1.
Journalism
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Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the news of the day and that informs society to at least some degree. The word applies to the occupation, the methods of gathering information, journalistic media include, print, television, radio, Internet, and, in the past, newsreels. Concepts of the role for journalism varies between countries. In some nations, the media is controlled by a government intervention. In others, the media is independent from the government. In the United States, journalism is protected by the freedom of the clause in the First Amendment. The role and status of journalism, along with that of the media, has undergone changes over the last two decades with the advent of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. Notably, in the American media landscape, newsrooms have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, for instance, between 2007 and 2012, CNN edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length. This compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition, in the United States, journalism is produced by media organizations or by individuals. Bloggers are often, but not always, journalists, the Federal Trade Commission requires that bloggers who receive free promotional gifts, then write about products, must disclose that they received the products for free. This is to eliminate conflicts of interest and protect consumers, fake news is news that is not truthful or is produced by unreliable media organizations. Fake news is spread on social media. Readers can determine fake news by evaluating whether the news has been published by a news organization. In the US, a news organization is an incorporated entity, has an editorial board. All of these organizations have codes of ethics that members abide by, many news organizations have their own codes of ethics that guide journalists professional publications. The New York Times code of standards and ethics is considered particularly rigorous, when they write stories, journalists are concerned with issues of objectivity and bias. Some types of stories are intended to represent the authors own opinion, in a physical newspaper, information is organized into sections and it is easy to see which stories are supposed to be opinion and which are supposed to be neutral. Online, many of these distinctions break down, readers should pay careful attention to headings and other design elements to ensure that they understand the journalists intent
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News
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NeWS is a discontinued windowing system developed by Sun Microsystems in the mid-1980s. Originally known as SunDew, its authors were James Gosling. The NeWS interpreter was based on PostScript extending it to allow interaction, like PostScript, NeWS could be used as a complete programming language, but unlike PostScript, NeWS could be used to make complete interactive programs with mouse support and a GUI. It also added a complete view hierarchy, based on known as canvases. Like the view system in most GUIs, NeWS included the concept of a tree of embedded views along which events were passed, for instance, a mouse click would generate an event that would be passed to the object directly under the mouse pointer, say a button. If this object did not respond to the event, the object under the button would then receive the message, the input handling system was designed to provide strong event synchronization guarantees that were not possible with asynchronous protocols like X. To support user interface widgets, NeWS expanded the original PostScript stack-based language into an object oriented programming style with inheritance. This eliminated the need for an external OO language to build a complete application, since all of these additions were implemented as extensions to PostScript, it was possible to write simple PostScript code that would result in a running, onscreen, interactive program. Two popular demonstration programs were an onscreen clock, which required about two pages of code, and a program which drew a pair of eyes that followed the cursor as it moved around the screen. The eyeball program was shown at SIGGRAPH in 1988, and was the inspiration for the later well-known X application xeyes, NeWS included several libraries of user interface elements, themselves written in NeWS. These widgets ran all of their behaviour in the NeWS interpreter, for example, a toggle buttons display routine can query the buttons state and change its display accordingly. The buttons PostScript code can also react to mouse clicks by changing its state from pressed to not pressed and vice versa. All this can happen in the server without interaction with the client program. If client and server are not on the machine, these interactions must travel over the network. NeWS was architecturally similar to what is now called AJAX, except that NeWS coherently, used PostScript graphics instead of DHTML and CSS for rendering. Used PostScript data instead of XML and JSON for data representation, the best example of such a library is TNT which Sun released in 1989. Sun also shipped an earlier Lite toolkit intended for example purposes, although adoption was never widespread, several companies licensed NeWS and adapted it for various uses. SGI used a version of it named 4Sight to replace their proprietary MEX windowing system, grasshopper Group created a Macintosh port called MacNeWS
3.
News style
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Template, Menz Room spa News style, journalistic style or news writing style is the prose style used for news reporting in media such as newspapers, radio and television. News style encompasses not only vocabulary and sentence structure, but also the way in which present the information in terms of relative importance, tone. The tense used for news style articles is past tense, News writing attempts to answer all the basic questions about any particular event—who, what, when, where and why and also often how—at the opening of the article. This form of structure is called the inverted pyramid, to refer to the decreasing importance of information in subsequent paragraphs. News stories also contain at least one of the important characteristics relative to the intended audience, proximity, prominence, timeliness, human interest, oddity. The related term journalese is sometimes used, usually pejoratively, to refer to news-style writing, newspapers generally adhere to an expository writing style. Over time and place, journalism ethics and standards have varied in the degree of objectivity or sensationalism they incorporate, definitions of professionalism differ among news agencies, their reputations, according to both professional standards and reader expectations, are often tied to the appearance of objectivity. In its most ideal form, news writing strives to be intelligible to the majority of readers, engaging, within these limits, news stories also aim to be comprehensive. However, other factors are involved, some stylistic and some derived from the media form, among the larger and more respected newspapers, fairness and balance is a major factor in presenting information. Commentary is usually confined to a section, though each paper may have a different overall slant. Editorial policies dictate the use of adjectives, euphemisms, and idioms, newspapers with an international audience, for example, tend to use a more formal style of writing. The specific choices made by a news editor or editorial board are often collected in a style guide, common style guides include the AP Stylebook. The main goals of news writing can be summarized by the ABCs of journalism, accuracy, brevity, journalistic prose is explicit and precise and tries not to rely on jargon. As a rule, journalists will not use a word when a short one will do. They use subject-verb-object construction and vivid, active prose and they offer anecdotes, examples and metaphors, and they rarely depend on generalizations or abstract ideas. News writers try to avoid using the word more than once in a paragraph. A short, catchy word or phrase over a major headline, the headline of a story is typically a complete sentence, often with auxiliary verbs and articles removed. However, headlines sometimes omit the subject or verb, a subhead can be either a subordinate title under the main headline, or the heading of a subsection of the article
4.
Journalism ethics and standards
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Numerous guidelines exist regarding how journalists and the agencies they work for should do their jobs in an ethical manner. The principles of Journalistic codes of ethics are designed as guides through numerous difficulties, such as conflicts of interest, the codes and canons provide journalists a framework for self-monitoring and self-correction. The written codes and practical standards vary somewhat from country to country and organization to organization, the International Federation of Journalists launched a global Ethical Journalism Initiative in 2008 aimed at strengthening awareness of these issues within professional bodies. In 2013 the Ethical Journalism Network was founded by former IFJ General Secretary Aidan White and this coalition of international and regional media associations and journalism support groups campaigns for ethics, good governance and self-regulation across all platforms of media. One of the voices in the U. S. on the subject of Journalistic Standards. The Preamble to its Code of Ethics states. public enlightenment is the forerunner of justice, the duty of the journalist is to further those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. Conscientious journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with thoroughness, Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalists credibility. The primary themes common to most codes of journalistic standards and ethics are the following, reporters are expected to be as accurate as possible given the time allotted to story preparation and the space available, and to seek reliable sources. Events with an eyewitness are reported with attribution. Events with two or more independent eyewitnesses may be reported as fact, controversial facts are reported with attribution. Independent fact-checking by another employee of the publisher is desirable, corrections are published when errors are discovered. Defendants at trial are treated only as having committed crimes, until conviction. Reporting the truth is almost never libel, which makes accuracy very important, private persons have privacy rights that must be balanced against the public interest in reporting information about them. Public figures have fewer rights in U. S. law. In Canada, there is no immunity, reports on public figures must be backed by facts. Publishers vigorously defend libel lawsuits filed against their reporters, usually covered by libel insurance and this principle of limitation means that some weight needs to be given to the negative consequences of full disclosure, creating a practical and ethical dilemma. The Society of Professional Journalists code of ethics offers the following advice, quoting directly, Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage. Use special sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects, be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those affected by tragedy or grief
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Journalistic objectivity
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Journalistic objectivity is a significant principle of journalistic professionalism. Journalistic objectivity can refer to fairness, disinterestedness, factuality, and nonpartisanship and that is, they do not provide separate feeds for conservative or liberal newspapers. Journalist Jonathan Fenby has explained the philosophy, to achieve such wide acceptability, demonstrably correct information is their stock in trade. Traditionally, they report at a level of responsibility, attributing their information to a spokesman. They avoid making judgments and steer clear of doubt and ambiguity, though their founders did not use the word, objectivity is the philosophical basis for their enterprises – or failing that, widely acceptable neutrality. Journalism needs to be objective, accurate and investigative in the way it presents information. This objectivity in journalism helps the audience to make up their own mind about a story, there is a necessity for reporters to present the honesty regarding the facts instead of always reporting information in an honest format. In addition, to maintain objectivity in journalism, journalists need to present the facts whether or not they like or agree with those facts, objective journalism needs to remain neutral and unbiased regardless of the writers opinion or personal beliefs. The modern notion of objectivity in journalism is largely due to the work of Walter Lippmann, Lippmann was the first to widely call for journalists to use the scientific method for gathering information. Lippmann called for journalistic objectivity after the excesses of Yellow journalism and he noted that the yellows at the time had served their purpose, but that the people needed to receive the actual news, and not a romanticized version of it. Journalistic objectivity requires that a journalist not be on side of an argument. The journalist must report only the facts and not an attitude toward the facts. Sociologist Michael Schudson argues that the belief in objectivity is a faith in facts, a distrust in values, and it does not refer to the prevailing ideology of newsgathering and reporting that emphasizes eyewitness accounts of events, corroboration of facts with multiple sources and balance of viewpoints. It also implies a role for journalists as a fourth estate. Media critics such as Edward S. News stories of the often described with detachment the hanging. Under the regimen of objectivity, news writers often attempted to balance these accounts by recounting the alleged transgressions of the victims that provoked the lynch mobs to fury, mindich argues that this may have had the effect of normalizing the practice of lynching. Historical factors have also shaped objectivity in journalism, as acknowledged and addressed in peace journalism and these are particularly relevant with regard to the large proportion of journalism about conflict. As noted below, with the growth of media, especially from the nineteenth century
6.
News values
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News values, sometimes called news criteria, determine how much prominence a news story is given by a media outlet, and the attention it is given by the audience. A. Boyd states that, News journalism has an agreed set of values. News values are not universal and can vary widely between different cultures, some of these factors are listed below, together with others put forward by Schlesinger and Bell. According to Ryan, there is no end to lists of news criteria, Galtung and Ruge, in their seminal study in the area put forward a system of twelve factors describing events that together are used as a definition of newsworthiness. Focusing on newspapers and broadcast news, Galtung and Ruge devised a list describing what they believed were significant contributing factors as to how the news is constructed. Their theory argues that the more an event accessed these criteria the more likely it was to be reported on in a newspaper, in 2001, this 1965 study was updated by Tony Harcup and Deirdre ONeill, in a study of the British press. Forty years on, they found some differences, including the rise of celebrity news values. A variety of external and internal pressures influence journalists decisions on which stories are covered, how issues are interpreted and these pressures can sometimes lead to bias or unethical reporting. Achieving relevance, giving audiences the news they want and find interesting, is an important goal for media outlets seeking to maintain market share in a rapidly evolving market. This has made news organizations more open to input and feedback. Given these changes and the rise of digital technology in recent years, Harcup. Frequency, Events that occur suddenly and fit well with the news organizations schedule are more likely to be reported than those that occur gradually or at inconvenient times of day or night, long-term trends are not likely to receive much coverage. Familiarity, To do with people or places close to home, negativity, Bad news is more newsworthy than good news. Unexpectedness, If an event is out of the ordinary it will have an effect than something that is an everyday occurrence. Personalization, Events that can be portrayed as the actions of individuals will be attractive than one in which there is no such human interest. Meaningfulness, This relates to the sense of identification the audience has with the topic, reference to elite nations, Stories concerned with global powers receive more attention than those concerned with less influential nations. Reference to elite persons, Stories concerned with the rich, powerful, conflict, Opposition of people or forces resulting in a dramatic effect. Stories with conflict are often quite newsworthy, consonance, Stories that fit with the medias expectations receive more coverage than those that defy them
7.
Source (journalism)
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In journalism, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives timely information. Outside journalism, sources are known as news sources. According to Shoemaker and McQuail, there are a multitude of factors that tend to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists, reporters are expected to develop and cultivate sources, especially if they regularly cover a specific topic, known as a beat. Beat reporters must, however, be cautious of becoming too close to their sources, reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience. For example, sometimes a person will say they dont want to talk, journalists are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical as per the saying If your mother says she loves you, check it out. Popularized by the City News Bureau of Chicago, as a rule of thumb, but especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources. Even if they cannot report certain information directly, journalists can use off the information to uncover related facts. This is especially useful in investigative journalism, information about a surprise event or breaking news, whether on or off the record, is known as a tip-off. Information that leads to the uncovering of more interesting information is called a lead, the identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organizations lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, the use of anonymous sources has always been controversial. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the way to obtain certain information. News organizations may impose safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by a second source before it can be printed, nonetheless, prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes proven to be incorrect. For instance, much of the O. J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate. Newsweek retracted a story about a Quran being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East, the Los Angeles Times retracted an article that implicated Sean Diddy Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur. The original article was based on documents and several unnamed sources, when reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that one of the sources was named. After the embarrassment, an organization will often clamp down on the guidelines for using unnamed sources. One study found that large newspapers use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004, the Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004. As long as the interview is not confidential, the reporter may report the information given by the source and this often shows up in broadcasts as John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said or simply a spokesperson said
8.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
9.
Journalism school
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A journalism school is a school or department, usually part of an established university, where journalists are trained. An increasingly used term for a department, school or college is J-School. Many of the most famous and respected journalists of the past and present had no training in journalism. However, this has changed over the last ten years with journalism training, there are now over 60 universities in the UK offering BA honours degrees in journalism. Postgraduate courses are more well-established, some of which are recognised by the National Union of Journalists or the National Council for the Training of Journalists. Several universities claim to have established the worlds first journalism school, contenders include the University of Missouri, Columbia University, Washington and Lee University and the Ecole Superieure de Journalisme in Paris, France founded in 1899. Most training from the mid-20th Century was run by the National Council for the Training of Journalists, there have been various attempts to rank journalism schools, and the question of which are the best or top journalism schools is frequently raised on the internet by students. Many institutions claim to be leading schools of journalism, and there is debate about which are the most appropriate criteria with which to evaluate. In 2007 the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization named what it terms the Potential Centres of Excellence in Journalism Training in Africa, after thorough research there were twelve journalism and media training institutions named on the list and they were not placed in any order. UNESC0s list is not exhaustive, and new schools have been founded since the study was conducted, in Australia, a ranking of journalism schools has been assembled based on graduating students assessments of the quality of their courses. Figures indicated 100 percent satisfaction among students at Bond University and Jschool, and 85 percent among students at the Universities of Canberra, Newcastle and the Sunshine Coast. Employment rates are mixed, with an estimated 20 percent of university journalism graduates achieving journalism positions in the media, the New Zealand Training Organisation has published a list of New Zealands journalism schools recognised by industry. The New Zealand Institute of Business Studies has been teaching Freelance Journalism & Non-Fiction Writing for more than 20 years, Training is less academic-focused and more income-earning focused. Graduates are given a fortnightly list of job vacancies. Of City University Londons Journalism Department The Independent commented that Citys postgraduate courses had rightly accrued legendary status within the media, former Guardian editor Peter Preston wrote, Whats the passport to journalism. Citys faculty include Professors George Brock and Roy Greenslade, alumni include Sophie Raworth of the BBC, Skys Dermot Murnaghan and Channel 4 News Economics Editor Faisal Islam. Another well-established course is the highly regarded School of Journalism, Media, the course was also the UKs top-rated course by the National Council for the Training of Journalists for the academic year 2007/8. The University of Kents Centre for Journalism was established with Professor Tim Luckhurst as the first head, the Centre runs both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees that are accredited by the National Council for the Training of Journalists. and the Broadcast Journalism Training Council
10.
Business journalism
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Business journalism is the branch of journalism that tracks, records, analyzes and interprets the business, economic and financial activities and changes that take place in a society. Topics widely cover the entire purview of all activity related to a nations economy. This area of journalism covers news and features articles about people, most newspapers, magazines, radio, and television news shows carry a business segment. However, detailed and in business journalism can be found in publications, radio. Business journalism began as early as the Middle Ages, to help well-known trading families communicate with each other, in 1882 Charles Dow, Edward Jones and Charles Bergstresser began a wire service that delivered news to investment houses along Wall Street. And in 1889 The Wall Street Journal began publishing, Business coverage gained prominence in the 1990s, with wider investment in the stock market. Journalists who work in this class as business journalists. Their main purpose is gathering information about current events in the life of the country. They may also cover processes, trends, consequences, and important people, in business, Business journalism, although common in most industrialized countries, has a very limited role in third-world and developing countries. This leaves citizens of countries in a very disadvantaged position locally and internationally. Recent efforts to bring business media to these countries have proven to be worthwhile, gerald Loeb Award Forbes Financial Times Nihon Keizai Shinbun Weekend City Press Review weekend Weinberg, Steve. Taking on the Trust, The Epic Battle of Ida Tarbell, profits and Losses, Business Journalism and its Role in Society, Roush, Chris,2010. ISBN 978-1936863181 Show me the Money, Writing Business and Economics Stories for Mass Communication, Roush, Chris,2016, Routledge, New York
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Data-driven journalism
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Main drivers for this process are newly available resources such as open source software, open access publishing and open data. This approach to journalism builds on older practices, most notably on CAR a label used mainly in the US for decades, data-driven journalism has an even wider approach. At the core the process builds on the availability of open data that is freely available online. Data-driven journalism strives to reach new levels of service for the public, helping consumers, managers, politicians to understand patterns, as such, data driven journalism might help to put journalists into a role relevant for society in a new way. This process can be extended to provide results that cater to individual interests. A more results driven definition comes from data reporter and web strategist Henk van Ess, a good data driven production has different layers. It allows you to find personalized details that are important for you, by drilling down to relevant details. Telling stories based on the data is the primary goal, the findings from data can be transformed into any form of journalistic writing. Visualizations can be used to create an understanding of a complex situation. Furthermore, elements of storytelling can be used to illustrate what the findings actually mean, in many investigations the data that can be found might have omissions or is misleading. As one layer of data-driven journalism a critical examination of the quality is important. In other cases the data might not be public or is not in the format for further analysis. Here the process of journalism can turn into stories about data quality or refusals to provide the data by institutions. As the practice as a whole is in early development steps, examinations of data sources, data sets, data quality and data format are therefore an equally important part of this work. Based on the perspective of looking deeper into facts and drivers of events, there is a change in media strategies. On the other hand, trust can be understood as a scarce resource, while distributing information is much easier and faster via the web, the abundance of offerings creates costs to verify and check the content of any story create an opportunity. The view to transform media companies into trusted data hubs has been described in an article cross-published in February 2011 on Owni. eu, the process to transform raw data into stories is akin to a refinement and transformation. The main goal is to extract information recipients can act upon, the task of a data journalist is to extract what is hidden
12.
Entertainment journalism
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Entertainment journalism is any form of journalism that focuses on the entertainment business and its products. Like fashion journalism, entertainment journalism covers industry-specific news while targeting general audiences beyond those working in the industry itself, common forms include television and film criticism, music journalism, video game journalism, and celebrity coverage. The rise of the Internet allowed many amateur and semi-professional journalists to start their own blogs relating to Entertainment journalism, News Journalism deals with information of current events or reports of events that have previously occurred. The main purpose of this type of journalism is to inform, Entertainment Journalism deals with information of the entertainment industry such as films, music, fashion, video games, etc. The main purpose of this type of journalism is to entertain, journalists can skew facts in a particular matter that cause their story to come across as entertainment. This action can have an effect on the consumer, making the authenticity of the report questionable. Cases of this problem happing can occur in News Articles, Magazines, a review or analysis of a motion picture released to the public. The critics review or analysis is subjective and informative, with a focus to inform, film criticism is considered to have had a major impact on the integration of the cinema into mainstream media. It is stated that film criticism wasnt fully accepted as an art film was widely accepted in the 1960s. The Internet has further advanced the acceptance of this entertainment journalism with the introduction of film blogs, some popular film review sites and blogs include Rotten Tomatoes, IMBD, and Metacritic. For more information on this topic check out its Wikipedia page, a form of journalism that covers all aspects of the video game industry. The birth of the age in the 1990s forced media companies to release content that would attract consumers in the video game generation. Visually stimulating print magazines were introduced into the market, covering the game industry. Some popular video game sites and pint based magazines include IGN, Game Informer, Nintendo Power. For more information on this topic check out its Wikipedia page, infotainment Journal of Religion and Theatre
13.
Environmental journalism
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Environmental journalism falls within the scope of environmental communication, and its roots can be traced to nature writing. One key controversy in journalism is a continuing disagreement over how to distinguish it from its allied genres and disciplines. The mass media has followed and generated public interest on environmental issues ever since. ”Today, academic programs are offered at a number of institutions to train budding journalists in the rigors, complexity, there exists a minor rift in the community of environmental journalists. Environmental communication is all of the forms of communication that are engaged with the debate about environmental issues. Also within the scope of communication are the genres of nature writing, science writing, environmental literature, environmental interpretation. While there is a deal of overlap among the various genres within environmental communication. Nature writing is the genre with the longest history in environmental communication, in his book, This Incomparable Land, A Guide to American Nature Writing, Thomas J. Lyon attempts to use a “taxonomy of nature writing” in order to define the genre. He suggests that his classifications, too, suffer a great deal of overlap, “The literature of nature has three main dimensions to it, natural history information, personal responses to nature, and philosophical interpretation of nature”. In the natural history essay, “the main burden of the writing is to convey pointed instruction in the facts of nature, “In essays of experience, the author’s firsthand contact with nature is the frame for the writing, ” as with Edward Abbey’s contemplation of a desert sunset. Environmental journalism pulls from the tradition and scope of nature writing and this genre can be narrative or informative. Not all science writing falls within the bounds of environmental communication, Environmental journalism also pulls from the tradition and scope of science writing. Environmental interpretation is a format for the communication of relevant information. It “involves translating the language of a natural science or related field into terms. And it involves doing it in a way that’s entertaining and interesting to these people”, Environmental interpretation is pleasurable, relevant, organized and thematic. While environmental journalism is not derived from environmental interpretation, it can employ interpretive techniques to explain concepts to its audience. Environmental literature is writing that comments intelligently on environmental themes, particularly as applied to the relationships between man, society and the environment, most nature writing and some science writing falls within the scope of environmental literature. Often, environmental literature is understood to espouse care and concern for the environment, thus advocating a more thoughtful, Environmental advocacy can be present in any of the aforementioned genres of environmental communication. It is currently debated whether environmental journalism should employ techniques of environmental advocacy, the field of environmental journalism covers a wide variety of topics
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Fashion journalism
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Fashion journalism involves all aspects of published fashion media, including fashion writers, fashion critics, and fashion reporters. This can be fashion features in magazines and newspapers, and may also include books about fashion, fashion related reports on television and online magazines, websites. The work of a fashion journalist can be quite varied, typical work includes writing or editing articles, or helping to formulate and style a fashion shoot. Fashion journalists are either employed full-time by a publication or are employed on a freelance basis, a fashion website named Fashion Net was started in 1995. It was soon followed by American Fashion Mall and French ELLE, Fashion Live produced Internets first live fashion webcast of Yves Saint Laurents runway show in 1996. CNN Style and Hint Magazine arrived in 1998, the following year saw the rise and fall of Boo. com as the company burned through $135 million in 18 months. Style. com, the umbrella for Vogue and W. Style. com is not a journalistic website but a resource to show the collections of selected fashion shows each season. Following a tiff in 2007, W left Style. com making it the home for Vogue alone. In late 2000, Beauty Flow magazine flourished with exclusive content for editorials, portraits, and reports. The work of a fashion journalist has been depicted in such as The Devil Wears Prada, Confessions of a Shopaholic. Fashion journalism is only now becoming a subject of academic interest, with the rise of social media, cross-platform content production, and democratization of fashion around the world - interest in the study of fashion journalism is rising quickly. Robin Givhan is the fashion journalist to win The Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. Fashion editor List of fashion magazines
15.
Medical journalism
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Medical journalism is the dissemination of health-related information through mainstream media outlets. Medical issues are reported, and these reports influence physicians, the general public. The coverage is often criticized for being misleading, inaccurate, or speculative, several web sites and journals review medical journalism. The availability of health information steadily increases every year and has led to a variety of effect in the behaviors of recipients, most news articles fail to discuss important issues such as evidence quality, costs, and risks versus benefits. However, medical journalism is not only what is being commercialized and covered by news, there is also another extensive, more academic branch of medical journalism which is based on evidence. Evidence-based research is accurate and thus it is a much more reliable source than medical news disseminated by tabloids. Medical journalism in this regard is a field and is often disregarded. There are also some medical institutions that provide assistance to medical researchers to enable them to perform more reliable studies. A2009 study found small improvements in areas of medical reporting in Australia. More recently, the use of medical writers has become popular as a way to produce medical literature that is clear, concise. The ICMJE, International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, is a committee that deals with this kind of issue. This organization is committed to keeping medical reporting as true as possible by setting a standard known as URM and these requirements do not only specify technical points such as bibliographical references and copyrights but also regarding ethical issues that may arise. For example, a submitter must disclose any personal or professional relationships that might even slightly have a bearing on the submitted work. To this end, it is not uncommon for researchers to hold a conference or interviews before publishing significant research to prevent any misconstruing of any data or methods. A large gap divides the scientific and journalist communities when it comes to deciding what is newsworthy, the ongoing nature of peer review in the scientific community makes it difficult to report interesting advances in scientific discovery. Consequently, this can create a focus on the aspects of medicine and science. However, journalists are not the ones to fault as scientists have also broadcast their promising initial research to the media in attempts to secure future funding. For example, research done by George Washington University in 1993 on in-vitro fertilization was warped by the media into a horrific foray into human cloning, Medical journalists also face challenges due to potential conflicts of interest
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Political journalism
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Political journalism aims to provide voters with the information to formulate their own opinion and participate in community, local or national matters that will affect them. According to Edward Morrissey in an article from theweek. com, political journalism frequently includes opinion journalism. The information provided includes facts, its perspective is subjective and leans towards one viewpoint, brendan Nyhan and John Sides argue that Political journalists who report on politics are frequently unfamiliar with political science research or question its relevance to their work. Journalists covering politics who are unfamiliar with information that would provide context to their stories can enable the story to take a different spin on what is being reported, Political journalism is provided through different mediums, in print, broadcast, or online reporting. Digital media use has increased and it provides instant coverage of campaign, politics, event news, media outlets known for their solid political journalism like The New York Times and the Washington Post, have increased their use of this medium as well. Printed, online, and broadcast political humor presented as entertainment has been used to provide updates on aspects of government status, political news, campaign, and election updates. According to Geoffrey Baym, the information provided may not be considered fake news and this type of journalism is analyzed, interpreted, and discussed by news media pundits and editorialists. It can lack objectivity which can prevent the accuracy of the presented information, the reporting of news with a bias view point can also take away the audiences ability to form their own opinion or beliefs of what has been reported. This type of reporting is subjective with a social or political purpose. Election journalism or electoral journalism is a subgenre of political journalism which focuses upon and analyzes developments related to an approximate election and this type of journalism provides information to the electorate that can educate and help form opinion that empowers a specific vote. It provides knowledge that may make the presented news hold more relevance, information added to the reports are of campaign statuses and political events. A politicians strategy can be exaggerated or provided without context or historical perspective, trends on each party candidate are reported and at times compared to previous party candidates. The news on the status of the elections, like other political reportings, are provided in different mediums, the election report coverage has taken full advantage of the digital era in providing instant access to news. Defense journalism or military journalism is a subgenre which focuses upon the current status of a military, intelligence. Interest in defense journalism tends to increase during times of violent conflict, during the course of military journalism, news reporters are sometimes assigned to military units to report news taking place in areas of conflict. The term embedded journalism was used when the media was involved in the reporting of the war in Iraq, embedded journalism can also be biased because it is one sided. Information reported has been collected from the area the journalist has been stationed with the possibility to lean towards the agenda of the group they have assigned to. This subgenre of political journalism is also applied to media coming from journalists embedded in a campaign or candidate
17.
Science journalism
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Science journalism conveys reporting about science to the public. The field typically involves interactions between scientists, journalists, and the public, science values detail, precision, the impersonal, the technical, the lasting, facts, numbers and being right. Journalism values brevity, approximation, the personal, the colloquial, there are going to be tensions. One way science journalism can achieve this is by avoiding an information model of communication. This model assumes a top-down, one-way direction of communicating information that limits an open dialogue between knowledge holders and the public, science journalists often have training in the scientific disciplines that they cover. Some have earned a degree in a field before becoming journalists or exhibited talent in writing about science subjects. However, good preparation for interviews and even simple questions such as What does this mean to the people on the street. Can often help a science journalist develop material that is useful for the intended audience, with budget cuts at major newspapers and other media, there are fewer working science journalists working for traditional print and broadcast media than before. Similarly, there are very few journalists in traditional media outlets that write multiple articles on emerging science. In 2011, there were 459 journalists who had written an article covering nanotechnology. When the data was narrowed down to those journalists who wrote about the more than 25 times in the year. In April 2012, the New York Times was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for content published by Politico and The Huffington Post, both online sources - a sign of the shift by the media outlet. New communication environments provide essentially unlimited information on a number of issues. The web also offers opportunities for citizens to connect with others through social media, science writers today have the opportunity to communicate not just with their audience but globally. ”Blog-based science reporting is filling in to some degree, but has problems of its own. In 2015, John Bohannon produced a bad study to see how a low-quality open access publisher. He worked with a film-maker Peter Onneken who was making a film about junk science in the industry with fad diets becoming headline news despite terrible study design. He invented a fake diet institute that lacks even a website, and used the pen name, Johannes Bohannon, science journalists regularly come under criticism for misleading reporting of scientific stories. All three groups of scientists, journalists, and the public often criticize science journalism for bias, however, with the increasing collaborations online between science journalists there may be potential with removing inaccuracies
18.
Sports journalism
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Sports journalism is a form of writing that reports on sporting topics and competitions. Sports journalism is an element of many news media organizations. com, Foxsports. com. Major League Baseball gave print journalists a special role in its games and they were named official scorers and kept statistics that were considered part of the official record of the league. Active sportswriters were removed from this role in 1980, Sports stories occasionally transcend the games themselves and take on socio-political significance, Jackie Robinson breaking the color barrier in baseball is an example of this. Sportswriters regularly face more deadline pressure than other reporters because sporting events tend to occur late in the day, yet they are expected to use the same tools as news journalists, and to uphold the same professional and ethical standards. They must take care not to show bias for any team, andrew Warwick has suggested that The Boat Race provided the first mass spectator event for journalistic coverage. The Race, a rowing event between the University of Cambridge and University of Oxford, has been held annually from 1856. Cricket, possibly because of its place in society, has regularly attracted the most elegant of writers. The Manchester Guardian, in the first half of the 20th century, Cardus was later knighted for his services to journalism. One of his successors, John Arlott, who became a favorite because of his radio commentaries on the BBC, was also known for his poetry. The first London Olympic Games in 1908 attracted such public interest that many newspapers assigned their very best-known writers to the event. The Daily Mail even had Sir Arthur Conan Doyle at the White City Stadium to cover the finish of the Marathon, the rise of the radio made sports journalism more focused on the live coverage of the sporting events. The Tour de France was born, and sports journalisms role in its foundation is still reflected today in the leading rider wearing a yellow jersey - the color of the paper on which LAuto was published. Some such ghosted columns, however, did little to further the reputation of sports journalism and these agencies included Pardons, or the Cricket Reporting Agency, which routinely provided the editors of the Wisden cricket almanac, and Hayters. Sportswriting in Britain has attracted some of the finest journalistic talents, mcIlvanney and Wooldridge, who died in March 2007, aged 75, both enjoyed careers that saw them frequently work in television. Glanville wrote several books, including novels, as well as scripting the memorable official film to the 1966 World Cup staged in England, one of the reasons cited was that the BBC had been too critical of the performances of the England football team. Increasingly, sports journalists have turned to writing, producing popular books on a range of sporting topics, including biographies, history. Dan Topolski was the first recipient of the William Hill Sports Book of the Year award in 1989, most countries have their own national association of sports journalists
19.
Technology journalism
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As a job function, technology journalists write for consumers who are interested in things like smartphone, tablets, gaming consoles. The other part of journalism is enterprise technology, which talks about how businesses leverage new technologies for business gains. Technology journalists usually interviews experts on various fields like mobility, analytics, cloud computing, open source, etc. the Verge VentureBeat Environmental journalism Frontiers of Science Popular Science Public awareness of science Scientific literature Electronics For You
20.
Traffic reporting
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Traffic reporting is the near real-time distribution of information about road conditions such as traffic congestion, detours, and traffic collisions. The reports help drivers anticipate and avoid traffic problems, Traffic reports, especially in cities, may also report on major delays to mass transit that does not necessarily involve roads. In addition to periodic broadcast reports, traffic information can be transmitted to GPS units, smartphones, there are several methods in use today to gather traffic speed and incident info, ranging from professional reporters, to GPS crowdcrowding to combinations of both methods. Google Traffic works by crowdsourcing the GPS information from phone users, by calculating the speed of users along a stretch of road, Google is able to generate a live traffic map. Its subsidiary, Waze, also allows users to report directly via a smartphone app, TomTom Traffic uses crowd-sourced data from mobile phone users, along with data from traditional sources such as induction loops and traffic cameras. Some radio stations have agreements with states highway patrol that permit a connection with a law enforcement computer. This enables real-time information gathering of the latest accident reports to highway patrol divisions, many areas have helicopters to overfly accident scenes and other areas of high traffic volume. For example, by the company Global Traffic Network, Traffic cameras GPS units Smartphones Radio via voice RDS, and TA Electronic road signs 5-1-1 traffic information phone line or similar. Television and web INRIX develops and distributes INRIX Traffic, a mobile application. NAVTEQ provides data used in a range of applications, including automotive navigation systems for many car makers. Most clients use Navteq to provide traffic reports in major metropolitan areas throughout North America, NAVTEQ partners with third-party agencies and companies to provide its services for portable GPS devices made by Garmin, Lowrance, NDrive and web-based applications such as Yahoo. Maps, Bing Maps, and Nokia Maps, XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio use NAVTEQ data to show traffic information on navigation systems. Tele Atlas, a subsidiary of TomTom
21.
Weather forecasting
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Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, hence, forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error, there are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life, forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days, on an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by rain, snow and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events. In 2014, the US spent $5.1 billion on weather forecasting, for millennia people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC, the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology, in about 340 BC, Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs, chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC, which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events, also termed pattern recognition. For example, it might be observed if the sunset was particularly red. This experience accumulated over the generations to produce weather lore, however, not all of these predictions prove reliable, and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing. It was not until the invention of the telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before that, the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 100 miles per day, the two men credited with the birth of forecasting as a science were officer of the Royal Navy Francis Beaufort and his protégé Robert FitzRoy. Beaufort developed the Wind Force Scale and Weather Notation coding, which he was to use in his journals for the remainder of his life. He also promoted the development of reliable tide tables around British shores, Robert FitzRoy was appointed in 1854 as chief of a new department within the Board of Trade to deal with the collection of weather data at sea as a service to mariners. This was the forerunner of the modern Meteorological Office, all ship captains were tasked with collating data on the weather and computing it, with the use of tested instruments that were loaned for this purpose. Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times leading to the first gale warning service and his warning service for shipping was initiated in February 1861, with the use of telegraph communications
22.
World news
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World news or international news or even foreign coverage is the news media jargon for news from abroad, about a country or a global subject. Although in most of the English-speaking world this field is not usually regarded as a specialization for journalists. Since these papers were aimed at bankers and merchants, they brought news from other markets. In any case, it is worthy to remark that nation-states were still incipient in 17th-century Europe, the first news agencies were then founded, like AFP, Reuters, Wolff and the AP. War journalism is one of the best known subfields of world news, there are essentially two types of reporters who do foreign reporting, the foreign correspondent and the special envoy. The correspondent is a reporter based in a city covering a region. He or she regularly files stories to the news editor, he/she gathers materials for these stories from local officials, members of the community, and the local media, as well as from events he/she directly witnesses. The number of correspondents has dropped significantly over the past 20 years or more. Often, a company is either uninterested or unable to afford to support a single correspondent. In some places, they cannot obtain visas due to political constraints, in recent years, the drop in foreign correspondents has been due to cutbacks within media companies. Since they have no salary, stringers usually produce material for different companies at once. A news agency is an organization of journalists established to supply news reports to news organizations, newspapers, magazines, such an agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire or news service. The bulk of major news agency services contains foreign news and they provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services. Corporations, individuals, analysts and intelligence agencies may also subscribe, world News Global news flow Afghanistanism Clausen, L. Copenhagen Business School Press DK Desmond, R. W, arno Press Friedland, L. A. Covering the world, international television news services, essay. Ginneken, J. Understanding global news, a critical introduction, the world news prism, global media in an era of terrorism. Iowa State Press Malek, A. Kavoori, A. P, the global dynamics of news, studies in international news coverage and news agenda. Sreberny, A. ed. International news in the 21st century, john Libbey Pub. for University of Luton Press Richstad, J. Anderson, M. H
23.
Advocacy journalism
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Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that intentionally and transparently adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose. Because it is intended to be factual, it is distinguished from propaganda and it is also distinct from instances of media bias and failures of objectivity in media outlets, since the bias is intended. Traditionally, advocacy and criticism are restricted to editorial and op-ed pages, news reports are intended to be objective and unbiased. In contrast, advocacy journalists have an opinion about the story they are writing and this may be evident in small ways, such as tone or facial expression, or large ways, such as the selection of facts and opinions presented. Some advocacy journalists reject that the ideal of objectivity is possible in practice, either generally. One writer for the alternative journalism collaborative, the Independent Media Center, writes the following in a call to action and these are antiquated principles no longer universally observed. We must absolutely not feel bound by them, if we are ever to create meaningful change, advocacy journalism will be the single most crucial element to enable the necessary organizing. It is therefore important that we learn how to be successful advocacy journalists. For many, this will require a different way of identifying and pursuing goals, explore arguments that challenge your perspective, and report embarrassing facts that support the opposition. Ask critical questions of people who agree with you, instead, articulate complex issues clearly and carefully. Make use of sources to establish facts. Sue Careless also criticized the media for unbalanced and politically biased coverage, for economic conflicts of interest. She said that alternative publications have advantages in independence, focus, and access, the Crisis, the official magazine of the NAACP, was founded in 1910. Muckrakers are often claimed as the ancestors of modern advocacy journalists, for example, Nellie Bly, Ida M. Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens, Upton Sinclair, George Seldes. French newspapers Libération, Charlie Hebdo, Le Canard Enchaîné and LHumanité all recuse what they consider pseudo-objective journalism for an explicitly political stance on events. They oppose Le Monde neutral style, which doesnt impede it, according to those critics, on the other side, a newspaper like Le Figaro clearly assumes its conservative stance and pool of readers. Advocacy journalists may reject the principle of objectivity in their work for different reasons. This is not necessarily a rejection of the existence of an objective reality and this may sound like a radical idea, but many mainstream journalists accept the philosophical idea that pure objectivity is impossible, but still seek to minimize bias in their work
24.
Analytic journalism
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Analytic journalism is a field of journalism that seeks to make sense of complex reality in order to create public understanding. It combines aspects of journalism and explanatory reporting. Analytic journalism can be seen as a response to professionalized communication from powerful agents, information overload and it aims to create evidence-based interpretations of reality, often confronting dominant ways of understanding a specific phenomenon. It is distinctive in terms of practices and journalistic product. At times, it uses methods from social science research, the journalist gains expertise on a particular topic, to identify a phenomenon that is not readily obvious. At its best, investigative journalism is deeply analytic, but its intent is primarily to expose, Analytic journalisms primary aim is to explain. It contextualizes its subject by describing background, historical details and statistical data, the goal is a comprehensive explanation that shapes audience perception of the phenomenon. Analytic journalism aspires to collect data and make connections that are not immediately apparent. Its effectiveness is often in the analysis between the rather than the facts themselves and is critically engaged with other arguments and explanations. In this way, analytic journalists attempt to give an understanding of an issue. Analytic journalism often applies the method of testing and retesting of hypotheses against the evidence. Assumptions are systematically tested by verifying, affirming, and altering hypotheses, Analytic journalists attempt to construct new frames or angles that reconfigure understanding. They help bring the background into the foreground and. making it available for conversation. The legitimacy of the voice is created by the coherent assembly of facts. Analytic journalism, on the hand, seeks to take the data available and reconfigure it. Only in our role as ‘explainer’, as storyteller, do appear to have a reasonable secure position. To ‘explain’, they have to more than ‘report’… what a Prime minister or a general has to say, while investigative journalism aims at exposing, analytic journalism aims at explaining. Analytic journalism focuses on creating meaning out of information that may not be hidden, Analytic journalism incorporates different journalistic approaches, strategies, and genres
25.
Blog
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A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. Posts are typically displayed in chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of an individual, occasionally of a small group. In the 2010s, multi-author blogs have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors, MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter and other microblogging systems helps integrate MABs, Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive Web 2.0 websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, in that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, however, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal online diaries, and others function more as online brand advertising of an individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to blogs, web pages. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs, however, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. Most blogs are primarily textual, although focus on art, photographs, videos, music. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources and these blogs are referred to as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts, on 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million WordPress blogs in existence worldwide, according to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics, Technorati lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22,2014. The term weblog was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997, the short form, blog, was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme. com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used blog as both a noun and verb and devised the term blogger in connection with Pyra Labs Blogger product, in the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running conversations with threads
26.
Broadcast journalism
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Broadcast journalism is the field of news and journals which are broadcast, that is, published by electrical methods instead of the older methods, such as printed newspapers and posters. Broadcast methods include radio, television and the World Wide Web, such media disperse pictures, visual text and sounds. Scripts for broadcast tend to be written differently from text to be read by the public, for instance, the former is generally less complex and more conversational. Radio and television are designed to be seen and heard sooner, Broadcast articles can be written as packages, readers, voice-overs and sound on tape. A sack is a set of video clips for a news story and is common on television. It is typically narrated by a reporter and it is a story with audio, video, graphics and video effects. The news anchor, or presenter, usually reads a lead-in before the package is aired and may conclude the story with additional information, a reader is an article read without accompanying video or sound. Sometimes an over the shoulder digital on-screen graphic is added, a voice-over, or VO, is a video article narrated by the anchor. Sound on tape, or SOT, is sound or video usually recorded in the field and it is usually an interview or soundbite. Radio was the first medium for broadcast journalism, many of the first radio stations were co-operative community radio ventures not making a profit. Later, radio advertising to pay for programs was pioneered in radio, later still, television displaced radio and newspapers as the main news sources for most of the public in industrialized countries. Some of the programming on radio is locally produced and some is broadcast by a network, for example. The talent talk to the audience, including reading the news, people tune in to hear engaging radio personalities, music, and information. In radio news, stories include speech soundbites, the sounds of events themselves. Some radio news might run for just four minutes, but contain 12–15 stories and these new bulletins must balance the desire for a broad overview of current events with the audiences limited capacity to focus on a large number of different stories. The radio industry has undergone a radical consolidation of ownership, with companies owning the thousands of stations. Large media conglomerates such as Clear Channel Communications own most of the stations in the United States. That has resulted in more niche formats and the sharing of resources within clusters of stations, de-emphasizing local news, there has been concern over whether this concentration serves the public
27.
Citizen journalism
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The concept of citizen journalism is based upon public citizens playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information. Jay Rosen proposes a simpler definition, When the people known as the audience employ the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another. Citizen journalism is not to be confused with community journalism or civic journalism, collaborative journalism is also a separate concept and is the practice of professional and non-professional journalists working together. Similarly, Social Journalism is a separate concept denoting a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non-professional journalism, Citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user-generated content. By juxtaposing the term citizen, with its attendant qualities of civic-mindedness and social responsibility, with that of journalism, recent advances in new media have started to have a profound political impact. Due to the availability of technology, citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters, critics of the phenomenon, including professional journalists, claim that citizen journalism is unregulated, too subjective, amateur, and haphazard in quality and coverage. Citizen journalism, as a form of media, presents a radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media. According to Terry Flew, there have been three elements critical to the rise of journalism, open publishing, collaborative editing. For example, you write about a city council meeting on your blog or in an online forum. Or you could fact-check a newspaper article from the mainstream media, or you might snap a digital photo of a newsworthy event happening in your town and post it online. Or you might videotape a similar event and post it on a such as YouTube. Some scholars have sought to extend the study of citizen journalism beyond the Western, developed world, including Sylvia Moretzsohn, Courtney C. Radsch, for example, wrote that Throughout the Arab world, citizen journalists have emerged as the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values. One criticism of the citizen journalism to describe this concept is that the word citizen has a conterminous relation to the nation-state. The fact that millions of people are considered stateless and often, are without citizenship limits the concept to those recognised only by governments. Some additional names given to the concept based on this analysis are, grassroots media, peoples media, criticisms have been made against citizen journalism, especially from among professionals in the field. Citizen journalists gather material by being on the streets and their tools can be narrowed down to a camera, social media and an instinct to start recording whenever something seems newsworthy or out of order. Much of their knowledge regarding the issues that are raised are obtained through their experience as a part of the community, the idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the United States
28.
Civic journalism
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Civic journalism is the idea of integrating journalism into the democratic process. The media not only informs the public, but it works towards engaging citizens. The civic journalism movement is an attempt to abandon the notion that journalists, in its place, the civic journalism movement seeks to treat readers and community members as participants. With a small but committed following, civic journalism has become as much of a philosophy as it is a practice. In the 1920s, before the notion of public journalism was developed, Lippmann viewed the role of the journalist to be simply recording what policy makers say and then providing that information to the public. In opposition to this, Dewey defined the role as being more engaged with the public. He thought journalists should weigh the consequences of the policies being enacted, Dewey believed conversation, debate, and dialogue were what democracy was all about and that journalism has an important piece of that conversation. Decades later Deweys argument was further explored by Jay Rosen and Davis Merritt, in 1993, Rosen and Merritt formed the concept of public journalism. According to the now dormant Pew Center for Civic Journalism, the practice is both a philosophy and a set of values supported by some evolving techniques to both of those in journalism. At its heart is a belief that journalism has an obligation to public life – an obligation that goes beyond just telling the news or unloading lots of facts, the way we do our journalism affects the way public life goes. Although they developed the concept of public journalism together, both Rosen and Merritt have differing viewpoints on what exactly public journalism is. Rosen explains five ways to understand public journalism, As an argument, as an experiment, a way of breaking out of established routines and making a different kind of contribution to public life. As a debate with often heated conversation within the press and with others outside it about the role of the press. As an adventure, an open-ended and experimental quest for another kind of press, Merritt, on the other hand, explains that it is the responsibility of the journalist to act as a fair-minded participant in the public arena. Ideally, the official impinges on the game, if things go according to the rules, yet the presence of a fair-minded participant is necessary in order for an equitable decision to be reached. What he or she brings to the arena is knowledge of the rules, the willingness to contribute that knowledge, and authority – that is. The referees role is to make sure that the works as the contestants agreed it should. In order to maintain authority, that right to be heard
29.
Collaborative journalism
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It is practiced by both professional and amateur reporters. Collaborative journalism involves the aggregation of information from individuals or organizations into a single news story. Information is gathered through research or reporting, or added when readers examine, comment, stories from the mainstream media are often built upon. Depending on the system of collaboration, individuals may also provide feedback or vote on whether an article is newsworthy, a single collaborative news story, therefore, may encompass multiple authors, varying articles, and ranged perspectives. Professional and amateur reporters may work together to develop collaborative news articles, collaborative journalists either contribute directly to stories, sometimes through a wiki-style collaboration platform, or build upon the story externally, often through personal blogs. Collaborative journalists develop or examine a story one piece at a time and this contrasts the deadline and completion-centered nature of traditional media. A story is built upon continually, and a story may receive daily updates. Through combined authorship, collaborative journalism is thought by some to offer an increased independence of thought, successful collaborative journalism projects require a participatory community with respect for content. Ross Mayfield, CEO of SocialText, has commented on wiki-style collaborative journalism, Most user-generated content isnt content, cultivating community is a decided practice. It boils down to the social contract you make with your readers-turned-writers, if they trust that their effort and words will be appropriated appropriately, while providing social incentives for participation, it can very well work. Collaborative journalism emerged through the internet in the early 2000s, as examples, Wikinews was founded in 2003, and NewsVine in 2005. The Panama Papers project may be the largest example of a consortium to date. It began sometime in 2015 when Bastian Obermayer, a reporter with the south German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung, was contacted by an anonymous source. Collaborative journalism is similar, but not identical, to interactive journalism, wiki journalism is a type of collaborative journalism. These links are meant to complement, enhance, or add context to the original reporting, jeff Jarvis, from the Graduate School of Journalisms new media program at the City University of New York, has said that link journalism creates a new architecture of news. Collaborative journalism has been implemented in different ways. Wikinews, the free-content online news source, lets any user edit or create a news story, several mainstream news sites have adopted a collaborative journalism approach toward news, through use of news aggregation. The Washington Post has developed a site which links to related content from other news sites
30.
Community journalism
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If it covers wider topics, community journalism concentrates on the effect they have on local readers. Community newspapers, often but not always publish weekly, and also tend to cover subjects larger news media do not. Some examples of topics are students on the roll at the local high school, school sports, crimes such as vandalism, zoning issues. However, such articles are sometimes dismissed as chicken dinner stories. Leo Lerner, founder of Chicagos erstwhile Lerner Newspapers, used to say, an increasing number of community newspapers are now owned by large media organizations, although many rural papers are still mom and pop operations. Most community journalists are professionally trained reporters and editors, some specialized training programs in community journalism have recently emerged at established undergraduate and graduate journalism programs. Community journalism should not be confused with the work of citizen journalists, at the Emerging Mind of Community Journalism conference in Anniston, Ala. In the United States, about 97% of newspapers are classified as community newspapers, others in the field say the circulation limit should be 30,000. Community journalism got its name from a Montana editor, Ken Byerly, early in his tenure as a professor of journalism at UNC-Chapel Hill in 1957-71, although the term is relatively new, community journalism has been around since the founding fathers. He used the term as a new name for a course that had been titled Editing the Country Weekly because it didnt fit the suburban newspapers that had developed in the 1950s and he chose community journalism because it fit both the weeklies and small dailies of the day. Not everyone agrees on the principles or practices of community journalism, Community journalism, however, encourages the coverage of news that hits close to home, even for the journalist covering the story. Some philosophers encourage professional journalists to remain independent, whereas others insist on committing to local, some say community involvement is fine for editors and publishers, but not for the reporters who have the ability to shape the news. Critics say this involvement is a risk for anyone involved in producing the news, a fundamental flaw in community journalism is the stubborn resistance to change and a compulsion to shape the system to maintain community standards. Loyalty to a community is the price of acceptance. Sooner or later group importance could transcend the value of distributing accurate information both internally to members of the group, and externally about the community or group, others think the switch toward community journalism is a natural reaction to our out-of-touch mega media. J. Herbert Altschull, writer of A Crisis of Conscience, sees community journalism as a natural outgrowth from concerns of the medias slippage in credibility and influence. Its purpose is to help those involved in the community press improve standards of writing and news reporting and to encourage strong. Portland, ME, A publication devoted solely to education reform was created by Maine Sunday Telegram/Portland Press Herald Editor, Lou Ureneck and Maine Council of Churches
31.
Gonzo journalism
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Gonzo journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative. The word gonzo is believed to have been first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson and it is an energetic first-person participatory writing style in which the author is a protagonist, and it draws its power from a combination of social critique and self-satire. It has since applied to other subjective artistic endeavors. Gonzo journalism disregards the strictly-edited product favored by newspaper media and strives for a personal approach. Use of sarcasm, humor, exaggeration, and profanity is common, absolute truth is a very rare and dangerous commodity in the context of professional journalism. The term gonzo was first used in connection with Hunter S. Thompson by The Boston Globe magazine editor Bill Cardoso in 1970. He described Thompsons article The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved, Cardoso claimed that gonzo was South Boston Irish slang describing the last man standing after an all-night drinking marathon. He also claimed that it was a corruption of the French Canadian word gonzeaux, another speculation is that the word may have been inspired by the 1960 hit song Gonzo by New Orleans rhythm and blues pianist James Booker. The 2013 documentary Bayou Maharaja, The Tragic Genius of James Booker quotes Thompsons literary executor as saying that the song was the origin of the term. Thompson himself first used the term referring to his own work on page 12 of the counterculture classic Fear and he wrote, But what was the story. So we would have to drum it up on our own, horatio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now, pure Gonzo journalism, Thompson based his style on William Faulkners notion that fiction is often the best fact. While the things that Thompson wrote about are basically true, he used devices to drive his points home. He often wrote about drugs and alcohol use which added subjective flair to his reporting. The term gonzo has also come into use to describe journalism in Thompsons style, characterized by a drug-fueled stream of consciousness writing technique. Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas followed the Mint 400 piece in 1971 and included a character by the name of Raoul Duke, accompanied by his attorney, Dr. Gonzo. Although this book is considered an example of gonzo journalism. He had intended it to be a record of everything he did as it happened
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Immersion journalism
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Immersion journalism or immersionism is a style of journalism similar to gonzo journalism. In the style, journalists immerse themselves in a situation and with the people involved, the final product tends to focus on the experience, not the writer. Like Gonzo, immersionism details an individuals experiences from a personal perspective. An individual will choose a situation, and immerse themselves in the events, unlike Gonzo, however, it is less focused on the writers life, and more about the writers specific experiences. Critics of immersionism argue by using such methods writers are just playing tourist in the lives of other people, book-length examples of immersion journalism include H. G. J. Jacobs The Year of Living Biblically and Matthew Thompsons Running with the Blood God, VICE Films champions an immersionist style of reporting, and Vice Magazine published several issues on the topic. Examples of immersionist film include the documentary Supersize Me and Heavy Metal in Baghdad and Fat, Sick, examples of immersionist programming include the various offerings of media company Vice and segments of US public broadcasting series like Frontline, Planet Money, and This American Life. Elizabeth Jane Cochrane, known by her pseudonym Nellie Bly is seen as a pioneer of immersion journalism, Cochrane made herself the center of the story when she was admitted to a mental asylum undercover to expose the abuse of female inmates at the Womens Lunatic Asylum on Blackwells Island. The series, Ten Days in a Mad-House, was published in New York World in 1887, jon Franklin earned a Pulitzer Prize for his feature Mrs. Kellys Monster at the Evening Sun in 1979. Franklin followed a woman through her brain surgery, unexpectedly, the woman died, and he instead focused his piece on the surgeon, Dr. Ducker. The article includes the details of the emotionally draining career. David S Pollack, known by many names but most frequently Chasealias, Pollack sees his work as Immersion Art. The catalyst for his blend of journalism, method acting. Basehouse, a Meditation Play-place for Cubby 2005–2010, was a response to his mothers untimely death and it is a social commentary on the world of illegal drugs and how societies propaganda and rhetoric is the true antagonist. Who I M, series is an examination of gay online hookups. Pollack uses actual instant message conversations and overlays them onto the images used in the conversations and he sees his works as a Mimesis or mimetic and uses social media and his many blogs to work out his art. His work is presented in a New Media Photo-Journalistic Way using various social media outlet, blogs. Immersion journalism has been criticized for being too subjective and partial to the journalists opinion, by immersing oneself in the subject for extended periods of time, the credibility of the writers neutrality weakens
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Investigative journalism
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Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report, Investigative journalism is a primary source of information. Most investigative journalism is conducted by newspapers, wire services, practitioners sometimes use the term accountability reporting. In many cases, the subjects of the wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed. There are currently university departments for teaching investigative journalism, conferences are conducted presenting peer reviewed research into investigative journalism. American journalism textbooks point out that muckraking standards promoted by McClures Magazine around 1902, furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers continued to inspire journalists. John M. Crewdson of the Chicago Tribune wrote a 1996 article proposing the installment of defibrillators on American airliners, Crewdson argued that based on his research and analysis, Medical kits and defibrillators would be economically justified if they saved just 3 lives each year. Soon after the publication, airlines began installing defibrillators on planes. Ten years after installing defibrillators, American Airlines reported that 80 lives had been saved by the machines. S, since the 1980s has been accompanied by massive cuts in the budgets for investigative journalism. A2002 study concluded that investigative journalism has all but disappeared from the nations commercial airwaves, the major media conglomerates have found ways to retain their audience without the risks of offending advertisers inherent in investigative journalism. C. Raising Hell, Straight Talk with Investigative Journalists, by Ron Chepesiuk, Haney Howell, tell Me No Lies, Investigative Journalism That Changed the World, John Pilger, ed.2005
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Creative nonfiction
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Creative nonfiction is a genre of writing that uses literary styles and techniques to create factually accurate narratives. For a text to be considered creative nonfiction, it must be factually accurate, ultimately, the primary goal of the creative nonfiction writer is to communicate information, just like a reporter, but to shape it in a way that reads like fiction. Forms within this genre include biography, autobiography, memoir, diary, travel writing, food writing, literary journalism, chronicle, personal essays and other hybridized essays. According to Vivian Gornick, A memoir is a taken from life—that is, from actual. By this, she means that the topics and events discussed in the text verifiably exist in the natural world, the third characteristic that Lounsberry claims is crucial in defining the genre is The scene. She stresses the importance of describing and revivifying the context of events in contrast to the journalistic style of objective reportage. The fourth and final feature she suggests is Fine writing, a prose style. Creative nonfiction may be structured like traditional fiction narratives, as is true of Fenton Johnsons story of love and loss, Geography of the Heart, when book-length works of creative nonfiction follow a story-like arc, they are sometimes called narrative nonfiction. Creative nonfiction writers have embraced new ways of forming their texts—including online technologies—because the genre leads itself to grand experimentation, dozens of new journals have sprung up—both in print and online—that feature creative nonfiction prominently in their offerings. Writers of creative or narrative non-fiction often discuss the level, and limits, of invention in their works. To my mind this literary tinkering does not alter the more profound truth of the story and this concept of fact vs. fiction is elaborated upon in Brenda Miller and Suzanne Paolas book entitled Tell it Slant. They argue that. memory itself can be called its own bit of creative nonfiction and we continually—often unconsciously—renovate our memories, shaping them into stories that bring coherence to chaos. Memory has been called the ultimate mythmaker. as even one’s firsthand accounts are unreliable, however, the essence of the stories related here is true, as they were told to us by those who experienced them at first hand. In recent years, there have been several well-publicized incidents of memoir writers who exaggerated or fabricated certain facts in their work. The James Frey controversy hit in 2006, when The Smoking Gun website revealed that Freys memoir, A Million Little Pieces, in 2008, the New York Times featured an article about the memoirist Margaret Seltzer, whose pen name is Margaret B. Jones. Although there have been instances of traditional and literary journalists falsifying their stories, the truth is meant to be upheld, just told in a literary fashion. Essayist John DAgata explores the issue in his 2012 book The Lifespan of a Fact and it examines the relationship between truth and accuracy, and whether it is appropriate for a writer to substitute one for the other. He and fact-checker Jim Fingal undergo an intense debate about the boundaries of creative nonfiction, critics to date, however, have tended to focus on only one or two of each writer’s works, to illustrate particular critical points
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Muckraker
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The term muckraker was used in the Progressive Era to characterize reform-minded American journalists who attacked established institutions and leaders as corrupt. They typically had large audiences in popular magazines. The muckrakers played a visible role during the Progressive Era period. Investigative journalists view the muckrakers as early influences and a continuation of watchdog journalism, the term is a reference to a character in John Bunyans classic Pilgrims Progress, the Man with the Muck-rake that rejected salvation to focus on filth. While a literature of reform had already appeared by the mid-19th century, by the 1900s, magazines such as Colliers Weekly, Munseys Magazine and McClures Magazine were already in wide circulation and read avidly by the growing middle class. The January 1903 issue of McClures is considered to be the beginning of muckraking journalism. Ida M. Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens and Ray Stannard Baker, claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens previous article Tweed Days in St. Louis, in McClures October 1902 issue was called the first muckraking article. The muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism, the muckrakers were influenced by both eras. One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the corruption, Lincoln Steffens titled his first muckraking article Tweed Days in St. Louis in comparison with the New York case. Publishers of yellow journals, such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were intent on increasing circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment. Note that in journalism, the idea was to stir up the public with sensationalism. If, in the process, a wrong was exposed that the average man could get indignant about, that was fine. Julius Chambers, New York Tribune, is considered by many to be the original muckraker, Chambers undertook a journalistic investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself committed with the help of some of his friends and his newspapers city editor. His intent was to obtain information about alleged abuse of inmates and this later led to the publication of the book A Mad World and Its Inhabitants. From this time onward, Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the mentally ill, Nellie would go on to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-shop working conditions and other societal injustices. Helen Hunt Jackson – A Century of Dishonor, U. S. policy regarding Native Americans, henry Demarest Lloyd – Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard Oil Company. Ida B. B. O. Flower - author of articles in The Arena from 1889 through 1909 advocating for prison reform, the muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was undergoing changes in style and practice. The growth of services had also contributed to the spread of the objective reporting style
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Narrative journalism
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Narrative journalism, also referred to as literary journalism, is defined as creative nonfiction that contains accurate, well-researched information. It is related to journalism, where a writer follows a subject or theme for a long period of time. The first non-fiction novel was Operación Masacre, completed in 1957 by the Argentinean Rodolfo Walsh, in Cold Blood by Truman Capote was the second, and the first English-language, book, it established itself as a historic example of narrative journalism in novel form. Published in 1965, it helped demonstrate to writers the possibility of using creative techniques while holding to the guidelines of journalism. Though Capote claims to have invented this new form of journalism, capotes contemporary Tom Wolfe also wrote The New Journalism in 1974 and is credited for popularizing discussion on the appropriateness of narrative in journalism. He cites Gay Talese with being the father of new journalism, today, many nonfiction novels use narrative journalism to tell their stories. Print publications such as Harpers, The New Yorker, Esquire, Rolling Stone, the definitions of narrative journalism are many and varied. Some prefer to refer to it as literary journalism, or creative non-fiction, simply put, narrative is the way in which a story is constructed through a particular point of view and arrangement of events. The Nieman Program on Narrative Journalism, launched in 2001, aims to provide a centre for the teaching, learning, broadly, some critical elements of narrative journalism include the following, • It contains accurate, well-researched information, and is also interesting to read. • It looks at intriguing people, human emotions, and real situations and it provides the private story behind the public story. • It reaches past the ordinary by blending the reportage of facts with the style of fiction. ”Kramer stresses the importance of voice. Readers have their coffee with the newspaper in the morning, he says and they want to understand and even identify with the news voice, but regular news reporting is anonymous and restrained, leaving the reader feeling lonely. When you have a made up of so many disparate sorts of people it seems noble to appeal to the lowest common denominator. But what happens is depersonalisation of the news voice – narrative journalism aims to put the human voice back at the breakfast table, kramer defines narrative journalism as writing that contains the following elements,1. Action that unfolds over time,4, a relationship with the audience, and 6. Destination – a theme, a purpose, and a reason, one of the earliest and most high-profile examples of effective usage of narrative journalism online can be found in the Philadelphia Inquirers nonfiction serial Black Hawk Down. The 1997 online newspaper series chronicled the dramatic American raid of Mogadishu, the story became part illustrated book, part documentary and part radio program and allowed readers to explore the story in depth. With the availability of free publishing online today, narrative journalism has become a form used by writers eager to give their personal perspectives on noteworthy events
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New Journalism
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New Journalism is a style of news writing and journalism, developed in the 1960s and 70s, which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. This was in contrast to traditional journalism where the journalist was typically invisible, the phenomenon of New Journalism is generally considered to have ended by the early 1980s. Contemporary journalists and writers questioned the newness of New Journalism, as well as whether it qualified as a distinct genre, the subjective nature of the New Journalism received extensive exploration, one critic suggested the genres practitioners were functioning more as sociologists or psychoanalysts, than as journalists. Criticism has been leveled at numerous individual writers in the genre, various people and tendencies throughout the history of American journalism have been labeled new journalism. Robert E. Park, for instance, in his Natural History of the Newspaper, likewise, the appearance of the yellow press—papers such as Joseph Pulitzers New York World in the 1880s—led journalists and historians to proclaim that a New Journalism had been created. During the 1960s and 1970s, the term enjoyed widespread popularity, although James E. Murphy noted that. most uses of the term seem to refer to something more specific than vague new directions in journalism, Curtis D. Michael Johnsons The New Journalism addresses itself to three phenomena, the press, the artists of nonfiction, and changes in the established media. However, at the time, the target of Arnolds irritation was not Northcliffe and he strongly disapproved of the muck-raking Stead, and declared that, under Stead, the P. M. G. Whatever may be its merits, is fast ceasing to be literature, Stead called his brand of journalism Government by Journalism How and when the term New Journalism began to refer to a genre is not clear. Tom Wolfe, a practitioner and principal advocate of the form, trying to shed light on the matter, literary critic Seymour Krim offered his explanation in 1973. Im certain that Hamill first used the expression, in about April of 1965 he called me at Nugget Magazine, where I was editorial director, and told me he wanted to write an article about new New Journalism. It was to be about the things being done in the old reporting genre by Talese, Wolfe. He never wrote the piece, so far as I know and it was picked up and stuck. A report of John F. Kennedys nomination that year, the established a precedent which Mailer would later build on in his 1968 convention coverage. Wolfe wrote that his first acquaintance with a new style of reporting came in a 1962 Esquire article about Joe Louis by Gay Talese, Joe Louis at Fiftya wasnt like a magazine article at all. It was like a short story and it began with a scene, an intimate confrontation between Louis and his third wife. Wolfe said Talese was the first to apply techniques to reporting. Esquire claimed credit as the seedbed for these new techniques, soon others, notably New York, followed Esquires lead, and the style eventually infected other magazines and then books
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Opinion journalism
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Opinion journalism is journalism that makes no claim of objectivity. Although distinguished from advocacy journalism in several ways, both feature a subjective viewpoint, usually with some social or political purpose. Common examples include newspaper columns, editorials, editorial cartoons, unlike advocacy journalism, opinion journalism has a reduced focus on facts or research and its perspective is often of a more personalized variety. Its product may be one component of a generally objective news outlet. There are a number of genres that are opinion-based. Among them, for example, there is Gonzo journalism and New Journalism
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Peace journalism
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Peace journalism has been developed from research that indicates that often news about conflict has a value bias toward violence. It uses Conflict analysis and transformation to update the concept of balance, fairness and this concept was proposed by Johan Galtung. Other terms for this definition of peace journalism include conflict solution journalism, conflict sensitive journalism, constructive conflict coverage. War journalism is journalism about conflict that has a bias towards violence. This usually leads audiences to overvalue violent responses to conflict and ignore non-violent alternatives and this is understood to be the result of well documented news reporting conventions. These conventions focus only on physical effects of conflict and elite positions and it is also biased toward reporting only the differences between parties, the here and now, and zero sums. Peace journalism aims to correct for these biases and its operational definition is to allow opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict. This involves picking up calls for, and articulations of, non-violence policies from whatever quarter, Peace journalism follows a long history of news publication, originating in non-sectarian Christian peace movements and societies of the early 19th century, which published periodicals. Sectarian organizations also created publications focused on peace as part of their proselytizing in the 19th century, from the 20th century, a prominent example of sectarian journalism focused on peace was Dorothy Days Catholic Worker. Besides being an element in the histories of pacifism and the social movement press, Christian organizations such as The World Council of Churches and The World Association for Christian Communication also practice peace journalism. Peace journalism aims to shed light on structural and cultural causes of violence and it aims to frame conflicts as consisting of many parties and pursuing many goals rather than a simple dichotomy. An explicit aim of peace journalism is to peace initiatives from whatever quarter. Peace journalism came about through research arguing theres something wrong with typical conflict reporting, Research and practice in peace journalism outlines a number of reasons for the existence and dominance of war journalism in conflict news. Firstly, the notion that media elites always act to preserve their status quo. Shared characteristics of the class, which heavily influences the production of journalism, are important. For example, their shared ideological pressures, perceptions, attitudes and these can then act to fix and naturalize meaning and hide the actual creation of meaning. However, even in the presence of powerful elite media interests against war, war journalism often dominates conflict discourse, Lynch and McGoldrick show examples from Britain, Ireland, Georgia, and Iraq, where war journalism dominated coverage despite key influential media interests against war. Therefore, not only political and economic, but also social and cultural factors have contributed to the dominance of war journalism in conflict reporting, with the growth of mass media, especially from the 19th century, news advertising became the most important source of media revenue
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Photojournalism
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Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now understood to refer only to still images. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a format that is not only informative. Timeliness The images have meaning in the context of a published record of events. Objectivity The situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events they depict in both content and tone, narrative The images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer or reader on a cultural level. Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter, but he or she must often make decisions instantly and carry photographic equipment, the practice of illustrating news stories with photographs was made possible by printing and photography innovations that occurred in the mid 19th century. The illustrations were printed with the use of engravings, during the Crimean War, the ILN pioneered the birth of early photojournalism by printing pictures of the war that had been taken by Roger Fenton. Other photographers of the war included William Simpson and Carol Szathmari, similarly, the American Civil War photographs of Mathew Brady were engraved before publication in Harpers Weekly. Disaster, including wrecks and city fires, was also a popular subject for illustrated newspapers in the early days. The printing of images in newspapers remained an isolated occurrence in this period, Photos were used to enhance the text rather than to act as a medium of information in its own right. This began to change with the work of one of the pioneers of photojournalism, John Thomson, in collaboration with the radical journalist Adolphe Smith, he began publishing a monthly magazine, Street Life in London, from 1876 to 1877. The project documented in photographs and text, the lives of the people of London. On March 4,1880, The Daily Graphic published the first halftone reproduction of a news photograph, in March 1886, when General George Crook received word that the Apache leader Geronimo would negotiate surrender terms, photographer C. S. Fly took his equipment and attached himself to the military column, during the three days of negotiations, Fly took about 15 exposures on 8 by 10 inches glass negatives. His photos of Geronimo and the other free Apaches, taken on March 25 and 26, are the known photographs taken of American Indians while still at war with the United States. Fly coolly posed his subjects, asking them to move and turn their heads and faces, the popular publication Harpers Weekly published six of his images in their April 24,1886 issue
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Scientific journalism
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Scientific journalism is the practice of including primary sources along with journalistic stories. The concept has been championed by Julian Assange of Wikileaks and is inspired by the philosophy of Karl Popper, primary-source hosting allows the reader to verify a documents information. Assange said in a 2010 interview with The New Yorker, I want to set up a new standard, so this is something that needs to be done for journalism as well. There is a power imbalance, in that readers are unable to verify what they are being told. The most notable examples are the releases of Wikileaks
Media related to News agencies at Wikimedia Commons
