since no energy conversion is needed, but capacity factors tend to be low since the heat is mostly needed in the winter. Geothermal energy originates from the heat retained within the Earth since the formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals. Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth, in these areas, ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than the target temperature of the application. However, even cold ground contains heat, below 6 metres the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the Mean Annual Air Temperature, there are a wide variety of applications for cheap geothermal heat. In 2004 more than half of direct geothermal heat was used for heating. The remainder was used for a variety of processes, desalination, domestic hot water. The cities of Reykjavík and Akureyri pipe hot water from geothermal plants under roads, geothermal systems tend to benefit from economies of scale, so space heating power is often distributed to multiple buildings, sometimes whole communities. This technique, long practiced throughout the world in such as Reykjavík, Iceland, Boise, Idaho. Some parts of the world, including portions of the western USA, are underlain by relatively shallow geothermal resources. Similar conditions exist in Iceland, parts of Japan, and other hot spots around the world. In these areas, water or steam may be captured from natural hot springs, alternatively, the heat may come from waste heat supplied by co-generation from a geothermal electrical plant or from deep wells into hot aquifers. Direct geothermal heating is far more efficient than geothermal electricity generation and has less demanding temperature requirements, if the shallow ground is hot but dry, air or water may be circulated through earth tubes or downhole heat exchangers which act as heat exchangers with the ground. Steam under pressure from deep geothermal resources is used to generate electricity from geothermal power. The Iceland Deep Drilling Project struck a pocket of magma at 2, a cemented steelcase was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the bottom close to the magma. The high temperatures and pressure of the steam were used to generate 36MW of electricity. In areas where the ground is too cold to provide comfort directly
