1.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
2.
Swedish krona
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The krona has been the currency of Sweden since 1873. Both the ISO code SEK and currency sign kr are in use, the former precedes or follows the value. In English, the currency is referred to as the Swedish crown. The Swedish krona was the 11th most traded currency in the world by value in April 2013, one krona is subdivided into 100 öre. However, all öre coins have been discontinued as of 30 September 2010, goods can still be priced in öre, but all sums are rounded to the nearest krona when paying with cash. The introduction of the krona, which replaced at par the riksdaler, was a result of the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which came into effect in 1876 and lasted until the beginning of World War I. The parties to the union were the Scandinavian countries, where the name was krona in Sweden and krone in Denmark and Norway, the three currencies were on the gold standard, with the krona/krone defined as 1⁄2480 of a kilogram of pure gold. After dissolution of the union in August 1914, Sweden, Denmark. On 11 September 2012, the Riksbank announced a new series of coins with new sizes to replace the 1 and 5 kronor coins which arrived in October 2016. The design of the coins follows the theme of singer-songwriter Ted Gärdestads song, Sol, vind och vatten and this also included the reintroduction of the 2 kronor coin, while the current 10 kronor coin remained the same. The new coins also have a new portrait of the king in the design, one of the reasons for a new series of coins is to end the use of nickel. It is expected that vending machines and parking meters will to a high degree stop accepting coins. Cash is already used in Sweden, with many young people avoiding cash as much as possible. Between 1873 and 1876, coins in denominations of 1,2,5,10,25, and 50 öre and 1,2,10, and 20 kronor were introduced. The 1,2 and 5 öre were in bronze, the 10,25,50 öre and 1 krona and 2 kronor were in silver, gold 5 kronor coins were added in 1881. In 1873 the Scandinavian Monetary Union currency was fixed so that 248,000 öre purchased 1 kg of gold, in 2017 the price of gold is 365,289 kronor per kg. So one öre in 1873 bought as much gold as 1.47 krona in 2017, so if it is reasonable to have the smallest denomination coin 1 krona today, in 1873 a reasonable smallest denomination coin was 1 öre. A10 kr gold coin weighed 4.4803 grams with 900 finess so that the weight was 4.03327 grams or exactly 1/248th of a kilogram
3.
Michael W. Young
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Michael W. Young has dedicated over three decades to research studying genetically controlled patterns of sleep and wakefulness within Drosophila melanogaster. He was able to elucidate the function of the period gene, Youngs lab is also attributed with the discovery of the timeless and doubletime genes, which makes proteins that are also necessary for circadian rhythm. Michael W. Young was born in Miami, Florida in 1949 and his father worked for Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation managing aluminum ingot sales for the south eastern United States. His mother worked for a law firm as a secretary and they lived in an environment close to private zoos, where occasionally some of the animals would escape into their backyard and spark Youngs scientific interest. Michael Young grew up in and around Miami, Florida, then, his family moved to Dallas, Texas where he continued high school. In his early teens, Michael’s parents gifted him one of Darwin’s books on evolution, the book described biological clocks as the reason why a strange plant he had seen years earlier produced flowers that closed during the day and opened at night. The location and composition of these clocks were unknown, and this sparked Michael Young’s interest at an early age, while working as a graduate student at the University of Texas, Michael Young met his future wife Laurel Eckhardt. Later, both moved to Stanford University, where Michael worked as a fellow and Laurel pursued her PhD with Len Herzenberg. Today, she can be found at Hunter College as a Professor of Biology, Michael and Laurel still work close to each other. Together, they have two daughters Natalie and Arissa, Young earned his undergraduate degree in biology from University of Texas at Austin in 1971. After a summer of research with Burke Judd on the Drosophila genome and it was during his time here that Young became fascinated with research focused on Drosophila. During his graduate work, he learned of Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer’s work with Drosophila circadian mutants, Michael Young continued his studies through postdoctoral training at Stanford University School of Medicine with an interest in molecular genetics and particular focus on transposable elements. He worked in Dave Hogness’ lab and became familiar with the methods of recombinant DNA, two years later, he joined Rockefeller University as an assistant professor. From 1978 on he was involved in the University, serving as professor in 1984. In 2004, Young was appointed Vice President for Academic Affairs and was granted the Richard. At The Rockefeller University in the early 1980s, Young and his two lab members, Ted Bargiello and Rob Jackson, further investigated the circadian period gene in Drosophila and they constructed segments of recombinant Drosophila DNA, amplified them in bacteria, and injected them in per mutant animals. A locomotor behavior monitor was used to assay behavioral activity, the team watched and recorded fly activity through the day and night to show that the fly restored circadian behavioral rhythms by transferring a functional per gene. Following the discovery of per, the Young lab looked for additional circadian genes, in late 1980s, Amita Sehgal, Jeff Price, Bernice Mann helped Young use forward genetics to screen for additional mutations that altered fly rhythms
4.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
5.
Nobel Foundation
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The Nobel Foundation is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. The Foundation is based on the last will of Alfred Nobel and it also holds Nobel Symposia on important breakthroughs in science and topics of cultural or social significance. Alfred Bernhard Nobel, born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm Sweden, was a chemist, engineer, innovator, armaments manufacturer and he owned Bofors, a major armaments manufacturer, which he had redirected from its original business as an iron and steel mill. Nobel held 355 different patents, dynamite being the most famous, Nobel amassed a sizeable personal fortune during his lifetime, thanks mostly to this invention. In 1896 Nobel died of a stroke in his villa in San Remo, Nobels will expressed a request, to the surprise of many, that his money be used for prizes in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, as of December 31,2015, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 4.065 billion Swedish kronor. The Nobel Foundation was founded as an organisation on 29 June 1900 specifically to manage the finances. It is based on Nobels last will and testament, at the time Nobels will led to much specticism and criticism and thus it was not until April 26,1897 that his will was approved by the Storting. Soon thereafter they appointed the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that was to award the Peace Prize, shortly after, the other prize-awarding organizations followed, Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9 and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on June 11. The next thing the Nobel Foundation did was to try to agree on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded, in 1900 the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905 the Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved which meant the responsibility for awarding Nobel Prizes was split between the two countries, norways Nobel Committee became the awarder of the Peace Prize while Sweden became the awarder of the other prizes. In accordance with Nobels will, the task of the Nobel Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left after him in a fund. Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to represent the Nobel Prize to the outside world, the Nobel Foundation is not involved in any way in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company in that it invests money in ways to create a solid funding base for the prize. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden and from investment taxes in the United States, since the 1980s the Foundations investments began to earn more money than previously. At the beginning of the 1980s the award money was 1 million SEK, according to the statutes the Foundation should consist of a Board with its seat in Stockholm. It should consist of five men, the Chairman of the board should be appointed by the King in Council
6.
Life sciences
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While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields. Some life sciences focus on a type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants, other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience. The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and they have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. There is considerable overlap between many of the topics of study in the life sciences, biology – burst and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into a single. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, hematology – study of blood and blood-forming organs. Toxicology - study of the effects of chemicals on living organisms Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, medicine – applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention. Some of its branches are, Anesthesiology – branch of medicine that deals with life support, cardiology – branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels. Critical care medicine – focuses on support and the intensive care of the seriously ill. Dermatology – branch of medicine that deals with the skin, its structure, functions, emergency medicine – focuses on care provided in the emergency department. Endocrinology – branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the endocrine system, gastroenterology – branch of medicine that deals with the study and care of the digestive system. General Practice is a branch of medicine that specializes in primary care, geriatrics – branch of medicine that deals with the general health and well-being of the elderly. Gynecology – branch of medicine that deals with the health of the reproductive systems. Hematology – branch of medicine that deals with the blood and the circulatory system, hepatology – branch of medicine that deals with the liver, gallbladder and the biliary system
7.
Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
8.
Nobel Prize
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The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
9.
Alfred Nobel
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Alfred Bernhard Nobel was a Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and philanthropist. Known for inventing dynamite, Nobel also owned Bofors, which he had redirected from its previous role as primarily an iron and steel producer to a manufacturer of cannon. Nobel held 355 different patents, dynamite being the most famous, after reading a premature obituary which condemned him for profiting from the sales of arms, he bequeathed his fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes. The synthetic element nobelium was named after him and his name also survives in modern-day companies such as Dynamit Nobel and AkzoNobel, which are descendants of mergers with companies Nobel himself established. Born in Stockholm, Alfred Nobel was the son of Immanuel Nobel, an inventor and engineer. The couple married in 1827 and had eight children, the family was impoverished, and only Alfred and his three brothers survived past childhood. Alfred Nobels interest in technology was inherited from his father, an alumnus of Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, following various business failures, Nobels father moved to Saint Petersburg in 1837 and grew successful there as a manufacturer of machine tools and explosives. He invented modern plywood and started work on the torpedo, in 1842, the family joined him in the city. For 18 months, from 1841 to 1842, Nobel went to the school he ever attended as a child. As a young man, Nobel studied with chemist Nikolai Zinin, then, in 1850, there he met Ascanio Sobrero, who had invented nitroglycerin three years before. Sobrero strongly opposed the use of nitroglycerin, as it was unpredictable, but Nobel became interested in finding a way to control and use nitroglycerin as a commercially usable explosive, as it had much more power than gunpowder. At age 18, he went to the United States for one year to study chemistry, working for a period under inventor John Ericsson. Nobel filed his first patent, an English patent for a gas meter, in 1857, while his first Swedish patent, the family factory produced armaments for the Crimean War, but had difficulty switching back to regular domestic production when the fighting ended and they filed for bankruptcy. In 1859, Nobels father left his factory in the care of the son, Ludvig Nobel. Nobel and his parents returned to Sweden from Russia and Nobel devoted himself to the study of explosives, Nobel invented a detonator in 1863, and in 1865 designed the blasting cap. On 3 September 1864, a used for preparation of nitroglycerin exploded at the factory in Heleneborg, Stockholm, killing five people. Dogged and unfazed by more minor accidents, Nobel went on to build further factories, Nobel invented dynamite in 1867, a substance easier and safer to handle than the more unstable nitroglycerin. Dynamite was patented in the US and the UK and was used extensively in mining, in 1875 Nobel invented gelignite, more stable and powerful than dynamite, and in 1887 patented ballistite, a predecessor of cordite
10.
Dynamite
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Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht and it rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safer alternative to gun powder and nitroglycerin. Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder, Nobel obtained patents for his invention in England on 7 May 1867, in Sweden on 19 October 1867. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as an alternative to black powder. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were shut down. However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by using a different formula. Nobel originally sold dynamite as Nobels Blasting Powder but decided to change the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word δύναμις dýnamis, an industrialist, engineer, and inventor, Alfred Nobels father, Immanuel Nobel, built bridges and buildings in Stockholm. His construction work inspired him to new methods of blasting rock. Immanuels work with later on inspired Alfred to make explosives safer. Today dynamite is used in the mining, quarrying, construction. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, Dynamite is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges. Nitroglycerin by itself is a strong explosive, but is extremely shock-sensitive, and degrades over time to even more unstable forms. Dynamite combines nitroglycerin with absorbents and stabilizers, rendering it safe to use, the original composition of dynamite consisted of three parts Explosive Oil, one part diatomaceous earth as the absorbent, and a small admixture of sodium carbonate antacid as the stabilizer. Diatomaceous earth is not usually used today as an absorbent medium and it has replaced by cheaper media like sawdust, wood pulp, flour. Other stabilizers like calcium carbonate or zinc oxide can be used in the place of sodium carbonate, sodium nitrate is added to the medium as an oxidizer that improves the dynamites brisance. Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about 20 cm long and about 3.2 cm in diameter, a stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion or by weight, Dynamite is usually rated by weight strength, usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% dope, the maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions
11.
Physiology
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
12.
Obverse and reverse
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In this usage, obverse means the front face of the object and reverse means the back face. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it depicts the head of a prominent person. In fields of scholarship outside numismatics, the front is more commonly used than obverse. For prints and drawings with material on both sides the one judged as more significant will be the recto, a convention now exists typically to display the obverse to the left and the reverse to the right in photographs and museum displays, but this is not invariably observed. Following this principle, in the most famous of ancient Greek coins, the tetradrachm of Athens, the obverse is the head of Athena, similar versions of these two images, both symbols of the state, were used on the Athenian coins for more than two centuries. The opposite side may have varied from time to time and this change happened in the coinage of Alexander the Great, which continued to be minted long after his death. The various Hellenistic rulers who were his successors followed his tradition and this script alone style then was used on nearly all Islamic coinage until the modern period. The type of Justinian II was revived after the end of Iconoclasm, without images, therefore, it is not always easy to tell which side will be regarded as the obverse without some knowledge. After 695, Islamic coins avoided all images of persons and usually, the side expressing the Six Kalimas is usually defined as the obverse. The form of currency follows its function, which is to serve as an accepted medium of exchange of value. Traditionally, most states have been monarchies where the person of the monarch, if not provided for on the obverse, the reverse side usually contains information relating to a coins role as medium of exchange. Additional space typically reflects the countrys culture or government, or evokes some aspect of the states territory. Regarding the euro, some regarding the obverse and reverse of the euro coins exists. This rule does not apply to the coins as they dont have a common side. A number of the used for obverse national sides of euro coins were taken from the reverse of the old pre-euro coins of some individual countries. Several countries continue to use portraits of the monarch and the Republic of Ireland continues to use the State Arms. The Chrysanthemum Crest was no longer used after the war, and so, the side on which the date continues to be regarded as the reverse. Following ancient tradition, the obverse of coins of the United Kingdom almost always feature the head of the monarch
13.
Circadian rhythm
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A circadian rhythm /sɜːrˈkeɪdiən/ is any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours. These 24-hour rhythms are driven by a clock, and they have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi. The term circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning around, the formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called chronobiology. Processes with 24-hour oscillations are generally called diurnal rhythms, strictly speaking. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous, they are adjusted to the environment by external cues called zeitgebers. The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B. C. E, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree. The first recorded observation of an endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist Jean-Jacques dOrtous de Mairan in 1729, in 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light, in the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the period gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation using mice in 1994, however, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype, which questions its importance in rhythm generation. The term circadian was coined by Franz Halberg in the 1950s, to be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these three general criteria, The rhythm has an endogenous free-running period that lasts approximately 24 hours. The rhythm persists in constant conditions, with a period of about 24 hours, the period of the rhythm in constant conditions is called the free-running period and is denoted by the Greek letter τ. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested, in diurnal animals, in general τ is slightly greater than 24 hours, whereas, in nocturnal animals, in general τ is shorter than 24 hours. The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli, a process called entrainment, the external stimulus used to entrain a rhythm is called the Zeitgeber, or time giver. In other words, they maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures, many organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their cell. In order to track of time, the organisms circadian clock must maintain roughly a 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics. The Q10 Temperature Coefficient is a measure of this compensating effect, if the Q10 coefficient remains approximately 1 as temperature increases, the rhythm is considered to be temperature-compensated
14.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
15.
Emil von Behring
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Emil von Behring, as Emil Adolf Behring born was a German physiologist who received the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the first one awarded, for his discovery of a diphtheria antitoxin. He was widely known as a saviour of children, as used to be a major cause of child death. He was ennobled in 1901 for services to medicine, Behring was born Adolf Emil Behring in Hansdorf, Province of Prussia, now Poland. Between 1874 and 1878, he studied medicine at the Akademie für das militärärztliche Bildungswesen and he was mainly a military doctor and then became Professor of Hygienics within the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Marburg, a position he would hold for the rest of his life. He and the pharmacologist Hans Horst Meyer had their laboratories in the same building, Behring was the discoverer of diphtheria antitoxin in 1890 and attained a great reputation by that means and by his contributions to the study of immunity. He won the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901 for the development of serum therapies against diphtheria, the former had been a scourge of the population, especially children, whereas the other was a leading cause of death in wars, killing the wounded. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, at the International Tuberculosis Congress in 1905 he announced that he had discovered a substance proceeding from the virus of tuberculosis. This substance, which he designated T C, plays the important part in the action of Professor Behrings bovivaccine. He tried unsuccessfully to obtain a protective and therapeutic agent for humans and he created an antitoxin, which upon demonstration via injection was able to be transmitted to another animal by injections of a treated animals blood serum and used as a means of effecting a cure. Behring died at Marburg, Hessen-Nassau, on 31 March 1917 and his Nobel Prize medal is now kept on display at the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva. Von Behring is believed to have cheated Paul Ehrlich out of recognition, the two men developed a diphtheria serum by repeatedly injecting the deadly toxin into a horse. The serum was used effectively during an epidemic in Germany, to add insult to injury, only Behring received the first Nobel Prize in Medicine, in 1901, for his contributions. They held their honeymoon at villa Behring on Capri 1897, where Behring owned a vacation home, in 1909–1911, the Russian writer Maxim Gorky lived at this villa. Emil von Behring, The founder of serum therapy and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, ulrike Enke, Salvatore dellInfanzia Behring and Capri www. uni-marburg. de/behring-digital
16.
Blood plasma
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Blood plasma is a straw coloured liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells in whole blood in suspension, this makes plasma the extracellular matrix of blood cells. It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is the fluid part of extracellular fluid. It is mostly water, and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, electrolytes, hormones, carbon dioxide, Plasma also serves as the protein reserve of the human body. It plays a role in an intravascular osmotic effect that keeps electrolytes in balanced form and protects the body from infection. Blood plasma is prepared by spinning a tube of fresh blood containing an anticoagulant in a centrifuge until the blood fall to the bottom of the tube. The blood plasma is then poured or drawn off, Blood plasma has a density of approximately 1025 kg/m3, or 1.025 g/ml. Blood serum is blood plasma without clotting factors, in other words, plasmapheresis is a medical therapy that involves blood plasma extraction, treatment, and reintegration. Fresh frozen plasma is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, Blood plasma volume may be expanded by or drained to extravascular fluid when there are changes in Starling forces across capillary walls. For example, when blood pressure drops in circulatory shock, Starling forces drive fluid into the interstitium, standing still for a prolonged period will cause an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume will cross into the extravascular compartment and this causes an increase in hematocrit, serum total protein, blood viscosity and, as a result of increased concentration of coagulation factors, it causes orthostatic hypercoagulability. The use of plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes was proposed in March 1918, in the correspondence columns of the British Medical Journal. Dried plasmas in powder or strips of material format were developed, prior to the United States involvement in the war, liquid plasma and whole blood were used. The Blood for Britain program during the early 1940s was quite successful based on Charles Drews contribution, a large project began in August 1940 to collect blood in New York City hospitals for the export of plasma to Britain. Drew was appointed supervisor of the Plasma for Britain project. His notable contribution at this time was to transform the test tube methods of many blood researchers into the first successful mass production techniques. Nonetheless, the decision was made to develop a dried plasma package for the forces as it would reduce breakage and make the transportation, packaging. The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 cc bottles, one bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle
17.
Vaccine
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A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe. Vaccines can be prophylactic, or therapeutic, the administration of vaccines is called vaccination. The effectiveness of vaccination has been studied and verified, for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that licensed vaccines are available to prevent or contribute to the prevention. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae, the term devised by Edward Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the. Variolae vaccinae. known. the Cow Pox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed, vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist, sometimes, protection fails because the hosts immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from factors such as diabetes, steroid use. Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people, the efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors, the disease itself the strain of vaccine whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed. Idiosyncratic response to vaccination, some individuals are non-responders to certain vaccines, assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition. If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated victims, in 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States,552 deaths resulted. After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year, in early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious, other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur. This effect is called herd immunity, polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries. However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times, vaccination given during childhood is generally safe
18.
Gerty Cori
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Gerty was not a nickname, but rather she was named after an Austrian warship. Because of deteriorating conditions in Europe, the couple emigrated to the United States in 1922, Gerty Cori continued her early interest in medical research, collaborating in the laboratory with Carl. She published research findings coauthored with her husband, as well as publishing singly, unlike her husband, she had difficulty securing research positions, and the ones she obtained provided meager pay. Her husband insisted on continuing their collaboration, though he was discouraged from doing so by the institutions that employed him and they also identified the important catalyzing compound, the Cori ester. In 2004, both Gerty and Carl Cori were designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of their work in clarifying carbohydrate metabolism, in 1957, Gerty Cori died after a ten-year struggle with myelosclerosis. She remained active in the laboratory until the end. She received recognition for her achievements through multiple awards and honors, the Cori crater on the Moon and the Cori crater on Venus are named after her. Gerty Theresa Radnitz was born into a Jewish family in Prague in 1896 and her father, Otto Radnitz, was a chemist who became manager of sugar refineries after inventing a successful method for refining sugar. Her mother, Martha, a friend of Franz Kafka, was a sophisticated woman. Gerty was tutored at home before enrolling in a Lyceum for girls, pursuing the study of science, Gerty learned that she lacked the prerequisites in Latin, physics, chemistry, and mathematics. Over the course of a year, she managed to study the equivalent of eight years of Latin, five years of science and her uncle, a professor of pediatrics, encouraged her to attend medical school, so she studied for and passed the University entrance examination. She was admitted to the school of the Karl-Ferdinands-Universität in Prague in 1914. While studying she met Carl Cori who was attracted to her charm, vitality, sense of humor and her love of the outdoors. Gerty and Carl had both entered medical school at eighteen and both graduated in 1920, Gerty converted to Catholicism, enabling her and Carl to marry in the Roman Catholic Church. They moved to Vienna, Austria, where Gerty spent the two years at the Carolinen Childrens Hospital, and her husband worked in a laboratory. Carl served in the Austrian army during World War I after being drafted, life was difficult following World War I, and Gerty suffered from xerophthalmia caused by severe malnutrition due to food shortages. These problems, in conjunction with the increasing anti-Semitism, contributed to the Coris decision to leave Europe, in 1922, the Coris both immigrated to the United States to pursue medical research at the State Institute for the Study of Malignant Diseases in Buffalo, New York. In 1928, they became naturalized citizens of the United States, the director for the Institute threatened to dismiss Gerty if she did not cease collaborative research with her husband
19.
Selman Waksman
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A professor of biochemistry and microbiology at Rutgers University for four decades, he discovered over twenty antibiotics and introduced procedures that have led to the development of many others. In 1952 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in recognition for his discovery of streptomycin, Waksman was later accused of playing down the role of Albert Schatz, a PhD student who did the work under Waksmans supervision to discover streptomycin. Selman Waksman was born on July 22,1888, to Jewish parents, in Nova Pryluka, Podolia Governorate, Russian Empire, now Vinnytsia Oblast and he was the son of Fradia and Jacob Waksman. He immigrated to the United States in 1910, shortly after receiving his diploma from the Fifth Gymnasium in Odessa. Waksman attended Rutgers College, where he was graduated in 1915 with a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture and he continued his studies at Rutgers, receiving a Master of Science the following year. During his graduate study, he worked under J. G. Lipman at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station at Rutgers performing research in soil bacteriology. Waksman was then appointed as Research Fellow at the University of California, later he joined the faculty at Rutgers University in the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology. It was at Rutgers that Waksmans team discovered several antibiotics, including actinomycin, clavacin, streptothricin, streptomycin, grisein, neomycin, fradicin, candicidin, candidin, two of these, streptomycin and neomycin, have found extensive application in the treatment of numerous infectious diseases. Streptomycin was the first antibiotic that could be used to cure the disease tuberculosis, Selman Waksman died on August 16,1973 and was interred at the Crowell Cemetery in Woods Hole, Barnstable County, Massachusetts. He was the father of Byron Waksman, involved in Multiple sclerosis research, Waksman had been studying the Streptomyces family of organism since his college student days and had, for a time, been studying the organism Streptomyces griseus. Streptomycin was isolated from S. griseus and found effective against tuberculosis by one of Waksmans graduate students, the details and credit for the discovery of streptomycin and its usefulness as an antibiotic were strongly contested by Schatz, eventually leading to litigation. Waksman and Rutgers settled out of court with Schatz, resulting in financial remuneration and entitlement to legal, systematic experiments to test several strains of antibiotic against several different disease organisms were under way in Waksmans laboratory at the time. Their classic approach was to explore a complete matrix with rows consisting of antibiotics, the bacteria which produced the antibiotic streptomycin was discovered by Schatz in the farmland outside his lab, and tested by him. Waksman, however, eventually came to claim credit for the discovery. Neomycin is derived from actinomycetes and was discovered by Waksman and Hubert A. Lechevalier, the discovery was published in the journal Science. Waksman was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1952 for his discovery of streptomycin, in the award speech, Waksman was called one of the greatest benefactors to mankind, as the result of the discovery of streptomycin. Schatz protested being left out of the award, but the Nobel committee ruled that he was a lab assistant working under an eminent scientist. In 1951, using half of his patent royalties, Waksman created the Waksman Foundation for Microbiology
20.
Albert Schatz (scientist)
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Albert Israel Schatz was an American microbiologist and science educator, best known as a codiscoverer of the antibiotic streptomycin. Schatz graduated from Rutgers University in 1942 with a degree in soil microbiology. In three and a half months he had isolated two strains of bacterium that stopped the growth of tubercle bacillus and several other penicillin-resistant bacteria in a petri dish. Schatz was born in Norwich, Connecticut, and raised on a poor, isolated Passaic, New Jersey farm by his Russian Jewish émigré father and his initial interest in soil microbiology stemmed from his intention to become a farmer. Seeing workers being assaulted by the authorities during the Depression prompted him to socialism and humanitarianism. He and Vivian Rosenfeld, a student at New Jersey College for Women, were married in March 1945, the couple were enthusiastic naturalists and environmentalists and they enjoyed the wilds of Vermont. Schatz was interested in the paranormal and alternative medicine and he campaigned against the fluoridation of drinking water, argued for a proteolysis-chelation theory of tooth decay and proposed a novel theory for the cause of the extinction of the dinosaurs. A fellow postgraduate student, Doris Ralston, described Schatz as A poverty-stricken, after five months, Schatz was conscripted, and worked as a bacteriologist at a military hospital in Florida until he was discharged due to back problems. Within three and a half months he had identified two related strains of bacteria in the phylum Actinomycetes which stopped the growth of tubercle bacillus, one strain came from a mouth swab from a healthy chicken, the other from soil outside his lab. He named the antibiotic derived from these bacteria streptomycin, after leaving Rutgers in 1946, Schatz worked at Brooklyn College, and the National Agricultural College in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. Schatz was lead author, with Waksman, on the paper that first reported the discovery of streptomycin, and the second author, with Waksman, on the streptomycin patent application. At Waksmans request, in 1946 Schatz signed over his right to royalties from the US streptomycin patent to the Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, and later signed over his foreign rights. He said he agreed to this so as to make available as readily and inexpensively as possible. Schatz began to feel that Waksman was playing down his role in the discovery, an out-of-court settlement awarded Schatz $120,000 for the foreign patent rights, and 3% of the royalties, representing about $15,000 per annum for several years. Waksman conceded in court that Schatz, is entitled to credit legally and scientifically as co-discoverer of streptomycin, Schatz was never again able to get work in a top-level microbiology lab. In October 1952, it was announced that Waksman would be awarded that years Nobel prize for physiology or medicine for the discovery of streptomycin, Schatz received honorary degrees from Brazil, Peru, Chile and the Dominican Republic. On the 50th anniversary of the discovery of streptomycin, In 1994, the New York Times placed his and Waksmans 1948 streptomycin patent in the top 10 discoveries of the 20th century. The university has made Schatzs basement lab into a museum documenting his, as a result of the streptomycin controversy, regulations were passed in the US aimed at ensuring graduate students get due recognition and reward for their contributions
21.
James Watson
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James Dewey Watson is an American molecular biologist, geneticist and zoologist, best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA in 1953 with Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin. Watson earned degrees at the University of Chicago and Indiana University, from 1956 to 1976, Watson was on the faculty of the Harvard University Biology Department, promoting research in molecular biology. From 1968 he served as director of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, greatly expanding its level of funding, at CSHL, he shifted his research emphasis to the study of cancer, along with making it a world leading research center in molecular biology. In 1994, he started as president and served for 10 years and he was then appointed chancellor, serving until he resigned in 2007 after making controversial comments claiming a link between intelligence and race. Between 1988 and 1992, Watson was associated with the National Institutes of Health, Watson has written many science books, including the textbook Molecular Biology of the Gene and his bestselling book The Double Helix. James D. Watson was born in Chicago, Illinois, on April 6,1928, as the son of Jean and James D. Watson. His mothers father, Lauchlin Mitchell, a tailor, was from Glasgow, Scotland, raised Catholic, he later described himself as an escapee from the Catholic religion. Watson said, The luckiest thing that happened to me was that my father didnt believe in God. Watson grew up on the side of Chicago and attended public schools, including Horace Mann Grammar School. He was fascinated with bird watching, a hobby shared with his father, Watson appeared on Quiz Kids, a popular radio show that challenged bright youngsters to answer questions. Thanks to the policy of University president Robert Hutchins, he enrolled at the University of Chicago. After reading Erwin Schrödingers book What Is Life, in 1946, Watson changed his professional ambitions from the study of ornithology to genetics. Watson earned his B. S. degree in Zoology from the University of Chicago in 1947 and he received his Ph. D. degree from Indiana University in 1950, Salvador Luria was his doctoral advisor. Originally, Watson was drawn into molecular biology by the work of Salvador Luria, Luria eventually shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the Luria–Delbrück experiment, which concerned the nature of genetic mutations. He was part of a group of researchers who were making use of the viruses that infect bacteria. He and Max Delbrück were among the leaders of this new Phage Group, early in 1948, Watson began his PhD research in Lurias laboratory at Indiana University. That spring, he met Delbrück first in Lurias apartment and again that summer during Watsons first trip to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, the Phage Group was the intellectual medium where Watson became a working scientist. Importantly, the members of the Phage Group sensed that they were on the path to discovering the nature of the gene
22.
Francis Crick
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Crick was an important theoretical molecular biologist and played a crucial role in research related to revealing the helical structure of DNA. He is widely known for use of the central dogma to summarize the idea that genetic information flow in cells is essentially one-way. During the remainder of his career, he held the post of J. W. Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla and his later research centered on theoretical neurobiology and attempts to advance the scientific study of human consciousness. He remained in this post until his death, he was editing a manuscript on his death bed, Crick was the first son of Harry Crick and Annie Elizabeth Crick. He was born and raised in Weston Favell, then a village near the English town of Northampton, in which Crick’s father and uncle ran the family’s boot. His grandfather, Walter Drawbridge Crick, an amateur naturalist, wrote a survey of local foraminifera, corresponded with Charles Darwin, at an early age, Francis was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books. As a child, he was taken to church by his parents, but by about age 12, he said he did not want to go anymore, as he preferred a scientific search for answers over religious belief. When he was eight or nine he transferred to the most junior form of the Northampton Grammar School, on the Billing Road. This was about 1.25 mi from his home so he could there and back, by Park Avenue South and Abington Park Crescent. The teacher – a Miss Holding – was an inspired teacher, the teaching in the higher forms was satisfactory, but not as stimulating. After the age of 14, he was educated at Mill Hill School in London, where he studied mathematics, physics and he shared the Walter Knox Prize for Chemistry on Mill Hill Schools Foundation Day, Friday,7 July 1933. He declared that his success was inspired by the quality of teaching he received whilst a pupil at Mill Hill, at the age of 21, Crick earned a Bachelor of Science degree in physics from University College London. Crick had failed to gain a place at a Cambridge college, Crick began his PhD at UCL but was interrupted by WWII. He was also an Honorary Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge and of University College, during his second year as a PhD student, however, he was awarded the Carey Foster Research Prize, a great honour. He did postdoctoral work at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, in 1947, aged 31, Crick began studying biology and became part of an important migration of physical scientists into biology research. This migration was possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall. Crick had to adjust from the elegance and deep simplicity of physics to the chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years. He described this transition as, almost as if one had to be born again, Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who tended to concern themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics
23.
Maurice Wilkins
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He is best known for his work at Kings College London on the structure of DNA. Wilkins work on DNA falls into two distinct phases, the first was in 1948–50, when his initial studies produced the first clear X-ray images of DNA, which he presented at a conference in Naples in 1951 attended by James Watson. Wilkins imprudently showed it to Watson and this image, along with the knowledge that Linus Pauling had proposed an incorrect structure of DNA, “mobilised” Watson and Crick to restart model building. With additional information from reports of Wilkins and Franklin, obtained via Max Perutz, Watson. Wilkins continued to test, verify, and make significant corrections to the Watson-Crick DNA model, Wilkins was born in Pongaroa, north Wairarapa, New Zealand where his father, Edgar Henry Wilkins was a medical doctor. His family had come from Dublin, where his paternal and maternal grandfathers were, respectively, Headmaster of Dublin High School, the Wilkinses moved to Birmingham, England when Maurice was 6. Later, he attended Wylde Green College and then went to King Edwards School from 1929 to 1934, Wilkins went to St Johns College, Cambridge in 1935. Wilkins became a Ph. D. student of Randall at Birmingham University, in 1945, they published three papers in the Proceedings of the Royal Society on phosphorescence and electron traps. Wilkins received his Ph. D. for this work, meanwhile, Randall had been appointed to the Chair of Physics at the University of St Andrews. In 1945, he appointed Wilkins as Assistant Lecturer in his department at the University of St Andrews, Randall was negotiating with the Medical Research Council to set up a laboratory to apply the experimental methods of physics to problems of biology. The combination of disciplines as biophysics was a novel idea. The MRC told Randall that this had to be done in another university, in 1946 Randall was appointed Wheatstone Professor of Physics, in charge of the entire Physics department at Kings College, London, with the funding to set up a Biophysics Unit. He brought Wilkins with him as Assistant Director of the unit and they appointed a team of scientists trained in both the physical and biological sciences. The management philosophy was to explore the use of techniques in parallel, to find which looked promising. Kings College received funding to completely new Physics and Engineering Departments where vaults beneath the Strand level College forecourt had been destroyed by bombs during the War. The Biophysics Unit, several more experimental physics groups and the group started to move in. The laboratories were opened formally by Lord Cherwell on 27 June, Wilkins article for Nature described both departments, consistent with his leadership role and prestige within the college at large. At Kings College, Wilkins pursued, among other things, X-ray diffraction work on ram sperm, the DNA from Signers lab was much more intact than the DNA which had previously been isolated
24.
DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates, most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are termed polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases—cytosine, guanine, adenine, or thymine —a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules, with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, in comparison the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 trillion tons of carbon. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information and this information is replicated as and when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences, the two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases and it is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, under the genetic code, these RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation. Within eukaryotic cells DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, eukaryotic organisms store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast prokaryotes store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, within the eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed, DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. DNA is used by researchers as a tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as the ergodic theorem. The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro-, among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA-based hybrid materials. DNA is a polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides
25.
Rosalind Franklin
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Rosalind Elsie Franklin was an English chemist and X-ray crystallographer who made contributions to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal, and graphite. Although her works on coal and viruses were appreciated in her lifetime, then she studied the Natural Sciences Tripos at Newnham College, Cambridge, from which she graduated in 1941. Earning a research fellowship, she joined the University of Cambridge physical chemistry laboratory under Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, fortunately, the British Coal Utilisation Research Association offered her a research position in 1942, and started her work on coals. This helped her earn a Ph. D. in 1945 and she went to Paris in 1947 as a chercheur under Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de lEtat, where she became an accomplished X-ray crystallographer. She became an associate at Kings College London in 1951 and worked on X-ray diffraction studies. In 1953, after two years, owing to disagreement with her director John Randall and more so with her colleague Maurice Wilkins, at Birkbeck, J. D. Bernal, chair of the physics department, offered her a separate research team. She died in 1958 at the age of 37 of ovarian cancer, Watson suggested that Franklin would have ideally been awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Wilkins, but the Nobel Committee does not make posthumous nominations. After finishing her work on DNA, Franklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the structures of viruses. Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982, Franklin was born on 25 July 1920 in 50 Chepstow Villas, Notting Hill, London into an affluent and influential British Jewish family. Her father was Ellis Arthur Franklin, a politically liberal London merchant banker who taught at the citys Working Mens College, Rosalind was the elder daughter and the second child in the family of five children. David was the eldest brother, Colin, Roland, and Jenifer were her younger siblings and her fathers uncle was Herbert Samuel, who was the Home Secretary in 1916 and the first practising Jew to serve in the British Cabinet. Her aunt, Helen Caroline Franklin, known in the family as Mamie, was married to Norman de Mattos Bentwich, Helen Caroline Franklin was active in trade union organisation and the womens suffrage movement, and was later a member of the London County Council. Her uncle, Hugh Franklin, was prominent figure in the suffrage movement. Rosalinds middle name, Elsie, was in memory of Hughs first wife, Franklins parents helped settle Jewish refugees from Europe who had escaped the Nazis, particularly those from the Kindertransport. They took in two Jewish children to their home, and one of them, a nine-year-old Austrian, Evi Eisenstädter, from early childhood, Franklin showed exceptional scholastic abilities. At age six, she joined her brother Roland at Norland Place School, at that time, her aunt Mamie, described her to her husband, Rosalind is alarmingly clever – she spends all her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, and invariably gets her sums right. She also developed an early interest in cricket and hockey, at age nine, she entered a boarding school, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex. The school was near the seaside, and the family wanted an environment for her delicate health
26.
Ivan Pavlov
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Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an energy which he referred to as the instinct for research. Inspired by the ideas which D. I. In 1870 he enrolled in the physics and mathematics department at the University of Saint Petersburg in order to study natural science, Pavlov won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904, becoming the first Russian Nobel laureate. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Pavlov as the 24th most cited psychologist of the 20th century, Pavlovs principles of classical conditioning have been found to operate across a variety of experimental and clinical settings, including educational classrooms. Ivan Pavlov, the eldest of eleven children, was born in Ryazan, Russian Empire and his father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a village Russian orthodox priest. His mother, Varvara Ivanovna Uspenskaya, was a devoted homemaker, as a child, Pavlov willingly participated in house duties such as doing the dishes and taking care of his siblings. He loved to garden, ride his bicycle, row, swim, Pavlov attended and graduated from the Ryazan church school before entering the local theological seminary. However, in 1870, he left the seminary without graduating to attend the university at St. Petersburg where he enrolled in the physics and math department and took natural science courses. In his fourth year, his first research project on the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas won him a university award. In 1875, Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record, however, impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology, he decided to continue his studies and proceeded to the Imperial Academy of Medical Surgery. While at the Academy of Medical Surgery, Pavlov became an assistant to his teacher, Tyson. After some time, Pavlov obtained a position as an assistant to Professor Ustimovich at the physiological department of the Veterinary Institute. For two years, Pavlov investigated the system for his medical dissertation. In 1878, Professor S. P. Botkin, a famous Russian clinician, in 1879, Pavlov graduated from the Medical Military Academy with a gold medal award for his research work. After a competitive examination, Pavlov won a fellowship at the Academy for postgraduate work, the fellowship and his position as director of the Physiological Laboratory at Botkins clinic enabled Pavlov to continue his research work. In 1883, he presented his doctors thesis on the subject of The centrifugal nerves of the heart and posited the idea of nervism, additionally, his collaboration with the Botkin clinic produced evidence of a basic pattern in the regulation of reflexes in the activity of circulatory organs. He was inspired to forsake his Orthodox Christian background and pursue a career by D. I
27.
Ludvig Nobel
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Ludvig Immanuel Nobel was a Swedish-Russian engineer, a noted businessman and a humanitarian. One of the most prominent members of the Nobel family, he was the son of Immanuel Nobel, with his brother Robert, he operated Branobel, an oil company in Baku, Azerbaijan which at one point produced 50% of the worlds oil. He is credited with creating the Russian oil industry, Ludvig Nobel built the largest fortune of any of the Nobel brothers and was one of the worlds richest men. Following the Bolshevik revolution, the communists confiscated the Nobel familys vast fortune in Russia, with some funds he had managed to save, Ludvig opened a new firm, the Machine-Building Factory Ludvig Nobel. Initially producing chilled cast-iron shells, the factory became in a few one of the largest producers of gun carriages of Russia. While running the factory in St. Petersburg, Ludwig obtained a contract to manufacture rifles for the Russian government. He sent his oldest brother, Robert Nobel in 1873 to procure Russian walnut wood in the Caucasus region of southern Russia. Without consulting his brother, Robert spent the 25,000 rubbles that Ludwig entrusted to him for buying wood – walnut money –, Ludwig sent additional funds to Robert to invest in modernisation and refinery efficiency. By 1876, the Nobel brothers established themselves as the most competent refiner in Baku, by 1879, Ludvig turned the initial business into a shareholding company, Branobel, of which he was the major shareholder and had as partners his brothers Robert and Alfred Nobel. Ludvig Nobel invented oil tankers, and better refineries, pipelines, before 1880 the United States was Russias teacher in most aspects of the oil business. The roles were reversed in some respects by Nobel, the oil business lacked technical know-how and scientific methodology. To rectify this, Nobel established technical chemical research labs in Baku and these research centers were very active and when something of commercial interest was found, Nobel was fast in trying the new products out on a large scale. Dozens of scientists were employed, finding ways to treat oil, developing new uses for oil, Nobel first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges. Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, a concern was to keep the cargo. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, the worlds first successful oil tanker was Nobels Zoroaster. He designed this in Lindholmen-Motala in Sweden with Sven Almqvist, the contract to build it was signed January 1878, and it made its first run later that year from Baku to Astrakhan. The design was studied and copied, with Nobel refusing to patent any part of it. In October 1878, he ordered two tankers of the same design, the Buddha and the Nordenskjöld
28.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
29.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
30.
Peace
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Peace is a lack of conflict and freedom from fear of violence between heterogeneous social groups. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace often involves compromise, Peace can be defined in a positive direction and in a negative sense. Positively, peace is a state of tranquility and stillness, however, in a negative sense, the term peace originates most recently from the Anglo-French pes, and the Old French pais, meaning peace, reconciliation, silence, agreement. But, Pes itself comes from the Latin pax, meaning peace, compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of hostility, harmony. At a personal level, peaceful behaviors are kind, considerate, respectful, just, and tolerant of others beliefs and behaviors — tending to manifest goodwill. This latter understanding of peace can also pertain to an individuals introspective sense or concept of her/himself, as in being at peace in ones own mind, as found in European references from c.1200. In many languages, the word for peace is used as a greeting or a farewell, for example the Hawaiian word aloha. In English the word peace is used as a farewell, especially for the dead. Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the problems of human life. Among pagan faiths, worship of personified Peace was organized in antiquity under the name Eirene in Greek-speaking areas and as Pax in Latin-speaking ones and her idols depicted a full-grown woman, usually with a horn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch or olive leaves. Christians, who believe Jesus of Nazareth to be the Jewish Messiah called Christ, numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the Holy Rosary as a means to foster peace. Islam derived from the root word salam which literally means peace, muslims are called followers of Islam. Quran clearly stated Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah, hearts are assured and stated O you who have believed, and when you are told, Arise, then arise, Allah will raise those who have believed among you and those who were given knowledge, by degrees. And Allah is Acquainted with what you do, buddhists believe that peace can be attained once all suffering ends. They regard all suffering as stemming from cravings, aversions, or delusions, to eliminate such suffering and achieve personal peace, followers in the path of the Buddha adhere to a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths — a central tenet in Buddhist philosophy. Hindu texts contain the following passages, May there be peace in the heavens, peace in the atmosphere, let there be coolness in the water, healing in the herbs and peace radiating from the trees. Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars, may everything in the universe be at peace
31.
Literature
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Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura was used to refer to all written accounts, developments in print technology have allowed an evergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature. There have been attempts to define literature. Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to answer the question What is Literature, with the observation, The quest to discover a definition for literature is a road that is much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they change over time. In fact, the thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well, definitions of literature have varied over time, it is a culturally relative definition. In Western Europe prior to the century, literature as a term indicated all books. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the older, more inclusive notion of what constitutes literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works. The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction and this sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition when it classifies literature as the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing. The formalist definition is that literature foregrounds poetic effects, it is the literariness or poetic of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura learning, a writing, grammar, originally writing formed with letters, in spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts. Poetry is a form of art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of. Possibly as a result of Aristotles influence, poetry before the century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition, novel, a long fictional prose narrative. It was the close relation to real life that differentiated it from the chivalric romance, in most European languages the equivalent term is roman. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the fifteenth century, with the meaning of news, it came to indicate something new
32.
Storting
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The Storting is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies, a member of the Storting is known in Norwegian as a Stortingsrepresentant, literally Storting representative. The assembly is led by a president and, since 2009 five vice presidents — the presidium, the members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Three ombudsmen are directly subordinate to parliament, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee, in 2009, qualified unicameralism was replaced by unicameralism, through the dissolution of the two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president, the alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as an entity in the 10th century. The Parliament of Norway Building opened in 1866, on 27 June 1940 the presidium signed an appeal to King Haakon, about his abdication. In September 1940 the representatives were summoned to Oslo, and voted in favour of the results of the negotiations between the presidium and the authorities of the German invaders, however, directives from Adolf Hitler resulted in the obstruction of the agreement of cooperation between parliament and occupation force. Although the Storting has always been unicameral, until 2009 it would divide itself into two departments in legislative matters. After elections, the Storting would elect a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting a sort of upper house, the division was also used on very rare occasions in cases of impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an upper house. Bills were submitted by the Government to the Odelsting or by a member of the Odelsting, a standing committee, with members from both the Odelsting and Lagting, would then consider the bill, and in some cases hearings were held. If passed by the Odelsting, the bill would be sent to the Lagting for review or revision, most bills were passed unamended by the Lagting and then sent directly to the king for royal assent. If the Lagting amended the Odelstings decision, the bill would be sent back to the Odelsting, if the Odelsting approved the Lagtings amendments, the bill would be signed into law by the King. If it did not, then the bill would return to the Lagting, if the Lagting still proposed amendments, the bill would be submitted a plenary session of the Storting. In order to be passed, the bill should have then had the approval of a majority of the plenary session. In all other cases a majority would suffice. Three days had to pass between each time a department voted on a bill, in all other cases, such as taxes and appropriations, the Storting would meet in plenary sessions
33.
Statute
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A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city or country. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy, statutes are rules made by legislative bodies, they are distinguished from case law or precedent, which is decided by courts, and regulations issued by government agencies. Statute law is written by a legislative body and signed into law by its executive. Before a statute becomes law in countries, it must be agreed upon by the highest executive in the government. A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes, such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through a number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect. In turn, in theory, the code will thenceforth reflect the current cumulative state of the law in that jurisdiction. In many nations statutory law is distinguished from and subordinate to constitutional law, statute is also another word for law. The term was adapted from England in about the 18th century, in the Autonomous Communities of Spain, the autonomy statute is a legal document similar to a state constitution in a federated state. The autonomies statutes in Spain have the rank of Ley Organica, leyes Organicas rank between the Constitution and ordinary laws. The name was chosen, among others, to avoid confusion with the term Constitution, in biblical terminology, statute refers to a law given without any reason or justification. The classic example is the statute regarding the Red Heifer. The opposite of a chok is a mishpat, a law given for a reason, e. g. the Sabbath laws, which were given because God created the world in six days. That which upholds, supports or maintains the order of the universe meaning the Law or Natural Law. This is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion, Constitution Legislation Legislature Organic statute Statutory law
34.
Oscar II of Sweden
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Oscar II was King of Sweden from 1872 until his death and King of Norway from 1872 until his dethronement in 1905. He was the third of four sons of King Oscar I, as his eldest brother Charles XV was without heirs and his brother Prince Gustaf died in 1852, it was he who succeeded his brother as king. Oscar II was king during a period when Sweden was undergoing a period of industrialization, the declining Union of Sweden and Norway was finally dissolved in 1905 and Oscar became the last Bernadotte king of Norway. He died in 1907 and was succeed as King of Sweden by his son, at his birth in Stockholm, Oscar Fredrik was created Duke of Östergötland. He entered the navy at the age of eleven, and was appointed lieutenant in July 1845. Later he studied at Uppsala University, where he distinguished himself in mathematics, on 13 December 1848, he was made an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. On 6 June 1857 he married in Wiesbaden-Biebrich, Germany, Princess Sophia Wilhelmina, from 1859, when his father died, he was first in line to the Swedish throne after his oldest brother King Charles, who then had no male heirs. His middle brother Gustaf had died in 1852 and he succeeded his brother Charles XV / IV on 18 September 1872. At the accession he adopted as his motto Brödrafolkens väl / Broderfolkenes Vel, the political events which led up to the peaceful dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905 could hardly have been attained but for the tact and patience of the king himself. He was dethroned on 7 June 1905 by the Norwegian Parliament and he declined, indeed, to permit any prince of his house to become king of Norway, but better relations between the two countries were restored before his death. He died in Stockholm on 8 December 1907 at 9,10 AM and his acute intelligence and his aloofness from the dynastic considerations affecting most European sovereigns gave the king considerable weight as an arbitrator in international questions. At the request of Great Britain, Germany and the United States in 1889 he appointed the justice of Samoa. He was the 1, 027th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain, the office of prime minister was instituted in 1876. Louis De Geer became the first head of government in Sweden to use this title, the most known and powerful first minister of the Crown during the reign of Oscar was the conservative estate owner Erik Gustaf Boström. Boström served as Prime Minister in 1891-1900 and 1902-1905 and he was trusted and respected by the king, who had much difficulty approving someone else as prime minister. Over a period of time, the king gave Boström a free hand to select his own ministers without much royal involvement and it was an arrangement that furthered the road to parliamentarism. Himself a distinguished writer and musical amateur, King Oscar proved a friend of learning. In 1858 a collection of his lyrical and narrative poems, Memorials of the Swedish Fleet, published anonymously, obtained the second prize of the Swedish Academy
35.
Karolinska Institute
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The Karolinska Institute is a medical university in Solna within the Stockholm urban area, Sweden, and one of the largest and most prestigious medical universities in the world. The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and it consists of fifty professors from various medical disciplines at the university. In 2017 Ole Petter Ottersen was nominated to become rector of the university, the Karolinska Institute was founded in 1810 on Kungsholmen on the west side of Stockholm, the main campus was relocated decades later to Solna, just outside Stockholm. A second campus was established recently in Flemingsberg, Huddinge. The Karolinska Institute is Swedens third oldest medical school, after Uppsala University, Research at the Karolinska Institute accounts for more than 40% of all academic medical research in Sweden. The Karolinska University Hospital, located in Solna and Huddinge, is associated with the university as a research, together they form an academic health science centre. It is one of Swedens largest centres for training and research, while most of the medical programs are taught in Swedish, the bulk of the Ph. D. projects are conducted in English. The institutes name is a reference to the Caroleans, the medical skills of the army barber-surgeons are manifestly inadequate, so Sweden needs to train surgeons in order to better prepare the country for future wars. 1811 The Karolinska Institute is licensed to train not only surgeons,1813 As one of KIs first professors, Jöns Jacob Berzelius lays the foundations of KIs scientific orientation. 1816 The newly inaugurated institute is named Carolinska Institutet, a title that never makes an impact. Carolinska Medico Chirurgiska institutet, however, proves more popular, especially when preceded by the epithet Kongliga and it is in connection with the student revolt of 1968 that the name is shortened to Karolinska Institutet, or KI as it is now commonly known. Anders Johan Hagströmer is appointed the institutes first inspector, a post equivalent to todays president, Hagströmer is a professor of anatomy and surgery, with a background from the Collegium Medicum, the National Board of Health and Welfare of its day. This same year, the moves to the old Glasbruk quarter on Norr Mälarstrand. The move across the waters of Riddarfjärden is made on barges, one of which is said to have capsized and his library survives intact, however, and today forms part of the KI-Swedish Society of Medicine book museum at KIs Hagströmer Library. 1861 The institute is awarded the right to confer degrees and is granted an equal to that of a university. 1866 The old building on the Glasbruk plot is torn down and replaced by a new, the new institute is built in stages, mostly during the 1880s and into the first decade of the 20th century. The building stands to day, and has remained largely unchanged since its erection. 1874 KI is licensed to confer medical degrees, previously, even though the institute could run courses in medicine, the right to confer medical degrees was almost exclusively that of Uppsala University
36.
Harvey Cushing
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Harvey Williams Cushing was an American neurosurgeon. A pioneer of brain surgery, he was the first person to describe Cushings disease, together with Ernest Sachs, he is known as the father of neurosurgery. Harvey Cushing was born in Cleveland, Ohio and his parents were Betsey M. Williams and Henry Kirke Cushing, a physician whose ancestors came to Hingham, Massachusetts, as Puritans in the 17th century. Harvey was the youngest of ten children, as a child, Cushing attended the Cleveland Manual Training School which expanded his interest in science and medicine. The school’s emphasis on training and a “physics-focused” approach to education played an important role in influencing Cushing towards a career in medical surgery. The schools manual dexterity training program also contributed to Cushing’s future success as a surgeon and he graduated with an A. B. degree in 1891 from Yale University, where he was a member of Scroll and Key and Delta Kappa Epsilon. He studied medicine at Harvard Medical School and earned his degree in 1895. After doing exceptional cerebral surgery abroad under Kocher at Bern and Sherrington at Liverpool, during his time with Kocher, he first encountered the Cushing reflex which describes the relationship between blood pressure and intracranial pressure. At the age of 32, he was associate professor of surgery at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Yet he found time to numerous monographs on surgery of the brain and spinal column. He made a study of pressure and contributed much to the localization of the cerebral centers. In Baltimore, he developed the method of operating with local anaesthesia, in 1911, he was appointed surgeon-in-chief at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. He became a professor of surgery at the Harvard Medical School starting in 1912, in 1913, he was made an honorary F. R. C. S. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1915, before the Clinical Congress of Surgeons in Boston, he showed the possibility of influencing stature by operating on the pituitary gland. Shortly after the entry of the United States into the First World War and he was director of the U. S. base hospital attached to the British Expeditionary Force in France. Cushing also served as the head of a unit in a French military hospital outside of Paris. During his time at the French military hospital, Cushing experimented with the use of electromagnets to extract fragments of metallic missile shrapnel that were lodged severely within the brain and he was mentioned in a dispatch by Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig in November 1917. On June 6,1918, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was assigned as senior consultant in surgery for the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe
37.
Neurosurgery
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In different countries, there are different requirements for an individual to legally practice neurosurgery, and there are varying methods through which they must be educated. In most countries, neurosurgeon training requires a period of seven years after graduating from medical school. In the United States, a neurosurgeon must generally complete four years of education, four years of medical school. Most, but not all, residency programs have some component of science or clinical research. Neurosurgeons may pursue training in the form of a fellowship, after residency or in some cases. In the U. S. neurosurgery is considered a highly competitive specialty composed of 0. 6% of all practicing physicians, in the United Kingdom, students must gain entry into medical school. MBBS qualification takes four to six years depending on the students route, junior doctors then apply to enter the neurosurgical pathway. Neurosurgery remains consistently amongst the most competitive specialties in which to obtain entry. The Incas appear to have practiced a procedure known as trepanation since the late Stone age, during the Middle Ages in Arabia from 936 to 1013 AD, Al-Zahrawi performed surgical treatments of head injuries, skull fractures, spinal injuries, hydrocephalus, subdural effusions and headache. There was not much advancement in neurosurgery until late 19th early 20th century, history of electrodes in the brain, In 1878 Richard Canton discovered that electrical signals transmitted through an animals brain. In 1950 Dr. Jose Delgado invented the first electrode that was implanted in a brain, using it to make it run. In 1972 the cochlear implant, a neurological prosthetic that allowed people to hear was marketed for commercial use. In 1998 researcher Philip Kennedy implanted the first Brain Computer Interface into a human subject, history of tumor removal, In 1879 after locating it via neurological signs alone, Scottish surgeon William Macewen performed the first successful brain tumor removal. On March 16,1907 Austrian surgeon Hermann Schloffer became the first to remove a pituitary tumor. The main advancements in neurosurgery came about as a result of highly crafted tools, modern neurosurgical tools, or instruments, include chisels, curettes, dissectors, distractors, elevators, forcepts, hooks, impactors, probes, suction tubes, power tools, and robots. Most of these tools, like chisels, elevators, forcepts, hooks, impactors. The main difference of these tools, pre and post advancement in neurosurgery, were the precision in which they were crafted and these tools are crafted with edges that are within a millimeter of desired accuracy. Other tools such as hand held power saws and robots have only recently been used inside of a neurological operating room
38.
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
