1.
Ernest Shackleton
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Born in Kilkea, Athy, County Kildare, Ireland, Shackleton and his Anglo-Irish family moved to Sydenham in suburban south London when he was ten. Also, members of his team climbed Mount Erebus, the most active Antarctic volcano, for these achievements, Shackleton was knighted by King Edward VII on his return home. After the race to the South Pole ended in December 1911 with Roald Amundsens conquest, Shackleton turned his attention to the crossing of Antarctica from sea to sea, to this end he made preparations for what became the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914–17. Disaster struck this expedition when its ship, Endurance, became trapped in ice and was slowly crushed before the shore parties could be landed. In 1921, he returned to the Antarctic with the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition, at his wifes request he was buried there. Away from his expeditions, Shackletons life was generally restless and unfulfilled, in his search for rapid pathways to wealth and security, he launched business ventures which failed to prosper, and he died heavily in debt. Upon his death, he was lauded in the press, but was largely forgotten. Ernest Shackleton was born on 15 February 1874 in Kilkea near Athy, County Kildare, Ireland, ernests father was Henry Shackleton, and his mother was Henrietta Letitia Sophia Gavan. His fathers family was Anglo-Irish, originally from Yorkshire, England and his mothers family was Irish, from counties Cork and Kerry. Ernest was the second of their ten children and the first of two sons, the second, Frank, achieved notoriety as a suspect, later exonerated, in the 1907 theft of the Irish Crown Jewels. In 1880, when Ernest was six, Henry Shackleton gave up his life as a landowner to study medicine at Trinity College, Dublin, four years later, the family moved again, from Ireland to Sydenham in suburban London. From early childhood, Shackleton was a reader, a pursuit which sparked a passion for adventure. He was schooled by a governess until the age of eleven, at the age of thirteen, he entered Dulwich College. The young Shackleton did not particularly distinguish himself as a scholar and he was quoted later as saying, I never learned much geography at school. Literature, too, consisted in the dissection, the parsing, teachers should be very careful not to spoil taste for poetry for all time by making it a task and an imposition. In his final term at the school he was able to achieve fifth place in his class of thirty-one. Shackletons restlessness at school was such that he was allowed to leave at 16 and his father was able to secure him a berth with the North Western Shipping Company, aboard the square-rigged sailing ship Hoghton Tower. In August 1894, he passed his examination for Second Mate, two years later, he had obtained his First Mates ticket, and in 1898, he was certified as a Master Mariner, qualifying him to command a British ship anywhere in the world
2.
Antarctic
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The Antarctic is a polar region, specifically the region around the Earths South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises in the sense the continent of Antarctica. The region covers some 20% of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5. 5% is the area of the Antarctic continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System, in a biogeographic sense, the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earths land surface. Most of the Antarctic region is situated south of 60°S latitude parallel, there are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, the first human born in the Antarctic was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the definitive results of the conference was presented at the Antarctic Treaty states meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. The Antarctic hosts the worlds largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km2, the South Georgia, because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are based on territorial claims or the time zone of a stations owner country or supply base. Antarctic Circle History of Antarctica Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, smithsonian at the Poles, Contributions to International Polar Year Science
3.
South Pole
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The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth, situated on the continent of Antarctica, it is the site of the United States Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year. The Geographic South Pole should not be confused with the South Magnetic Pole, the South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere. For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the point of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. However, the Earths axis of rotation is actually subject to very small wobbles, the geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90°S, since its longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given as 0°, at the South Pole, all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given relative to grid north, along tight latitude circles, clockwise is east, and counterclockwise is west, opposite to the North Pole. The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica. It sits atop a featureless, barren, windswept and icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres above sea level, and is located about 1,300 km from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres thick at the Pole, the polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37° and 40° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time. The Geographic South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign, these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Years Day to compensate for the movement of the ice. The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a quotation from each man. A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site, the Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located around 180 metres from the Geographic South Pole, Amundsens Tent, The tent was erected by the Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen on its arrival on 14 December 1911. It is currently buried beneath the snow and ice in the vicinity of the Pole and it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument, following a proposal by Norway to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica, with the very first being the Russian expedition led by Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, the basic geography of the Antarctic coastline was not understood until the mid-to-late 19th century
4.
Farthest South
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Farthest South was the most southerly latitudes reached by explorers before the conquest of the South Pole in 1911. From the late 19th century onward, the quest for Farthest South latitudes became in effect a race to reach the pole, in the years before reaching the pole was a realistic objective, other motives drew adventurers southward. Initially, the force was the discovery of new trade routes between Europe and the Far East. James Cooks voyages of 1771–74 demonstrated conclusively the likely nature of any hidden lands. This caused a shift of emphasis in the first half of the 19th century, away from trade and towards sealing and whaling, after the first overwintering on continental Antarctica in 1899, the prospect of reaching the South Pole appeared realistic, and the race for the pole began. The British were pre-eminent in this endeavor, which was characterized by the rivalry between Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Shackletons efforts fell short, Scott reached the pole in January 1912 only to find that he had beaten by the Norwegian Amundsen. In 1494, the maritime powers, Portugal and Spain, signed a treaty which drew a line down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. That gave Portugal dominance of the known route to the east—via the Cape of Good Hope and Indian Ocean, which left Spain. The exploration of the south began as part of the search for such a route, unlike the Arctic, there is no evidence of human visitation or habitation in Antarctica or the islands around it prior to European exploration. However, the most southerly parts of South America were already inhabited by such as the Selknam/Ona, the Yagán/Yámana, the Alacaluf. Fuegian Indian artifacts and canoe remnants have also discovered on the Falkland Islands. There are also remains of a Polynesian settlement dating back to the 13th century on Enderby Island in the Auckland Islands and it is unclear from the legends how far south Ui-te-Rangiora penetrated, but it appears that he observed ice in large quantities. A shard of undated, unidentified pottery, reported as found in 1886 in the Antipodes Islands, has been associated with this expedition. Success depended on finding a strait or passage through the South American land masses, or finding the southern tip of the continent and sailing around it. The South American coast was sighted on 6 December 1519, and Magellan moved cautiously southward, little if anything was known of the coast south of this point, so Magellan decided to wait out the southern winter here, and established the settlement of Puerto San Julian. In September 1520, the voyage continued down the uncharted coast, here Magellan found a deep inlet which proved to be the strait he was seeking, later to be known by his name. Early in November 1520, as the squadron navigated through the strait, the first sighting of an ocean passage to the Pacific south of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes attributed to Francisco de Hoces of the Loaisa Expedition
5.
Welsh Australians
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Welsh Australians are citizens of Australia whose ancestry originates in Wales. According to the 2006 Australian census 25,317 Australian residents were born in Wales, while 113,242 claimed Welsh ancestry, a 1996 study gives the total ethnic strength of Welsh Australians as 243,400. This is made up by 44,100 of un-mixed origin and 683,700 of mixed origin and this would make the Welsh the fifth largest Anglo-Celtic group in Australia after the English, Irish, Scottish and Cornish. It is believed that the eastern coast of Australia reminded Captain James Cook of the coast of South Wales, hence the name he gave to it, the first European colony in Australia was in New South Wales, beginning with the First Fleet of 1788. Welsh people numbered amongst these first settlers, and continued to arrive in the new colony through the British policy of penal transportation that was implemented for many criminal acts. A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, amongst its leaders was the Welsh-born Chartist John Basson Humffray, one of a significant group of immigrants that came over from Wales at this time. Mass emigration from Wales to Australia got under way in the early 20th century with New South Wales and it is also said that around 20% of the population of New South Wales are at least partly Welsh descended. In the early twentieth-century most of the Welsh settlers were farmers, Australians from Wales Caernarfon, Gwynedd Archives
6.
Edgeworth David
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Sir Tannatt William Edgeworth David KBE, CMG, DSO, FRS, professionally known as Edgeworth David, was a Welsh Australian geologist and Antarctic explorer. He also served with distinction in World War I and his mothers cousin, William A. E. Ussher of the Geological Survey, first interested David in what was to be his life work. At the age of 12, David went to Magdalen College School, in 1876 he gained a classical scholarship to New College, Oxford. While there he was lectured by the famous John Ruskin and William Spooner, in 1878 he suffered a health breakdown and travelled to Canada and Australia to recuperate. Returning to Oxford, he attended lectures on geology by Sir Joseph Prestwich which stimulated his interest in the subject, after graduating as a Bachelor of Arts without honours in 1880, he spent the following two years in field study of the geology of Wales. In November 1881 he read his first paper, Evidences of Glacial Action in the Neighbourhood of Cardiff before the Cardiff Naturalists Society, David took up his post in November 1882. In 1884 his report on the tin deposits in the New England district was published, apart from its scientific interest this was valuable in connection with the mining operations on this field, from which some £10,000,000 worth of tin was won. On 30 July 1885 he married to Caroline Mallett, principal of the Hurlstone Training College for Teachers, who had travelled to Australia in the same vessel with him. In April 1886 he began surveying the Hunter Valley coalfields and in August discovered the Greta coal seam, which yielded over £50,000,000 worth of coal up to 1949. Much of his time during the four years was spent near Maitland where he was still tracing and mapping the coal measures. Davids assistant in 1890 was William Sutherland Dun, in 1891 David was appointed Professor of Geology at the University of Sydney, a position he held until 1924. David was not only a good scientist but very cultured, with a sense of humour, great enthusiasm, sympathy, and courtesy, and he quickly fitted into his new position. His department was housed in a cottage, its equipment was poor, and he had no lecturers or demonstrators. In 1892 he was president of the section of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science at the Hobart meeting. There were defects in the machinery and the bore penetrated only slightly more than 100 feet. In 1897 David led an expedition which succeeded in reaching a depth of 557 feet after which he had to return to Sydney. He then organised an expedition in 1898 which, under the leadership of Dr. Alfred Edmund Finckh, was successful in carrying the bore to 1114 feet. The results provided support for Charles Darwins theory of subsidence, cara accompanied him on the second expedition and published a well-received account called Funafuti, or Three Months on a Coral Island
7.
South Magnetic Pole
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The South Magnetic Pole is the wandering point on the Earths Southern Hemisphere where the geomagnetic field lines are directed vertically upwards. It should not be confused with the South Geomagnetic Pole described later, for historical reasons, the end of a freely hanging magnet that points north is itself called the north pole of the magnet, and the other end, pointing south, is called the magnets south pole. Because opposite poles attract, the Earths South Magnetic Pole is physically actually a magnetic north pole, the South Magnetic Pole is constantly shifting due to changes in the Earths magnetic field. As of 2005 it was calculated to lie at 64°31′48″S 137°51′36″E, placing it off the coast of Antarctica, in 2015 it lay at 64. 28°S136. 59°E / -64.28,136.59. That point lies outside the Antarctic Circle, due to polar drift, the pole is moving northwest by about 10 to 15 kilometers per year. Its current distance from the actual Geographic South Pole is approximately 2860 km, the nearest permanent science station is Dumont dUrville Station. Wilkes Land contains a large gravitational mass concentration, early unsuccessful attempts to reach the magnetic south pole included those of French explorer Dumont dUrville, American Charles Wilkes and Briton James Clark Ross. On 16 January 1909 three men from Sir Ernest Shackletons Nimrod Expedition claimed to have found the South Magnetic Pole, however, there is now some doubt as to whether their location was correct. The approximate position of the pole on 16 January 1909 was 72. 25°S155. 15°E / -72.25,155.15. The South Magnetic Pole has also estimated by fits to global sets of data such as the World Magnetic Model. For earlier years back to about 1600, the model GUFM1 is used, based on a compilation of data from ship logs, the Earths geomagnetic field can be approximated by a tilted dipole placed at the center of the Earth. The South Geomagnetic Pole is the point where the axis of this best-fitting tilted dipole intersects the Earths surface in the southern hemisphere. As of 2005 it was calculated to be located at 79. 74°S108. 22°E / -79.74,108.22, because the field is not an exact dipole, the South Geomagnetic Pole does not coincide with the South Magnetic Pole. Furthermore, the South Geomagnetic Pole is wandering for the reason its northern magnetic counterpart wanders. North Magnetic Pole Polar alignment Australian Antarctic Division
8.
Mount Erebus
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Mount Erebus is the second-highest volcano in Antarctica and the southernmost active volcano on Earth. It is the sixth highest ultra mountain on an island, with a summit elevation of 3,794 metres, it is located on Ross Island, which is also home to three inactive volcanoes, Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova. The volcano has been active since c.1.3 million years ago and is the site of the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory run by the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. Mount Erebus is currently the most active volcano in Antarctica and is the current eruptive zone of the Erebus hotspot, the summit contains a persistent convecting phonolitic lava lake, one of five long-lasting lava lakes on Earth. Characteristic eruptive activity consists of Strombolian eruptions from the lake or from one of several subsidiary vents. Scientific study of the volcano is also facilitated by their proximity to McMurdo Station and Scott Base, Mount Erebus is classified as a polygenetic stratovolcano. The bottom half of the volcano is a shield and the top half is a stratocone, the composition of the current eruptive products of Erebus is anorthoclase-porphyritic tephritic phonolite and phonolite, which are the bulk of exposed lava flow on the volcano. The oldest eruptive products consist of relatively undifferentiated and non-viscous basanite lavas that form the low broad platform shield of Erebus, slightly younger basanite and phonotephrite lavas crop out on Fang Ridge—an eroded remnant of an early Erebus volcano—and at other isolated locations on the flanks of Erebus. Erebus is the only presently erupting phonolite volcano. Lava flows of more viscous phonotephrite and trachyte erupted after the basanite, the upper slopes of Mount Erebus are dominated by steeply dipping tephritic phonolite lava flows with large scale flow levees. A conspicuous break in slope at approximately 3,200 metres calls attention to a summit plateau representing a caldera, the summit caldera was created by an explosive VEI-6 eruption that occurred 18,000 ±7,000 years ago. It is filled with small volume tephritic phonolite and phonolite lava flows, in the center of the summit caldera is a small steep-sided cone composed primarily of decomposed lava bombs and a large deposit of anorthoclase crystals known as Erebus crystals. The active lava lake in this summit cone undergoes continuous degassing and these results demonstrated a complex upper-volcano conduit system with appreciable upper-volcano magma storage to the northwest of the lava lake at depths hundreds of meters below the surface. Mt. Erebus is notable for its numerous ice fumaroles – ice towers that form around gases that escape from vents in the surface. The ice caves associated with the fumaroles are dark, in alpine environments starved in organics. The life is sparse, mainly bacteria and fungi and this makes it of special interest for studying oligotrophs – organisms that can survive on minimal amounts of resources. It is thought that ice caves may exist on Mars – ice preserved under the surface in cave systems protected from the surface conditions. The caves on Erebus are of especial interest for astrobiology as most surface caves are influenced by human activities, the caves at Erebus are high altitude, yet accessible for study
9.
Nimrod (ship)
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Nimrod was the ship Ernest Shackleton used in his 1908 Antarctic Nimrod Expedition for the South Pole. It was a 41-year-old schooner of 334 gross register tons that had used to hunt seals. Shackleton, who paid £5,000 for the ship, had it re-rigged as a barquentine and it also had an auxiliary steam engine, but had a top speed of only six knots under this power. The New Zealand government paid half the cost of the tow, Sir James Mills, Chairman of the Union Steamship Company, the Koonya was captained by Fredrick Pryce Evans during the tow. Nimrod was initially captained by Rupert England, but Shackleton was dissatisfied with him and replaced him with Frederick Pryce Evans, Nimrod was sold on Shackletons return to Great Britain. Nimrods fate,10 years after its return from the Antarctic, was to be battered to pieces in the North Sea, only two of her 12-person crew survived. A number of features of Antarctica were named after the ship
10.
Robert Falcon Scott
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On the first expedition, he set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82°S and discovered the Polar Plateau, on which the South Pole is located. During the second venture, Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, on their return journey, Scotts party discovered plant fossils, proving Antarctica was once forested and joined to other continents. Before his appointment to lead the Discovery Expedition, Scott had followed the career of an officer in the Royal Navy. Having taken this step, his name became associated with the Antarctic. Following the news of his death, Scott became a celebrated hero, in the closing decades of the 20th century, Scott became a figure of controversy, with questions raised about his competence and character. Scott was born on 6 June 1868, the child out of six and elder son of John Edward and Hannah Scott of Stoke Damerel. Scotts father was a brewer and magistrate, there were also naval and military traditions in the family, Scotts grandfather and four uncles all having served in the army or navy. John Scotts prosperity came from the ownership of a small Plymouth brewery which he inherited from his father, Robert Falcon Scotts early childhood years were spent in comfort, but some years later, when he was establishing his naval career, the family would suffer serious financial misfortune. In accordance with the tradition, Robert and his younger brother Archie were predestined for careers in the armed services. Having passed these exams Scott began his career in 1881. In July 1883, Scott passed out of Britannia as a midshipman, by October, he was en route to South Africa to join HMS Boadicea, the flagship of the Cape squadron, the first of several ships on which he served during his midshipman years. On this occasion,1 March 1887, Markham observed Midshipman Scotts cutter winning that race across the bay. Markhams habit was to collect likely young naval officers with a view to their undertaking polar exploration work in the future and he was impressed by Scotts intelligence, enthusiasm and charm, and the 18-year-old midshipman was duly noted. In March 1888 Scott passed his examinations for sub-lieutenant, with four first class out of five. His career progressed smoothly, with service on ships and promotion to lieutenant in 1889. In 1891, after a spell in foreign waters, he applied for the two-year torpedo training course on HMS Vernon. He graduated with first class certificates in both the theory and practical examinations, a small blot occurred in the summer of 1893 when, while commanding a torpedo boat, Scott ran it aground, a mishap which earned him a mild rebuke. According to Huntford, Scott disappears from records for eight months
11.
RRS Discovery
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RRS Discovery was the last traditional wooden three-masted ship to be built in Britain. Designed for Antarctic research, it was launched as a Royal Research Ship in 1901 and it is now the centrepiece of visitor attraction in its home, Dundee. In charge of her design was W. E. Smith, one of the naval architects at the Admiralty, while the ships engine, boilers. The main compass was mounted amidships and there were to be no steel or iron fittings within 30 feet of this point. For the same reason the boiler and engines were mounted towards the stern of the ship, the yard was previously owned by Alexander Stephen and Sons and had built the Terra Nova in 1884. 1m in modern currency. At her economical cruising speed of 6 knots she only carried enough coal for 7700 miles of steaming, at 8 knots she could steam only 5100 miles. She was rigged as a barque and the total sail area was 12,296 square feet. Following the practice of the most modern sailing ships of the time, the ship was rigged to carry several large staysails and the funnel was hinged at the base so it could be laid on the deck when the large mizzen staysail was rigged once at sea. At the time of her launch Discovery was widely held to be the strongest wooden ship ever built, the hull frames, placed much closer together than was normal, were made of solid sections of oak up to 11 inches thick. The outer hull was formed from two layers - one 6 inches thick and an outer skin some 5 inches thick, a third lining was laid inside the frames, forming a double bottom and skin around almost the entire hull. This meant that in places the hull was over 2 feet thick, providing not only formidable strength, the construction meant that it was impossible to install portholes so the crew relied on mushroom vents on the deck to allow air and light into the interior. The outer hull is made of English Elm and Greenheart, oak beams run across the hull forming three decks - the lower deck beams are 11 inches square in cross-section and are placed less than three feet apart along the ships length. Seven transverse bulkheads, also of wood, provide additional strength, to prevent damage from ice floes or crushing the two-blade propeller could be hoisted out of the way and the rudder could be easily detached and stored aboard. Iron-shod bows were severely raked so that when ramming the ice they would ride up over the margin, the coal bunkers on each side contained a steel tank, each of which could hold 60 tons of fresh water. On the long trip to and from New Zealand these tanks could hold additional coal. The metal tanks also contributed to the strength of the hull around the boiler. She was launched into the Firth of Tay on 21 March 1901 by Lady Markham, the British National Antarctic Expedition departed the UK less than five months after the Discovery was launched and only a week after the ship left Dundee
12.
McMurdo Sound
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McMurdo Sound and its ice-clogged waters extends about 55 kilometres long and wide. The sound connects the Ross Sea to the north with the Ross Ice Shelf cavity to the south via Haskell Strait, the strait is largely covered by the McMurdo Ice Shelf. The Royal Society Range rises from sea level to 4,205 metres on the western shoreline, Ross Island, an historic jumping-off point for polar explorers, designates the eastern boundary. The active volcano Mt Erebus at 3,794 metres dominates Ross Island, Antarcticas largest scientific base, the United States McMurdo Station, as well as the New Zealand Scott Base are on the southern shore of the island. Less than 10 percent of McMurdo Sounds shoreline is free of ice and it is the southernmost navigable body of water in the world. Captain James Clark Ross discovered this sound, which is about 1,300 kilometres from the South Pole, in February 1841, the sound today serves as a resupply route for cargo ships and for airplanes that land on the floating ice airstrips near the McMurdo Station. However, McMurdo Station’s continuous occupation by human beings since 1957/58 has dirtied the harbor of Winter Quarters Bay, the pack ice that girdles the shoreline at Winter Quarters Bay and elsewhere in the sound presents a formidable obstacle to surface ships. Vessels require ice-strengthened hulls and often have to rely upon escort by icebreakers, such extreme sea conditions have limited access by tourists, who otherwise are appearing in increasing numbers in the open waters of the Antarctic Peninsula. The few tourists who reach the McMurdo Sound find spectacular scenery with wildlife to be seen, including whales, seals, Adelie penguins. Cold circumpolar currents of the Southern Ocean reduce the flow of warm South Pacific or South Atlantic waters reaching McMurdo Sound, bitter katabatic winds spilling down from the Antarctic polar plateau into McMurdo Sound demonstrate Antarcticas status as the coldest and windiest continent in the world. The McMurdo Sound freezes over with sea ice about 3 metres thick during the winter, the Antarctic summer causes the pack ice to break up. Wind and currents may push the ice northward into the Ross Sea, temperatures during the dark winter months at McMurdo Station have dropped as low as −51 °C. However, December and January are the warmest months, with highs at −1 °C. McMurdo Sounds role as a strategic waterway dates back to early 20th century Antarctic exploration, British explorers Ernest Shackleton and Robert Scott built bases on the sounds shoreline as jumping-off points for their overland expeditions to the South Pole. McMurdo Sounds logistic importance continues today, aircraft transporting cargo and passengers land upon frozen runways at Williams Field on the McMurdo Ice Shelf. Moreover, the annual sealift of a ship and fuel tanker rely upon the sound as a supply route to the continents largest base. Both the U. S. base and New Zealands nearby Scott Base are on the tip of Ross Island. Ross Island is the southmost piece of land in Antarctica that is accessible by ship, in addition, the harbor at McMurdos Winter Quarters Bay is the worlds southmost seaport
13.
Australasian Antarctic Expedition
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The Australasian Antarctic Expedition was an Australasian scientific team that explored part of Antarctica between 1911 and 1914. It was led by the Australian geologist Douglas Mawson, who was knighted for his achievements in leading the expedition, in 1910 he began to plan an expedition to chart the 3, 200-kilometre-long coastline of Antarctica to the south of Australia. The Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science approved of his plans, accomplishments were made in geology, glaciology and terrestrial biology, unlike both of Ernest Shackletons following expeditions which produced very little science. The team selected for the expedition came primarily from universities in Australia, of the men who would occupy bases on the Antarctic continent, twenty-two were Australian residents. Four were New Zealanders, three British and one Swiss, three of the leaders were veterans of other Antarctic voyages. They would sail on the Newfoundland sealing vessel Aurora, a sailing vessel with a length of 50 metres. The ship underwent modifications for the trip, including adding three large tanks for storing fresh water, the Aurora captain was John King Davis. The vessel departed for Macquarie Island on 2 December 1911, arriving on 11 December after surviving stormy weather during the crossing, a second vessel, the Toroa, followed with supplies and passengers. Departing Macquarie Island on 23 December, the Aurora began exploring the areas, during which the vessel and its men discovered and named King George V Land. Key members of the expedition included Frank Hurley as official photographer, Frank Wild as leader of the base, Charles Hoadley as geologist. The expedition built their base, or winter quarters, at Cape Denison in Commonwealth Bay. The teams at all three bases conducted routine scientific and meteorological observations, which were recorded in detail in the voluminous reports of the expedition. They also overcame months of failures with equipment and masts by eventually establishing the first Antarctic wireless radio connection, three short film clips from the official film of the expedition eventually entitled The Home of the Blizzard can be found online here. An extensive critique of the film appears on the NFSA page in two parts. A 15-minute 3-D version of Frank Hurleys still photographs from the expedition is available online here. Coastal and inland sledging journeys enabled the teams to explore previously unknown lands, in the second half of 1912, there were five major journeys from the main base and two from the western base. Mawson himself was part of a three-man sledging team, the Far Eastern Party, with Xavier Mertz, on 14 December 1912, after three weeks of excellent progress, the party was crossing the Ninnis Glacier, when Ninnis fell through a snow-covered crevasse. Mertz had skied over the lid, Mawson had been on his sled with his weight dispersed
14.
Douglas Mawson
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Sir Douglas Mawson OBE FRS FAA was an Australian geologist, Antarctic explorer and academic. Along with Roald Amundsen, Robert Falcon Scott, and Ernest Shackleton, Mawson was a key leader during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Mawson was born on 5 May 1882 to Robert Ellis Mawson and he was born in Shipley, West Yorkshire, but was only two years old when his family immigrated to Australia and settled at Rooty Hill, now in the western suburbs of Sydney. He attended Fort Street Model School and the University of Sydney and he was appointed geologist to an expedition to the New Hebrides in 1903, his report, The Geology of the New Hebrides, was one of the first major geological works of Melanesia. Also that year he published a paper on Mittagong, New South Wales. His major influences in his career were Professor Edgeworth David. He then became a lecturer in petrology and mineralogy at the University of Adelaide in 1905 and he identified and first described the mineral davidite. Mawson joined Ernest Shackletons Nimrod Expedition to the Antarctic, originally intending to stay for the duration of the presence in the first summer. Instead both he and his mentor, Edgeworth David, stayed an extra year. In doing so they became, in the company of Alistair Mackay, the first to climb the summit of Mount Erebus and to trek to the South Magnetic Pole, which at that time was over land. Mawson turned down an invitation to join Robert Falcon Scotts Terra Nova Expedition in 1910, the objectives were to carry out geographical exploration and scientific studies, including a visit to the South Magnetic Pole. Mawson raised the funds in a year, from British and Australian governments. A second camp was located to the west on the ice shelf in Queen Mary Land, Cape Denison proved to be unrelentingly windy, the average wind speed for the entire year was about 50 mph, with some winds approaching 200 mph. They built a hut on the cape and wintered through nearly constant blizzards. Mawson wanted to do aerial exploration and brought the first aeroplane to Antarctica, type Monoplane, was to be flown by Francis Howard Bickerton. When it was damaged in Australia shortly before the expedition departed, however, the engine did not operate well in the cold, and it was removed and returned to Vickers in England. The aircraft fuselage itself was abandoned, on 1 January 2009, fragments of it were rediscovered by the Mawsons Huts Foundation, which is restoring the original huts. Mawsons exploration program was carried out by five parties from the Main Base, Mawson himself was part of a three-man sledging team, the Far Eastern Party, with Xavier Mertz and Lieutenant Belgrave Ninnis, who headed east on 10 November 1912, to survey King George V Land
15.
Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
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Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
17.
Manchuria
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Manchuria is a modern name, first created by the Japanese, given to a large geographic region in Northeast Asia. Depending on the context, Manchuria can either refer to a region that falls entirely within the Peoples Republic of China, the definition of Manchuria can be any one of several regions of various size. These are, from smallest to largest, Northeast China, consisting of Heilongjiang, Jilin and this is the area referred to as Manchuria in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions. Inner Manchuria, the above, plus parts of modern Inner Mongolia, The above, plus Outer Manchuria, the area from the Amur and Ussuri rivers to the Stanovoy Mountains, in Russian administrative terms, Ussuri krai, southern Harbin oblast, Primorskiy kray. The above, plus Sakhalin Island, which is included on Qing dynasty maps as part of Outer Manchuria even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The island was included in Manchuria on maps made by the Japanese Shogunate. Despite of lines on maps and empiress political claims, the island was inhabited by Ainu people until the Soviet Union enforced a policy after 1945. Three centuries and a half must now pass away before entering upon the act of the Manchu drama. During the ensuing two hundred years the Nü-chêns were scarcely heard of, the House of Ming being busily occupied in other directions and it may be noted here that Manchuria is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression. The present extensive home of the Manchus is usually spoken of as the Three Eastern Provinces, namely, Shêngking, or Liao-tung, or Kuan-tung, Kirin, and Heilungchiang or Tsitsihar. — Herbert A. Giles, China and the Manchus,1912 Manchuria is a translation of the Japanese word Manshū, the Manchu and Chinese languages had no such word as Manchuria and the word has imperialist connotations. According to Bill Sewell, it was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location, the historian Gavan McCormack agreed with Robert H. G. The Japanese had their own motive for deliberately spreading the usage of the term Manchuria, the historian Norman Smith wrote that The term Manchuria is controversial. Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi said that she should use the term in quotation marks when referring to Manchuria, in his 2012 dissertation on the Jurchen people to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy degree in History from the University of Washington, Professor Chad D. In the 18th-century Europe, the later known as Manchuria was most commonly referred to as Tartary. However, the term Manchuria started appearing by the end of the century, in current Chinese parlance, an inhabitant of the Northeast, or Northeast China, is a Northeasterner. In China, the term Manchuria is rarely used today, and this usage is seen in the expression Chuǎng Guāndōng referring to the mass migration of Han Chinese to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name Guandong later came to be used more narrowly for the area of the Kwantung Leased Territory on the Liaodong Peninsula and it is not to be confused with the southern province of Guangdong
18.
Dog sled
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A dog sled or dog sleigh is a sled pulled by one or more sled dogs used to travel over ice and through snow. Numerous types of sleds are used, depending on their function and they can be used for dog sled racing. Dog power has been used for hunting and travel for over a thousand years, as far back as the 10th century BCE these dogs have contributed to human culture. Assembling a dog sled team involves picking leader dogs, point dogs, swing dogs, the lead dog is crucial, so mushers take particular care of these dogs. Another important detail is to have powerful wheel dogs to pull the sled out from the snow, however, Alaskan Huskies are also a popular dog for sled dog racing, because of their endurance, good eating habits, speed, and dedication to running even when tired. Sometimes, for sprint races, mushers use short haired hounds that are faster than the average husky and these hounds are raised from a young age to pull. It is harder to train hounds than it is to train Siberian Huskies and Malamutes to pull a sled because it is not in their nature, training should start at around six months of age by pulling a small log behind them. Sirius Dog Sled Patrol The Canadian Museum of Civilization - History of Dogsled mail in the Yukon
19.
Terra Nova Expedition
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The Terra Nova Expedition, officially the British Antarctic Expedition, was an expedition to Antarctica which took place between 1910 and 1913. It was led by Robert Falcon Scott and had various scientific, Scott wished to continue the scientific work that he had begun when leading the Discovery Expedition to the Antarctic in 1901–04. He also wanted to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole and he and four companions attained the pole on 17 January 1912, where they found that the Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen had preceded them by 34 days. Scotts entire party died on the journey from the pole, some of their bodies, journals. The expedition, named after its ship, was a private venture. It had further backing from the Admiralty, which released experienced seamen to the expedition, the expeditions team of scientists carried out a comprehensive scientific programme, while other parties explored Victoria Land and the Western Mountains. An attempted landing and exploration of King Edward VII Land was unsuccessful, a journey to Cape Crozier in June and July 1911 was the first extended sledging journey in the depths of the Antarctic winter. For many years after his death, Scotts status as hero was unchallenged. In the final quarter of the 20th century the expedition came under closer scrutiny, the degree of Scotts personal culpability, and more recently, the culpability of certain expedition members, remain controversial. In 1909 Scott received news that Ernest Shackletons Nimrod Expedition had narrowly failed to reach the Pole and he had been forced to turn for home at 88°23 S, less than 100 geographical miles from his objective. This soured relations between the two explorers, and increased Scotts determination to surpass Shackletons achievements, as he made his preparations for a further expedition, Scott was aware of other polar ventures being planned. A Japanese expedition was being planned, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Douglas Mawson was to leave in 1911, meanwhile, Roald Amundsen, a potential rival, had announced plans for an Arctic voyage. Sixty-five men formed the shore and ships parties of the Terra Nova Expedition and they were chosen from 8,000 applicants, and included seven Discovery veterans together with five who had been with Shackleton on his 1907–09 expedition. Lieutenant Edward Evans, who had been the officer on Morning. He abandoned plans to mount his own expedition, and transferred his financial backing to Scott. Ex-RN officer Victor Campbell, known as The Wicked Mate, was one of the few who had skills in skiing, and was chosen to lead the party that would explore King Edward VII Land. Two non-Royal Navy officers were appointed, Henry Robertson Bowers, known as Birdie, who was a lieutenant in the Royal Indian Marine, and Lawrence Oates, Oates, independently wealthy, volunteered his services to the expedition and paid £1,000 into its funds. The Admiralty also provided a largely naval lower deck, including the Antarctic veterans Edgar Evans, Tom Crean, other seamen in the shore party included Patrick Keohane and Robert Forde, Thomas Clissold and Frederick Hooper
20.
Royal Geographical Society
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The Royal Geographical Society is the UKs learned society and professional body for geography, founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical sciences. Today, it is the centre for geographers and geographical learning. The Society has over 16,500 members and its work reaches millions of people each year through publications, research groups, the Geographical Society of London was founded in 1830 under the name Geographical Society of London as an institution to promote the advancement of geographical science. It later absorbed the older African Association, which had been founded by Sir Joseph Banks in 1788, as well as the Raleigh Club and the Palestine Association. Like many learned societies, it had started as a club in London. Founding members of the Society included Sir John Barrow, Sir John Franklin, under the patronage of King William IV it later became known as The Royal Geographical Society and was granted its Royal Charter under Queen Victoria in 1859. From 1830 –1840 the RGS met in the rooms of the Horticultural Society in Regent Street, London and from 1854 -1870 at 15 Whitehall Place, London. In 1870, the Society finally found a home when it moved to 1 Savile Row, London – an address that became associated with adventure. The Society also used a lecture theatre in Burlington Gardens, London which was lent to it by the Civil Service Commission, however, the arrangements were thought to be rather cramped and squalid. A new impetus was given to the Societys affairs in 1911, with the election of Earl Curzon, the premises in Savile Row were sold and the present site, Lowther Lodge in Kensington Gore, was purchased for £100,000 and opened for use in April 1913. In the same year the Societys ban on women was lifted, Lowther Lodge was built in 1874 for the Hon William Lowther by Norman Shaw, one of the most outstanding domestic architects of his day. Extensions to the east wing were added in 1929, and included the New Map Room, the extension was formally opened by HRH the Duke of York at the Centenary Celebrations on 21 October 1930. The history of the Society was closely allied for many of its years with colonial exploration in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, the polar regions. It has been a key associate and supporter of many explorers and expeditions, including those of Darwin, Livingstone, Stanley, Scott, Shackleton, Hunt. The early history of the Society is inter-linked with the history of British Geography, exploration, information, maps, charts and knowledge gathered on expeditions was sent to the RGS, making up its now unique geographical collections. The Society published its first journal in 1831 and from 1855, accounts of meetings, in 1893, this was replaced by The Geographical Journal which is still published today. With the advent of a systematic study of geography, the Institute of British Geographers was formed in 1933, by some academic Society fellows. Its activities included organising conferences, field trips, seminars and specialist research groups and publishing the journal, the RGS and IBG co-existed for 60 years until 1992 when a merger was discussed
21.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
22.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
23.
Roald Amundsen
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Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions. He led the Antarctic expedition of 1910–12 which was the first to reach the South Pole, in 1926, he was the first expedition leader for the air expedition to the North Pole. Amundsen is recognized as the first person, without dispute, as having reached both poles and he is also known as having the first expedition to traverse the Northwest Passage in the Arctic. In June 1928, while taking part in a mission for the airship Italia. Amundsen was a key leader during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, in the class of Douglas Mawson, Robert Falcon Scott. Amundsen was born to a family of Norwegian shipowners and captains in Borge and his parents were Jens Amundsen and Hanna Sahlqvist. Roald was the son in the family. His mother wanted him to avoid the family trade and encouraged him to become a doctor. He promptly quit university for a life at sea, Amundsen had hidden a lifelong desire inspired by Fridtjof Nansens crossing of Greenland in 1888 and Franklins lost expedition. He decided on a life of exploration of wilderness places. Amundsen joined the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as first mate and this expedition, led by Adrien de Gerlache using the ship the RV Belgica, became the first expedition to winter in Antarctica. The Belgica, whether by mistake or design, became locked in the sea ice at 70°30′S off Alexander Island, the crew endured a winter for which they were poorly prepared. By Amundsens own estimation, the doctor for the expedition, the American Frederick Cook, probably saved the crew from scurvy by hunting for animals and feeding the crew fresh meat. In cases where citrus fruits are lacking, fresh meat from animals that make their own vitamin C contains enough of the vitamin to prevent scurvy and this was an important lesson for Amundsens future expeditions. In 1903, Amundsen led the first expedition to successfully traverse Canadas Northwest Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and he planned a small expedition of six men in a 45-ton fishing vessel, Gjøa, in order to have flexibility. His ship had relatively shallow draft and his technique was to use a small ship and hug the coast. Amundsen had the ship outfitted with a gasoline engine. They traveled via Baffin Bay, the Parry Channel and then south through Peel Sound, James Ross Strait, Simpson Strait and they spent two winters at King William Island in the harbor of what is today Gjoa Haven, Nunavut, Canada
24.
William Beardmore, 1st Baron Invernairn
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William Beardmore, 1st Baron Invernairn DL, known as Sir William Beardmore, Bt, between 1914 and 1921, was an Anglo-Scottish industrialist, founding the eponymous William Beardmore and Company. Beardmore was born in Deptford, London, where his father and he was educated at the High School of Glasgow and Ayr Academy. When he was fifteen, he began an apprenticeship at Parkhead, on completing his apprenticeship in 1877 he enrolled at the Royal School of Mines in South Kensington, London. Beardmores father died shortly afterwards and the retirement of the business partner saw Williams uncle Isaac become sole proprietor. William became a partner in 1879 and on his uncles retirement seven years later he became the sole proprietor of the business. He rapidly expanded the business and formed it into the company of William Beardmore & Company, of which he became chairman and managing director. In 1899, he bought the yard of Robert Napier and Sons at Govan. In 1900 he became chairman of J. I, thornycroft & Co, the torpedo boat builders. In 1902 he also became a shareholder and director of the armaments firm Vickers, over the years he diversified his business to include the production of vehicles, armaments, including shells and tanks, aircraft, airships and motorcycles. The original forge business continued to produce an array of steel materials, including armour plate, castings, axles, railway equipment, boiler plate. In 1900, he purchased land on the bank of the Clyde at Dalmuir. This he developed one of the largest and most modern shipyards in the world. Beardmore sponsored Ernest Shackletons 1907 Antarctic expedition, and it named the Beardmore Glacier after him and he was a member of the Royal Institution of Naval Architects, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, and the Institution of Shipbuilders and Engineers in Scotland. He was also chairman of the Industrial Welfare Society, lord Invernairn died at his home in Strathnairn, Inverness-shire of heart failure on 9 April 1936, aged 79. The baronetcy and barony died with him
25.
Terra Nova (ship)
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Terra Nova was a whaler and polar expedition ship. She is best known for carrying the 1910 British Antarctic Expedition, Terra Nova was built in 1884 for the Dundee whaling and sealing fleet. She was ideally suited to the regions and worked for 10 years in the annual seal fishery in the Labrador Sea. In 1903, she sailed in company with fellow ex-whaler SY Morning to assist in freeing the National Antarctic Expeditions RRS Discovery from McMurdo Sound, on return to the UK, expedition leader Commander Robert Falcon Scott was promoted to the rank of captain. On return from the Antarctic Terra Nova was purchased by the American millionaire, William Ziegler and placed under the command of a Norwegian and she sailed to the Arctic to return members of the US Fiala/Ziegler expedition from Franz Josef Land to Norway. This expedition had lost its ship America, crushed by ice, after returning to Newfoundland in 1906, Terra Nova resumed sealing duties with her owners, C. T. Bowring & Co. of St. Johns and Liverpool, in 1909, Terra Nova was bought by Captain R. F. Scott RN for the sum of £12,500, as expedition ship for the British Antarctic Expedition 1910. Reinforced from bow to stern with seven feet of oak to protect against the Antarctic ice pack and he described her as a wonderfully fine ice ship. As she bumped the floes with mighty shocks, crushing and grinding a way through some, twisting and turning to avoid others, she seemed like a living thing fighting a great fight. After wintering at Cape Evans on Ross Island, Scott, Henry Bowers, Edgar Evans, Lawrence Oates, starting with tractors and Mongolian ponies, the final 800 miles had to be covered by man-hauling alone. Reaching the South Pole on 17 January 1912, they found that Roald Amundsens expedition had beaten them by thirty-four days, worse was to come, as all five men died on the return journey. The frozen bodies of three were discovered eight months later, in November 1912 and their journals and papers were found and retrieved. After returning from the Antarctic in 1913, Terra Nova was purchased by her former owners, estimates for her career as a sealing vessel is over 800,000 seal pelts. In 1918 she was charted by DOSCO to transport coal from the mines at North Sydney to Bell Island. She also assisted at the disaster of the SS Florizel in February 1918, in 1942, Terra Nova was chartered by Newfoundland Base Contractors to carry supplies to base stations in Greenland. On 12 September 1943 at 2205, the vessel sent an SOS reporting damage, the US Coast Guard Cutters Atak, Amarok, Laurel, and Manitou, all part of the Greenland Patrol of the US Atlantic Fleet, responded. Atak reached Terra Nova on 13 September and they rescued all personnel aboard and set the ship alight before proceeding to Narsarssuak, Greenland
26.
Weddell Sea
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The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre. Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land, the easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast, Queen Maud Land. To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea, much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent, massive ice shelf field, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina, and Britain, and also partially within the territorial claim of Chile. At its widest the sea is around 2,000 kilometres across, various ice shelves, including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, fringe the Weddell sea. Whilst a dramatic event, the area that disappeared was far smaller than the area of ice shelf that remains. The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea, the Ross Sea is relatively peaceful, predictable, and safe. The sea is named after the Scottish sailor James Weddell, who entered the sea in 1823 and originally named it after King George IV, also in 1823, the American sealing captain Benjamin Morrell claimed to have seen land some 10–12° east of the seas actual eastern boundary. He called this New South Greenland, but its existence was disproved when the sea was more fully explored in the early 20th century. Weddell got as far south as 74°S, the furthest southern penetration since Weddell, the Weddell Sea is an important area of deep water mass formation through cabbeling, the main driving force of the thermohaline circulation. Deep water masses are formed through cabbeling in the North Atlantic and are caused by differences in temperature. In the Weddell sea this is brought mainly by brine exclusion. In 1823, British sailor James Weddell discovered the Weddell Sea, Otto Nordenskiöld, leader of the 1901-1904 Swedish Antarctic Expedition, spent a winter at Snow Hill with a team of four men when the relief ship became beset in ice and was finally crushed. The crew managed to reach Paulet Island where they wintered in a primitive hut, Nordenskiöld and the others finally were picked up by the Argentine Navy at Hope Bay. The Antarctic Sound is named after the ship of Otto Nordenskiöld. The sound that separates the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula from Dundee Island is also named “Iceberg Alley”, Snowhill Island, located east of the Antarctic Peninsula. It is almost completely snow-capped, hence its name, Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld built a cabin on the island in 1902 where Nordenskiöld and three members of the expedition had to spend two winters. In 1915, Ernest Shackleton’s ship, the Endurance got trapped and was crushed by ice in this sea, after 15 months on the pack-ice Shackleton and his men managed to reach Elephant Island and finally safely returned
27.
Magnate
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Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. In reference to the Middle Ages, the term is used to distinguish higher territorial landowners and warlords such as counts, earls, dukes. In England, the class went through a change in the later Middle Ages. It had previously consisted of all tenants-in-chief of the crown, a group of more than a hundred families, the emergence of Parliament led to the establishment of a parliamentary peerage that received personal summons, rarely more than sixty families. A similar class in the Gaelic world were the Flatha, in the Middle Ages a bishop sometimes held territory as a magnate, collecting the revenue of the manors and the associated knights fees. In the Tudor period, after Henry VII defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field, Henry VII would make parliament attaint undesirable nobles and magnates, thereby stripping them of their wealth, protection from torture, and power. Henry VII also used the Court of the Star Chamber to have powerful nobles executed, Henry VIII continued this approach in his reign, he inherited a survivalistic mistrust of nobles from his father. Henry VIII ennobled very few men and the ones he did were all new men, novi homines, greatly indebted to him, the term was specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary, the Főrendiház or House of Magnates. In the Early and High Middle Ages the highest title was vojvoda, during the Serbian Empire the higher court members held titles such as despot, sevastokrator and kesar. During foreign rule, under the Ottoman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, Republic of Venice, and later in the Revolution, in Spain, since the late Middle Ages the highest class of nobility hold the appellation of Grandee of Spain. In Sweden, the wealthiest medieval lords were known as storman, great men, a similar description and meaning as the English term magnate. Aristocracy Szlachta, in Poland Boyar, in Eastern Europe Velikaš, in Serbia and Croatia Magnat This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
28.
Public relations
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Public relations is the practice of managing the spread of information between an individual or an organization and the public. Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and this differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications. Public relations is the idea of creating coverage for clients for free, an example of good public relations would be generating an article featuring a client, rather than paying for the client to be advertised next to the article. Jobs central to public relations include account coordinator, account executive, account supervisor, Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organizations target audience, the media, and other opinion leaders. The public relations professional must know how to address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the public relations trade. Public relations and journalism have similarities in the work they do, followed by executing a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance. However, when Lee was later asked about his role in a hearing with the United Transit Commission, in 1948, historian Eric Goldman noted that the definition of public relations in Websters would be disputed by both practitioners and critics in the field. Public Relations Society of America, a trade association, defined public relations in 1982 as, Public relations helps an organization. Public relations can also be defined as the practice of managing communication between an organization and its publics, most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of the public relations profession. Basil Clark is considered the founder of public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of Editorial Services in 1924, most historians believe public relations became established first in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then spread internationally. Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to Europe when they created European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall plan, the second half of the 1900s is considered the professional development building era of public relations. Trade associations, PR news magazines, international PR agencies, in the early 2000s, press release services began offering social media press releases. The U. S Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 2014, the top ten percent in the field made around $105,720 and the bottom ten percent made around $31,190. For public relations managers, however, the annual wage in 2011 was $93,310. Workers in the 90th percentile earned around $176,400, and workers in the 10th percentile earned $50,360, according to the U. S. Department of Labor. The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics also projects an employment growth of 12 percent between 2012 and 2022 for the profession, where an additional 27,400 jobs will need to be filled. The public relations profession has claimed the No.75 spot on the 2014 U. S. News & World Report list of Best Jobs because of its promising direction. In the United States, public relations professionals earn an annual salary of $49,800 which compares with £40,000 for a practitioner with a similar job in the UK
29.
Henryk Arctowski
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Henryk Arctowski, born Henryk Artzt, was a Polish scientist and explorer. Living in exile for a part of his life, he was one of the first persons to winter in Antarctica. He was instrumental in restoring Polish independence after the First World War, several geographical features, the Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station and a medal of the National Academy of Sciences are named in his honor. Henryk Arctowski was born in Warsaw on 15 July 1871 to the Artzt family, as a pupil in the German-occupied part of Poland, he was prosecuted for speaking Polish in school, so his parents sent him to Liège. In 1888 he started studying mathematics, physics and astronomy at the University of Liège, upon completion in 1893, he returned to Liège where he worked in the laboratory of professor Spring in the chemistry department until 1869. In 1893, to emphasize his Polishness, Artzt asked the Belgian government for permission to change his name to Arctowski, in 1895 he applied to participate in the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, the first expedition to spend the winter in the Antarctic. Shipmates included Roald Amundsen and Frederick A. Cook and he coordinated the scientific work and performed physical observations himself, assisted by Antoni Bolesław Dobrowolski. Besides publishing, he presented lectures on the expedition both in Belgium and abroad, on a lecture tour in London he met the American actress and opera singer Arian Jane Addy, whom he married in March 1909. During this period he obtained the Belgian nationality, in 1909 he moved with his wife to New York, where he headed the science division of the New York Public Library from 1911 to 1919. In 1915 he became an American citizen, Arctowski joined The Explorers Club in New York in 1920. In 1920 he returned to newly independent Poland, prime minister Paderewski had offered him the position of minister of education, but he refused and became professor of geophysics and meteorology at Jan Kazimierz University. He was very active in research and involved in the International Union of Geodesy, in 1939 he traveled with his wife to the United States to attend a conference of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, when the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany invaded Poland. They never managed to return to Poland and lost all their possessions and he accepted a position as a research associate at the Smithsonian and continued doing research until his death, even when he was obliged to resign in 1950 due to an illness. The Polish Navy named its survey ship ORP Arctowski after him, Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station Works by or about Henryk Arctowski at Internet Archive The Polish Antarctic Station Henryk Arctowski Henryk Arctowski at Find a Grave
30.
Discovery Expedition
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Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology, zoology, geology, meteorology and magnetism. The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow-free Antarctic valleys, further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony, King Edward VII Land, and the Polar Plateau on which the South Pole is located. The expedition tried to reach the South Pole travelling as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82°17′S, as a trailbreaker for later ventures, the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history. Between 1839 and 1843 Royal Naval Captain James Clark Ross, commanding his two ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, completed three voyages to the Antarctic continent. During this time he discovered and explored a new sector of the Antarctic that would provide the field of work for many later British expeditions. He returned to the Barrier several times, hoping to penetrate it, Ross suspected that land lay to the east of the Barrier, but was unable to confirm this. After Ross there were no recorded voyages into this sector of the Antarctic for fifty years, then, in January 1895, a Norwegian whaling trip made a brief landing at Cape Adare, the northernmost tip of Victoria Land. Four years later Carsten Borchgrevink, who had participated in landing, took his own expedition to the region. This expedition was financed by a donation of £35,000 from British publishing magnate Sir George Newnes, Borchgrevink landed at Cape Adare in February 1899, erected a small hut, and spent the 1899 winter there. The following summer he sailed south, landing at Rosss inlet on the Barrier, a party of three then sledged southward on the Barrier surface, and reached a new Furthest South at 78°50′. The Discovery Expedition was planned during a surge of international interest in the Antarctic regions at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. A German expedition under Erich von Drygalski was leaving at about the time as Discovery. The Swedish explorer Otto Nordenskiöld was leading an expedition to Graham Land, finally, the Scottish scientist William Speirs Bruce was leading a scientific expedition to the Weddell Sea. Under the influence of John Barrow, Second Secretary to the Admiralty, Naval interest diminished after the disappearance in 1845 of the Franklin expedition, and the many fruitless searches that followed. However, the Royal Geographical Societys Secretary Sir Clements Markham was a naval man who had served on one of the Franklin relief expeditions in 1851. He had accompanied Nares for part of the 1874–76 expedition, murray presented a paper entitled The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration, and called for a full-scale expedition for the benefit of British science. This was strongly supported, both by Markham and by the premier scientific body, the Royal Society. A joint committee of the two Societies was established to decide the form which the expedition should take and his cousin and biographer later wrote that the expedition was the creation of his brain, the product of his persistent energy
31.
Frederick George Jackson
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Frederick George Jackson was an English Arctic explorer remembered for his expedition to Franz Josef Land, when he located the missing Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen. He was born the son of George Frederick and Mary Elizabeth Jackson at Alcester Lodge, Alcester, Warwickshire, England and educated at Denstone College in Staffordshire and Edinburgh University. His first voyage in Arctic waters was on a cruise in 1886–1887. His narrative of this journey was published under the title of The Great Frozen Land, on his return, he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition. Sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society, this expedition was to conduct general exploration of Franz Josef Land. Jackson informed him that they were in fact on Franz Josef Land, Jackson and his party wintered at their camp according to plan. The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition proved that Franz Josef Land is nothing more than an archipelago of small islands. In recognition of his services he received a knighthood of the first class of the Norwegian Royal Order of St Olaf in 1898 and his account of the expedition was published under the title of A Thousand Days in the Arctic. He served in South Africa with the 5th Battalion, Manchester Regiment, during the Second Boer War and he transferred to the 4th Battalion, East Surrey Regiment in 1905, serving in the First World War and reaching the rank of Major. He resigned his commission in 1917, after being invalided home he commanded Southwark Recruiting District for two years followed by commands of a number of prisoner of war camps in Germany. His travels also include a journey across the Australian deserts and he is buried in the churchyard of St Michael and St Mary Magdalene at Easthampstead in Berkshire, and there is a memorial plaque on the wall of the church near the font. The plaque reads, -In memory of Frederick George Jackson Major, East Surrey Regiment Commander of the Jackson-Harmsworth polar expedition. Mapped. and named the greater part of Franz Joseph Land, died 13 March 1938 aged 78 years Sans Peur et Sans Reproche His memorial is in St Pauls Cathedral. His grave is in this churchyard, one of the headlands discovered on the expedition was named St Chads Head, and the sledge used was presented to Denstone College. Jackson Island Works by or about Frederick George Jackson at Internet Archive Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Jackson, Frederick George Jackson, Brief bio from homepage of the Queens Royal Surrey Regiment Frederick George Jackson, Entry in Archives Hub
32.
Fridtjof Nansen
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Fridtjof Nansen was a Norwegian explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In his youth he was a skier and ice skater. He led the team made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888. He won international fame after reaching a record latitude of 86°14′ during his North Pole expedition of 1893–96. Between 1906 and 1908 he served as the Norwegian representative in London, in the final decade of his life, Nansen devoted himself primarily to the League of Nations, following his appointment in 1921 as the Leagues High Commissioner for Refugees. In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the victims of the First World War. Among the initiatives he introduced was the Nansen passport for stateless persons and he worked on behalf of refugees until his sudden death in 1930, after which the League established the Nansen International Office for Refugees to ensure that his work continued. This office received the Nobel Peace Prize for 1938, Nansen was honoured by many nations, and his name is commemorated in numerous geographical features, particularly in the polar regions. The Nansen family originated in Denmark, Hans Nansen, a trader, was an early explorer of the White Sea region of the Arctic Ocean. In later life he settled in Copenhagen, becoming the citys borgmester in 1654, later generations of the family lived in Copenhagen until the mid-18th century, when Ancher Antoni Nansen moved to Norway. His son, Hans Leierdahl Nansen, was a magistrate first in the Trondheim district, after Norways separation from Denmark in 1814, he entered national political life as the representative for Stavanger in the first Storting, and became a strong advocate of union with Sweden. After suffering a stroke in 1821 Hans Leierdahl Nansen died, leaving a four-year-old son, Baldur Fridtjof Nansen. Baldur was a lawyer without ambitions for public life, who became Reporter to the Supreme Court of Norway, Baldur and Adelaide settled at Store Frøen, an estate at Aker, a few kilometres north of Norways capital city, Christiania. The couple had three children, the first died in infancy, the second, born 10 October 1861, was Fridtjof Nansen, Store Frøens rural surroundings shaped the nature of Nansens childhood. In the short summers the main activities were swimming and fishing, the long winter months were devoted mainly to skiing, which Nansen began to practice at the age of two, on improvised skis. At the age of 10 he defied his parents and attempted the ski jump at the nearby Huseby installation. This exploit had near-disastrous consequences, as on landing the skis dug deep into the snow, pitching the boy forward, I, head first, hen I came down again I bored into the snow up to my waist. The boys thought I had broken my neck, but as soon as they saw there was life in me, a shout of mocking laughter went up
33.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
34.
Wilhelm Filchner
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Wilhelm Filchner was a German explorer. At the age of 21, he participated in his first expedition, two years later, he travelled alone and on horseback through the Pamir Mountains, from Osh to Murgabh to the upper Wakhan to Tashkurgan and back. From 1903 to 1905 he led an expedition through China to Tibet, following his return from Tibet, he was tasked with organizing a German expedition to map Antarctica. After a training expedition to Spitzbergen, they set off with their ship Deutschland on 4 May 1911, the expedition entered the Weddell Sea and discovered Luitpold Coast and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, which Filchner had originally named after the German emperor Wilhelm II. They were the first expedition to enter further into Weddell Sea than James Weddell some 80 years before, the ship overwintered in the pack ice after attempts to set up a base on the ice shelf had failed because of an iceberg calving. It was not until September 1912 that the Deutschland was free again, during its drift in the Weddell Sea ice Filchner investigated the existence of New South Greenland, an alleged coastline seen by Captain Bejamin Morrell in 1823, during a sealing voyage. He found no trace, and concluded that Morrell had seen a mirage, Filchner never returned to Antarctica, but went on many journeys through Nepal and Tibet, including a geographic survey of Nepal in 1939. Adolf Hitler awarded him the German National Prize for Art and Science as an acknowledgement of his achievements in exploration, later on he lived in Poona in the Maharashtra state of India. Filchner died at the age of 79 in Zurich, Switzerland, German Exploration of the Polar World, a History, 1870–1940. London, Great Britain and Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press,2002
35.
Seal hunting
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Seal hunting, or sealing, is the personal or commercial hunting of seals. Seal hunting is practiced in nine countries, Canada, the United States, Namibia, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Finland. Most of the seal hunting takes place in Canada and Greenland. Canadas largest market for seals is Norway, the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans regulates the seal hunt in Canada. The DFO set harvest quotas of over 90,000 seals in 2007,275,000 in 2008,280,000 in 2009, and 330,000 in 2010. The actual kills in recent years have less than the quotas,82,800 in 2007,217,800 in 2008,72,400 in 2009. In 2007, Norway claimed that 29,000 harp seals were killed in its seal hunt, and Russia and Greenland claimed that 5,476 and 90,000 seals were killed in 2007, respectively. Harp seal populations in the northwest Atlantic declined to approximately 2 million in the late 1960s as a result of Canadas annual kill rates, conservationists demanded reduced rates of killing and stronger regulations to avert the extinction of the harp seal. An endangered seal is the Mediterranean monk seal, in 1971, the Canadian government responded by instituting a quota system. Because it was thought that the competitive element might cause sealers to cut corners, new regulations were introduced that limited the catch to 400 seals per day, a 2007 population survey conducted by the DFO estimated the population at 5.5 million. It is illegal in Canada to hunt newborn harp seals and young hooded seals, when the seal pups begin to molt their downy white fur at the age of 12–14 days, they are called ragged-jacket and can be commercially hunted. After molting, the seals are called beaters, named for the way they beat the water with their flippers, the hunt remains highly controversial, attracting significant media coverage and protests each year. Images from past hunts have become symbols for conservation, animal welfare. In 2009, Russia banned the hunting of harp seals less than one year old, the term seal is used to refer to a diverse group of animals. In science, they are grouped together in the Pinnipeds, which includes the walrus, not popularly thought of as a seal. The fur seal yields a valuable fur, the seal has no fur. Archeological evidence indicates the Native Americans and First Nations People in Canada have been hunting seals for at least 4,000 years, traditionally, when an Inuit boy killed his first seal or caribou, a feast was held. The meat was an important source of fat, protein, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and iron, the Inuit diet is rich in fish, whale, and seal
36.
Colony of Newfoundland
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This followed decades of sporadic English settlement on the island, at first seasonal rather than permanent. It was made a Crown colony in 1854 and a Dominion of the British Empire in 1907, in 1949 it joined the Canadian confederation as the Province of Newfoundland. In 2001 that was changed to the current jurisdiction, the English encountered the Beothuk indigenous people on the island of Newfoundland and in the region. From 1610 to 1728, proprietary governors were appointed to establish settlements on the island. John Guy was governor of the first settlement at Cupers Cove, other settlements were Bristols Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, which was organized as a province in 1623. The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638, during this period, France had also established settlements in the region, particularly to the west in what is now Quebec. It had strong trading ties to many of the First Nations along the Atlantic Coast, including the Mikmaq, the rivalry between England and France in Europe was played out in conflicts in North America, where they struggled for predominance. The Newfoundland colony was nearly obliterated during the Avalon Peninsula Campaign of King Williams War, in 1696 the French and allied Mikmaq armed forces wiped out all but a handful of English settlements on the island of Newfoundland. Over the next year, the English repopulated and rebuilt the colony, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 ceded all of Newfoundland to the British Crown. Given the Newfoundland colonys isolation from the more southern British Thirteen Colonies in North America, after the American Revolutionary War ended in 1783 with the independence of the United States, Newfoundland Colony became part of British North America. The Crown resettled some Loyalists in Newfoundland, but most were given land in Nova Scotia and it became an official Crown colony in 1825, and Thomas John Cochrane, an officer of the Royal Navy, was appointed as its first governor. He directed the construction of Government House, which is located between Fort William and Fort Townshend and it has been designated as a National Historic Site of Canada. The colony was granted a constitution in 1832, and Cochrane became its first civil governor, the colony was granted self-governing status in 1854. Philip Francis Little was the first Premier of Newfoundland Colony between 1855 and 1858, the colony rejected confederation with Canada in the period of 1864-69. In 1907, Newfoundland became the Dominion of Newfoundland, a Dominion of the British Empire, due to economic hardship in 1934 it suspended its self-government and accepted temporary rule by a royal commission. Together with Labrador, an area on the mainland, it confederated with Canada in 1949 as the province of Newfoundland, in 2001 that was amended to rename the province Newfoundland and Labrador. British Empire Dominion of Newfoundland History of Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador List of lieutenant governors of Newfoundland and Labrador
37.
Caulking
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Caulking is both the processes and material to seal joints or seams in various structures and some types of piping. The oldest form of caulking is used to make the seams in wooden boats or ships watertight, a related process was formerly employed to join sections of cast iron sewerage pipe. Caulking is also the term to describe the used to make riveted iron or steel ships. The same term also refers to the application of flexible sealing compounds to close up gaps in buildings and other structures against water, air, dust, insects, or as a component in firestopping. In the tunnelling industry, caulking refers to the sealing of joints in segmental precast concrete tunnels, traditional caulking on wooden vessels uses fibers of cotton and oakum. These fibers are driven into the seam between planks, with a caulking mallet and a broad chisel-like tool called a caulking iron. In riveted steel or iron ship construction, caulking was a process of rendering seams watertight by driving a thick and this had the effect of displacing the metal into a close fit with the adjoining piece. Originally done by hand much like wooden vessel caulking, pneumatic tools were later employed, with the advent of electric-arc welding for ship construction, steel ship caulking was rendered obsolete. Caulking of iron and steel, of the type described above for ships hulls, was also used by boilermakers in the era of riveted boilers to make the joints watertight and steamtight. Caulk can refer either to the substance or to the process of applying it. Caulking as a term has spread to the trade, meaning the activity of closing up joints. The function of caulking is to provide insulation, control water penetration. This is mostly done with ready-mixed construction chemicals sold as such as silicone, polyurethane, polysulfide, sylil-terminated-polyether or polyurethane. Unlike construction caulk, which is applied where no building movement is expected, one-component sealants are commonly sold in cartridges which are loaded into a pistol-like caulking gun or barrel gun for application. During the tool-working time, which varies by chemistry, the bead can be pressed into the joint so that it can bond with the materials on both sides, and also be smoothed. The time it takes for a chemical sealant to become a rubber is known as the time and varies by temperature. Silicone sealants form a durable, water-tight seal, but are not typically paintable, some silicone sealants are made to be paintable with certain types of paint such as water or oil-based paints. Backer rods can also be used to reduce consumption of the caulking by filling part of the joints, backer rod is often round and rope-like in shape but many special types and shaped such as square, rectangular and D-shapes are available
38.
Earl of Iveagh
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Earl of Iveagh is a noble title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1919 for the businessman and philanthropist Edward Guinness and he was the third son of Sir Benjamin Guinness, 1st Baronet, of Ashford, and the great-grandson of Arthur Guinness, the founder of the Guinness brewery. Guinness had already created a baronet, of Castle Knock in the County of Dublin, in 1885. As of 2015, the titles are held by his great-great-grandson, the fourth Earl, as a descendant of the first Guinness Baronet of Ashford, he is also in remainder to that title. The Conservative politician Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne, was the son of the first Earl. The family seat is Elveden Hall, near Elveden, Suffolk, Guinness baronets, of Ashford Baron Moyne Guinness family Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David. New York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages
39.
Anglo-Irish people
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Many became eminent as administrators in the British Empire and as senior army and naval officers. The term is not usually applied to Presbyterians in the province of Ulster, whose ancestry is mostly Scottish, rather than English or Irish, the Anglo-Irish held a wide range of political views, with many of them being outspoken Irish Nationalists. And while many of the Anglo-Irish were part of the English diaspora in Ireland, in the course of the 17th century, this Anglo-Irish landed class replaced the Gaelic Irish and Old English aristocracies as the ruling class in Ireland. They were also referred to as New English to distinguish them from the Old English who descended from the medieval Hiberno-Norman settlers and those who converted to the Church of Ireland were usually able to keep or regain their lost property, as the issue was primarily one of allegiance. In the late 18th century the Parliament of Ireland in Dublin won legislative independence, the Anglo-Irish social class was usually of mixed English and Irish or Welsh ancestry. Members of this class commonly identified themselves as Irish, while retaining English habits in politics, commerce. They participated in the popular English sports of the day, particularly racing and fox hunting, many of the more successful of them spent much of their careers either in Great Britain or in some part of the British Empire. Many constructed large houses, which became known in Ireland as Big Houses. The Dublin working class playwright Brendan Behan, a staunch Irish Republican, saw the Anglo-Irish as Irelands leisure class, the Anglo-Irish novelist and short story writer Elizabeth Bowen memorably described her experience as feeling English in Ireland, Irish in England and not accepted fully as belonging to either. Due to their prominence in the military and their conservative politics and they also controlled financial companies such as the Bank of Ireland and Goodbody Stockbrokers. Prominent Anglo-Irish poets, writers, and playwrights include Jonathan Swift, George Berkeley, Oliver Goldsmith, Bram Stoker, Oscar Wilde, J. M. Synge, W. B. Yeats, Cecil Day-Lewis, Bernard Shaw, Augusta, Lady Gregory, Samuel Beckett, Giles Cooper, C. S. Lewis, Lord Longford, the polar explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton was also an Anglo-Irishman. Medical experts included Sir William Wilde, Robert Graves, Thomas Wrigley Grimshaw, William Stokes, Robert Collis, Sir John Lumsden, William Desmond Taylor was an early and prolific maker of silent films in Hollywood. Philanthropists included Thomas Barnardo and The 1st Earl of Iveagh, the Anglo-Irish, as a class, were mostly opposed to the notions of Irish independence and Home Rule. Most were supporters of continued political union with Great Britain, which existed between 1800 and 1922, however, Protestants in Ireland, and the Anglo-Irish class in particular, were by no means universally attached to the cause of continued political union with Great Britain. For instance, author Jonathan Swift, a clergyman in the Church of Ireland, the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was led by members of the Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots class, some of whom feared the political implications of the impending union with Great Britain. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, Irish nationalism became increasingly tied to a Roman Catholic identity, by the beginning of the twentieth century, many Anglo-Irishmen in southern Ireland had become convinced of the need for a political settlement with Irish nationalists. Anglo-Irish politicians such as Sir Horace Plunkett and Lord Monteagle became leading figures in finding a solution to the Irish question
40.
Government of Australia
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The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self-governing British colonies, the terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a Washminster mutation. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Governments legislative powers and allocates certain powers, all remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States. Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, the High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions. The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution, the Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum, more commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This transfer legislation may have a clause, a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period. In addition, Australia has several territories, two of which are self-governing, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 until 2016, the other territories that are regularly inhabited—Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands—have never been self-governing. The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution, the House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five, but the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States, all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority, the ACT and the NT each elect two Senators. The third level of government after Commonwealth and State/Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns, the Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives, usually serving part-time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located, with this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed, the Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76-member Senate, twelve Senators from each state are elected for six-year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote, with half elected every three years. In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory, while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory
41.
New Zealand Government
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The Government of New Zealand, formally Her Majestys Government in New Zealand, is the administrative complex through which authority is exercised in New Zealand. As in most parliamentary democracies, the term Government refers chiefly to the executive branch, based on the principle of responsible government, it operates within the framework that the Queen reigns, but the government rules, so long as it has the support of the House of Representatives. The position of Prime Minister, New Zealands head of government, in practice, the Prime Minister is determined by size of each political party, support agreements between parties and leadership votes in the party that leads the Government. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor-General, however, the Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet, and by convention, the Governor-General respects the Prime Ministers choices. Cabinet ministers are drawn from elected members of the Prime Ministers party in the House of Representatives, a few more ministers are part of the Executive Council but are outside Cabinet. Most ministers have a portfolio of specific responsibilities such as departments or policy areas, the Prime Minister exercises vast political power, especially in the appointment of government officials and civil servants. The Queen of New Zealand is head of state but plays little part in governing the country, however, the legal authority of the state that is vested in the monarch, known as the Crown, remains the source of the executive power exercised by the Government. The Governor-General presides over the Executive Council, but is not a member, New Zealand had been granted responsible government in 1853 following the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Governments were set up at state and at level, with initially six provinces. The provinces were abolished by the Abolition of Provinces Act 1876, for the purposes of the Act, the provinces formally ceased to exist on 1 January 1877. The first government that formed along political lines did not appear until 1891, when John Ballance formed the Liberal Party and the Liberal Government. The current Government of New Zealand is the Fifth National Government, led by Prime Minister John Key from 2008 until 12 December 2016, the National Party has parliamentary support from the Māori Party, United Future and ACT. Politics of New Zealand, for a description of jurisdictions, politics. Judiciary of New Zealand Westminster system
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Cape Royds
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Cape Royds is a dark rock cape forming the western extremity of Ross Island, facing on McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. It was discovered by the Discovery Expedition and named for Lieutenant Charles Royds, Royal Navy, Royds subsequently rose to become an Admiral and was later Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, London. There is a hut at Cape Royds built by Ernest Shackleton during his 1907–1909 expedition, the whole shore party lived in this hut through the winter of 1908. When spring came stores were sledged to Hut Point, so that should the break up early between these two places they might not be left in an awkward position. The stove was in condition, and the letter ended with an invitation for any succeeding party to make what use they required of stores. The hut was then locked and the key nailed on the door in a conspicuous place, the only visit to Shackletons hut made during Scotts 1910–1913 expedition was by a former member of Shackletons expedition. Shackletons hut was found intact, with bread still on the tables just as it had been left, raymond Priestley, who had walked out the door of the building two years previously, described coming back to the place as very eerie. Priestly retrieved a tin of butter, tins of jam, a pudding and gingerbread biscuits from the site. Amongst other things, five crates of McKinlay and Co. whisky were found buried under the hut in 2006, one crate is currently in Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, New Zealand undergoing restoration and, if possible, analysis of the whisky. The Antarctic Heritage Trust has custody over the site, nominated by AHT, Shackletons Hut was listed in the 2004,2006, and 2008 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund to attract attention and financial support for the site. In 2004, through WMF, funding for conservation was provided by American Express, shackleton’s Hut has been designated a Historic Site or Monument, following a proposal by New Zealand and the United Kingdom to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. An area of 6200 ha at the cape is protected as Antarctic Specially Protected Area because it supports the southernmost established Adélie penguin colony known, with a long period of population data. The presence of polynyas in McMurdo Sound provides an area where penguins can feed. The area is important for its terrestrial and freshwater ecology, it is the type locality for several species of algae. Blacksand Beach Flagstaff Point This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document Cape Royds
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Edward Adrian Wilson
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Edward Adrian Wilson FZS was an English physician, polar explorer, natural historian, painter and ornithologist. Born in 91 Montpellier Terrace, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, on 23 July 1872, Wilson was the son and fifth child of physician Dr Edward Thomas Wilson and his wife, Mary Agnes. A clever, sensitive, but boisterous boy, he developed a love of the countryside, natural history and drawing from an early age. He was sent as a boarder to a school in Clifton, Bristol. His mother was a breeder and he spent much of his youth at The Crippetts farm. By the age of nine he had announced to his parents that he was going to become a naturalist, with encouragement and tuition from his father, he started to draw pictures of the wildlife and fauna in the fields around the farm. After passing his Oxford and Cambridge exams with honours in science, in 1891 he went to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge where he read Natural Sciences and it was during his time there that he developed the deep Christian faith and asceticism by which he lived his life. He studied for his Bachelor of Medicine degree at St Georges Hospital Medical School, London, in February 1898, shortly before qualifying as a doctor, Wilson became seriously ill and was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis, contracted during his mission work. During a long convalescence from illness he spent months in Norway and Switzerland, time he used to practice. He qualified in medicine in 1900 and the year was appointed Junior House Surgeon at Cheltenham General Hospital. He married Oriana Souper on 16 July 1901 just three weeks before setting off for the Antarctic as a member of Robert Falcon Scotts Discovery Expedition. Wilson took part in two British expeditions to Antarctica, the Discovery Expedition and the Terra Nova Expedition, both under the leadership of Scott, from 1901 to 1904, Wilson acted as Junior Surgeon, Zoologist and expedition artist, setting off with the expedition on 6 August 1901. They reached Antarctica in January 1902, on 2 November 1902, Wilson, Scott and Ernest Shackleton set off on a journey that, at the time, was the southern-most trek achieved by any explorer. The party had dogs but they were not experienced in using them, with many of the dogs dead, they turned back on 31 December 1902 having reached latitude 82°17S. They had travelled 300 miles farther south than anyone before them and were only 480 miles from the Pole, Shackleton was deteriorating rapidly, coughing blood and suffering fainting spells and unable to help pull the sledge. Scott and Wilson, themselves suffering, struggled to get the party home and it was a close call but 93 days after setting off, having covered 960 miles, they reached the Discovery and safety in February 1903. The following month, Shackleton, having suffered particularly badly from scurvy and exhaustion, was sent home early by Scott on the relief ship, Morning. On his return, Shackleton asked Wilson to join his Nimrod expedition to Antarctica in 1907, on 15 June 1910, Wilson set sail from Cardiff on the Terra Nova, as Chief of the Scientific Staff of Scotts final expedition
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