1.
Albion (wherry)
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Built in 1898, she served as a trading vessel and then as a lighter until being acquired by the Norfolk Wherry Trust for restoration and preservation in 1949. Since 1981 she has been moored at the Norfolk Wherry Trust wherry base at Womack Water near Ludham and she is listed on the register of National Historic Ships in the United Kingdom as part of the National Historic Fleet. Albions construction is unique amongst Norfolk Wherries as she is carvel built whereas all others are clinker built and she is steered from a small aft well by rudder and tiller. Albions registered tonnage is 22.78 and her length overall is 65 ft with a 58 ft hull and her beam is 15 ft and she draws 4 ft 6 in. Her mast is 42 feet tall and her sail area is 1,200 square feet. Albion was built by William Billy Brighton at his shipyard on Lake Lothing between Oulton Broad and Lowestoft for W. D. and A. E. Walker and she cost £455 to build and was launched in October 1898 in a livery of green with a brown oxide top. Her crew consisted a man and a boy, Albion was nearly lost in January 1929 when she sank near Great Yarmouth Bridge but was raised 3 days later. She had a mishap in 1931 when she lost her mast but had it replaced with that of the wherry Sirius. Albion was allocated the United Kingdom Official Number 148735, although designed to carry 36 long tons of cargo, she is recorded as carrying 41 long tons of cargo on one occasion. In normal service, Albion made 3 to 5 knots, with 7 to 8 knots being considered her normal maximum and it is rumoured that she achieved 9 to 10 knots in a race on Breydon Water when her mast snapped. She continued to ply as a trading wherry, however, after sinking a further two times, it was recognised that this was economically unsustainable and in 1961 the Trust decided that Albion would never carry dirty cargo again. In 2010, Albion was awarded the position by National Historic Ships in their annual Flagship competition. An award of £250 was made to the Norfolk Wherry Trust in recognition of this, Albion flew a pennant during the 2010 season denoting this achievement. Norfolk Broads wherries The Norfolk Wherry Trust – Home of the Albion Albion on the Register of Historic Vessels
2.
Ludham
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Ludham is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk, in The Broads, at the end of a dyke leading to Womack Water and flowing into the River Thurne. It lies 1.5 miles to the East of Ludham Bridge and it covers an area of 12.18 km2 and had a population of 1,301 in 582 households at the 2001 census, the population reducing to 1,278 at the 2011 census. For the purposes of government, it falls within the district of North Norfolk. It is part of the Ludham - Potter Heigham NNR, a nature reserve. The village gave its name to a Ham class minesweeper, HMS Ludham and also, in geology and it also effectively gives its name to the preceding age/underlying stage known as the Pre-Ludhamian. Ludham was transferred from No.12 Group RAF to the Admiralty on 24 August 1944, RNAS Ludham was commissioned as HMS Flycatcher, RNAS Ludham on 4 September under the command of the Senior Officer Mobile Naval Airfields Organisation. At Ludham the MNAO assembled and despatched the first five Mobile Naval Air Bases, Flycatcher moved from Ludham to RAF Middle Wallop which was more advantageous to shipping the assembled units to the Far East. In return the RAF took Ludham on again, Ludham was one of the film locations for the 1954 movie Conflict of Wings starring John Gregson and Muriel Pavlow. Adapted from the novel by Don Sharp, the takes place in a Norfolk country village where the locals decide to fight against a proposal to build a rocket range on a bird sanctuary. Filming took place in the centre and shows many buildings
3.
Hathor (wherry)
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Hathor is one of only six surviving Norfolk pleasure wherries to be found on the Norfolk Broads. Like two of the other surviving wherries, Maud and Solace, she was built by D. S, Hathor has been listed on the register of National Historic Ships in the United Kingdom since 1996, and is part of the National Historic Fleet. Hathor was built in 1905 for Ethel and Helen Colman, daughters of Jeremiah Colman, Hathor remained in the Colman/Boardman family until 1954 when she was sold to Claud Hamilton who owned her for almost 10 years. She was then sold on and used as a houseboat until 1985 when the Wherry Yacht Charter Trust purchased her in a dilapidated state and undertook an extensive two-year restoration. As of 2010, Hathor is in sailing order but is currently laid-up at Wroxham awaiting an out-of-the-water survey, the repair and refit are due to be finished in 2013. Her interior has an Egyptian theme designed by Norwich architect Edward Boardman and she is 60 feet 0 inches long, with a beam of 14 feet 2 inches and a draught of 4 feet 0 inches. She is assessed as 23.01 GT, Hathor has not been fitted with an engine and relies on wind and quanting for propulsion. Wherry Yacht Charter Charitable Trust Boats of the Norfolk Broads
4.
River Bure
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The River Bure is a river in the county of Norfolk, England, most of it in The Broads. The Bure rises near Melton Constable,11 miles upstream of Aylsham, nowadays, the head of navigation is 10 miles downstream at Coltishall Bridge. It has two tributaries, the River Thurne and the River Ant. There is also Muck Fleet which connects the Trinity Broads to the main network and it was stated at the time that the river could be improved to enable boats to reach the house. Vessels could not travel beyond Coltishall, and so Aylsham was served by carts, either loaded from wherries at Coltishall and carried north, or loaded from boats at Cromer, plans to extend the limit of navigation were drawn up in 1773. An Act of Parliament was obtained on 7 April 1773, authorising improvements from Coltishall to Aylsham, some £1,500 had already been raised or promised, and the balance was to be funded by subscriptions. Adey acted as clerk to the Bure Commissioners, while John Smith was appointed as engineer, work began on 29 June 1774, and the lock and cut at Coltishall were completed by 16 March 1775, when the first boat used the lock. Progress after that was slow, for in October 1777 Smith announced that he had spent £3,600 so far and it appears that the money had run out, but Smith was persuaded to carry on after 18 traders and landowners provided loans of between £50 and £150. John Green of Wroxham was appointed as joint engineer in March 1779, five locks were provided, at Aylsham, Burgh-near-Aylsham mill, Oxnead mill, Buxton mill at Oxnead Lamas and Coltishall. Small wherries, capable of carrying 13 tons, were used for the carriage of flour, agricultural produce, coal and timber. A brickyard at Oxnead was also served by the boats, while below Coltishall, the marl trade continued until 1870, but the dikes remain, in an area called Little Switzerland. At each of the mills, cuts were made to accommodate the locks, boats could also get from there to Aylsham mill pool, which enabled them to deliver grain and carry flour away. The navigation was reasonably successful until 1880, when railway competition arrived, in the form of the East Norfolk Railway, the East Norfolk later became part of the Great Eastern Railway. Further competition arrived in 1883, when the Eastern and Midlands Railway opened a station near the basin on its line from Melton Constable to North Walsham. Despite this, wherries were using the navigation until 1912, when a flood damaged the locks. Assessment of the damage suggested that repairs would cost £4,000, which the Commissioners could not find and this act was formalised in 1928, when it was officially abandoned. Oxnead Lamas lock was filled in, in 1933, but the structures remain. Bure Valley Railway, a heritage railway Bure Valley Path Bure Marshes NNR, a nature reserve Bure
5.
Horning
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Horning is an ancient village and parish in the English county of Norfolk. It covers an area of 11 km2 and had a population of 1,033 in the 2001 census, Horning parish lies on the northern bank of the River Bure south of the River Thurne and is located in The Broads National Park. For the purposes of government, it falls within the district of North Norfolk, although areas alongside the rivers. The name Horning means the folk who live on the ground between the rivers. Its history dates back to 1020 when the manor was given by King Canute to the newly founded Abbey of St. Benet at Hulme, the Bishop of Norwich, as Abbot of St. Benets, is still Lord of the Manor. Horning Parish extends along the bank of the River Bure to Thurne Mouth. St. Benets Abbey is a Grade I listed building, the importance of the Abbey as a medieval place of pilgrimage is reflected in the medieval finds of two papal seals, that would have secured documents from the Pope. The Church of St. Benedict lies half a mile east of the village, Horning is situated on the River Bure between Wroxham and Ludham. A ferry plied across the river for more than 1,000 years, Horning has an entry in the Domesday Book, noted under the name Horningam. In 1086, Horning had 18 villagers,11 smallholders,4 cattle,10 pigs,360 sheep, archaeologists have found ancient earthworks in Horning, which run alongside the River Bure, possibly dating to the early Saxon period. The earliest ancient monument is a Bronze Age ring ditch and possible burial pit, neolithic and Bronze Age artefacts have also been found. The village of Horning is a popular tourist destination within the Norfolk Broads. The village lies on the bank of the River Bure. Horning is picturesque, and described as the prettiest village on the broads, the sights to see are, the River Bure from the landing stages, Lower Street, St. Benedicts Church and many properties with thatched roofs. Following Lower Street to the east, leads to the school, marina, leisure centre, church, North of Horning are the broads of Barton, Alderfen and Burntfen, and village of Neatishead. West is the area of Hoveton & Wroxham. East lies the quaint village of Ludham, to the south, across the river via the ferry, are Bure Marshes and village of Woodbastwick. Adjacent to the ferry, The Ferry Inn reopened in 2010 after a period of closure, most landed in the local marshes but one hit the ferry and one hit the Inn, where 21 of the 24 people in the pub at the time were killed
6.
Boat
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A boat is a watercraft of a large range of sizes designed to float, plane, work or travel on water. Small boats are found on inland waterways or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment, in naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel. Another less restrictive definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water, some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters 1,000 feet long on the Great Lakes are called oreboats. For reasons of tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than ships, regardless of their size. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their size, shape. Boats have a variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose. Canoe-type boats have used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation. Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to local conditions. Pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats, house boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo to and from large ships, lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by power, wind power and motor power. Dugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists, the earliest boats are thought to have been logboats, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7, 000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe and this canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered, rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years. A7, 000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait, boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean. Boats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia, evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites. Uru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala and this type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes
7.
The Broads
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The Broads are a network of mostly navigable rivers and lakes in the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. The lakes, known locally as broads, were formed by the flooding of peat workings, the Broads, and some surrounding land, were constituted as a special area with a level of protection equivalent to a national park by the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads Act 1988. The Broads Authority, a statutory authority responsible for managing the area. The total area is 303 square kilometres, most of which is in Norfolk, there are seven rivers and 63 broads, mostly less than 4 metres deep. Thirteen broads are generally open to navigation, with a further three having navigable channels, some broads have navigation restrictions imposed on them in autumn and winter. Although the terms Norfolk Broads and Suffolk Broads are used to specific areas within the two counties respectively, the whole area is frequently referred to as the Norfolk Broads. Because of its navigation role the Broads Authority was established under its own legislation on 1 April 1989, the Broads Authority Act 2009, which was promoted through Parliament by the authority, is intended to improve public safety on the water. This followed a consultation which resulted in support from 79% of consultees, including unanimous support from the 14 UK national parks. Defra, the Government department responsible for the parks, also expressed it was content that the Authority would make its own decision on the matter. In response to this the Broads Authority has stated that its three purposes will remain in balance and that the branding is simply for marketing the National Park qualities of the Broads. The Broads are administered by the Broads Authority, Special legislation gives the navigation of the waterways equal status with the conservation and public enjoyment of the area. For many years the known as broads were regarded as natural features of the landscape. It was only in the 1960s that Dr Joyce Lambert proved that they were artificial features, in the Middle Ages the local monasteries began to excavate the peatlands as a turbary business, selling fuel to Norwich and Great Yarmouth. Norwich Cathedral took 320,000 tonnes of peat a year, then the sea levels began to rise, and the pits began to flood. Despite the construction of windpumps and dykes, the continued and resulted in the typical Broads landscape of today, with its reedbeds, grazing marshes. Various attempts were made to extend the navigable rivers, the longest-lasting was on the River Waveney, where an Act of Parliament passed on 17 March 1670 authorised improvements which included three locks, at Geldeston, Ellingham and Wainford. The head of navigation became a new staithe at Bungay, the new section was a private navigation which was not controlled by the Yarmouth Haven and Pier Commissioners, who had responsibility for the rest of the Broadland rivers. The next attempt was to extend navigation on the River Bure from Coltishall to Aylsham, five locks were built, to bypass mills, at Coltishall, Oxnead Lamas, Oxnead, Burgh and Aylsham
8.
Norfolk
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Norfolk /ˈnɔːrfək/ is a county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the west and north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea and, to the north-west, The Wash. With an area of 2,074 square miles and a population of 859,400, of the countys population, 40% live in four major built up areas, Norwich, Great Yarmouth, Kings Lynn and Thetford. The Broads is a network of rivers and lakes in the east of the county, the area is not a National Park although it is marketed as such. It has similar status to a park, and is protected by the Broads Authority. Norfolk was settled in times, with camps along the higher land in the west. A Brythonic tribe, the Iceni, inhabited the county from the 1st century BC to the end of the 1st century AD, the Iceni revolted against the Roman invasion in AD47, and again in 60 led by Boudica. The crushing of the second opened the county to the Romans. During the Roman era roads and ports were constructed throughout the county, situated on the east coast, Norfolk was vulnerable to invasions from Scandinavia and Northern Europe, and forts were built to defend against the Angles and Saxons. Norfolk, Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, the influence of the Early English settlers can be seen in the many place names ending in -ton and -ham. Endings such as -by and -thorpe are also common, indicating Danish place names, in the 9th century the region came under attack. In the centuries before the Norman Conquest the wetlands of the east of the county began to be converted to farmland, and settlements grew in these areas. Migration into East Anglia must have high, by the time of the Domesday Book survey it was one of the most densely populated parts of the British Isles. During the high and late Middle Ages the county developed arable agriculture, the economy was in decline by the time of the Black Death, which dramatically reduced the population in 1349. During the English Civil War Norfolk was largely Parliamentarian, the economy and agriculture of the region declined somewhat. During the Industrial Revolution Norfolk developed little industry except in Norwich which was an addition to the railway network. In the 20th century the county developed a role in aviation, during the Second World War agriculture rapidly intensified, and it has remained very intensive since, with the establishment of large fields for growing cereals and oilseed rape. Norfolks low-lying land and easily eroded cliffs, many of which are chalk and clay, make it vulnerable to the sea, the low-lying section of coast between Kelling and Lowestoft Ness in Suffolk is currently managed by the Environment Agency to protect the Broads from sea flooding
9.
Suffolk
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Suffolk is an East Anglian county of historic origin in England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west, the North Sea lies to the east. The county town is Ipswich, other important towns include Lowestoft, Bury St Edmunds, Newmarket and Felixstowe, the county is low-lying with very few hills, and is largely arable land with the wetlands of the Broads in the north. The Suffolk Coast and Heaths are an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, by the fifth century, the Angles had established control of the region. The Angles later became the folk and the south folk. Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, Suffolk was originally divided into four separate Quarter Sessions divisions. In 1860, the number of divisions was reduced to two, the eastern division was administered from Ipswich and the western from Bury St Edmunds. Under the Local Government Act 1888, the two divisions were made the administrative counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, Ipswich became a county borough. A few Essex parishes were added to Suffolk, Ballingdon-with-Brundon and parts of Haverhill. On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, East Suffolk, West Suffolk, the county was divided into several local government districts, Babergh, Forest Heath, Ipswich, Mid Suffolk, St. Edmundsbury, Suffolk Coastal, and Waveney. This act also transferred some land near Great Yarmouth to Norfolk, in 2007, the Department for Communities and Local Government referred Ipswich Borough Councils bid to become a new unitary authority to the Boundary Committee. The Boundary Committee consulted local bodies and reported in favour of the proposal and it was not, however, approved by the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. Beginning in February 2008, the Boundary Committee again reviewed local government in the county, West Suffolk, like nearby East Cambridgeshire, is renowned for archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Bronze Age artefacts have been found in the area between Mildenhall and West Row, in Eriswell and in Lakenheath, other finds include traces of cremations and barrows. The majority of agriculture in Suffolk is either arable or mixed, Farm sizes vary from anything around 80 acres to over 8,000. Soil types vary from clays to light sands. The continuing importance of agriculture in the county is reflected in the Suffolk Show, although latterly somewhat changed in nature, this remains primarily an agricultural show. Below is a chart of regional gross value added of Suffolk at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling, well-known companies in Suffolk include Greene King and Branston Pickle in Bury St Edmunds
10.
Wherry
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London passenger wherries evolved into the Thames skiff, a gentlemans rowing boat. Wherries were clinker-built with long overhanging bows so that patrons could step ashore dryshod before landing stages were built along the river. It is the long angled bow that distinguishes the wherry and skiff from the gig and cutter which have steeper bows following the rise of the Royal Navy, and the building of landing stages. In the late 18th century the name was given to the Norfolk wherry, a kind of sailing barge with large sails which was developed to replace an earlier cargo boat, the Norfolk Keel. The term wherry is also associated with a type of lighter used on the River Tyne largely in connection with the coal trade. The last complete example Elswick No.2 is owned by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums service, there is a well documented study of the last surviving wrecked examples as surveyed in 2009. There is firm attestation that the term was used in the Irish Sea, vessels like Manx wherries and Shell Wherries are recorded in the early 19th century. Three shell wherries at least were active in 1810 and known to be of 10-12 tons and clinker built. The term wherry or wherrie was a term used for a boat as the Coverdale Bible of 1535 speaks of All whirry men. Wherries along the tideway in London were water taxis operated by watermen, a wherry could be rowed by two men with long oars or by a single waterman using short oars or sculls. An Act of Parliament in 1555 specified that a wherry should be 22½ feet long and 4½ wide amidships. according to one account concerning Shakespeares Globe Theatre, Patrons were transported across the River Thames to Southwark by wherry boats. At one time over two thousand wherries made their way to and from the theatre district, during the eighteenth century rowing competitions for watermen became established on the Thames, and the prize was often a new wherry. The Sporting Magazine describes an event on 6 August 1795 as the contest for the annual wherry given by the Proprietors of Vauxhall by six pairs of oars in three heats. In 1820 there were still 3,000 wherries plying on the Thames, in North America, particularly in the Penobscot Bay region of the Gulf of Maine, wherries became the preferred boat for the longshore Atlantic salmon fishery. The Lincolnville Salmon Wherry, the Rhodes Wherry, the Duck Trap Wherry, and they are generally long and narrow, with a straight stem, a wineglass stern and usually carvel planked. The boat usually has two seats, one for the rower, and one in the sheets for the passenger. Just as the term shell wherry was recognised in 19th century Britain so also was it recognised in 19th century America, for sure in the vicinity of Boston in 1860
11.
Keelboat
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A keelboat is a riverine cargo-capable working boat, or a small- to mid-sized recreational sailing yacht. The two terms may draw from cognate words with different final meaning and they were also used extensively for transporting cargo to market, and for exploration and trading expeditions, for water transport was then most effective means to move bulky or heavy cargo. Keelboats were similar to riverboats, but like other barges were unpowered and were controlled with oars or poles—usually the latter. Keelboats have been used for exploration, such as the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the process of moving a keelboat upriver was extremely difficult, though current dependent. Most of these keelboats were 50 to 80 feet long and 15 feet wide and they usually had a cabin in the middle, but were sometimes constructed with an open deck. Mike Fink is probably the most noted keelboater in history, the Republican had in tow keel boats, the Hoosier Lady and the Hoosier Boy, bringing freight to Lafayette, Messrs Taylor & Harter, Taylor & Li. J. McCormick, J. B. Semans and Hunter, and for Messrs, Ewing of the Bridge at Logansport and this is the first arrival at Lafayette this year. We understand the Republican is going to try and ascend the Wabash at Logansport, the Wabash is in steam boating condition, and we may experience several arrivals, in a few days. The term keel was associated in Great Britain with three particular working boat types, the Norfolk Keel ancestor of the Norfolk Wherry, the Humber Keel and the Tyne Keel and their Keelmen. A keelboat is technically any sailboat with a keel—as opposed to a centerboard or daggerboard, in New Zealand the term keeler is frequently used as a generic alternative - meaning any sailboat with a keel, regardless of size. ISAF usage differentiates keelboats from generally larger yachts, despite overlap in the sizes of boats in the two classes
12.
Clinker (boat building)
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Clinker built is a method of boat building where the edges of hull planks overlap, called a land or landing. In craft of any size planks are also joined end to end into a strake, the technique developed in northern Europe and was successfully used by the Norsemen and typical for the Hanseatic cog. A contrasting method, where edges are butted smoothly seam to seam, is known as carvel construction. From clinch, or clench, a common Teutonic word, meaning “to fasten together”, overlapping seams already appear in the 4th century BC Hjortspring boat. The oldest evidence for a vessel, dendrochronologically dated to 190 AD, are boat fragments which were found in recent excavations at the site of the famous Nydam Boat. The Nydam Boat itself, built ca.320 AD, is the oldest preserved clinker-built boat, clinker-built ships were a trademark of Nordic navigation throughout the Middle Ages, particularly of the longships of the Norsemen explorers and the trading cogs of the Hanseatic League. In building a simple pulling boat, the keel, hog, stem, apron, deadwoods, sternpost and perhaps transom are assembled, in normal practice, this will be the same way up as they will be in use. From the hog, the garboard, bottom, bilge, topside and sheer strakes are planked up, at the stem and, in a double-ended boat, the sternpost, geralds are formed. That is, in case, the land of the lower strake is tapered to a feather edge at the end of the strake where it meets the stem or stern-post. This allows the end of the strake to be screwed to the apron with the outside of the planking mutually flush at that point and this means that the boats passage through the water will not tend to lift the ends of the planking away from the stem. Before the next plank is laid up, the face of the land on the lower strake is bevelled to suit the angle at which the next strake will lie in relation with it and this varies all along the land. Gripes are used to hold the new strake in position on the one before the fastening is done. Once the shell of planking is assembled, transverse battens of oak, ash or elm, called timbers are steam-bent to fit the internal, elm species are not durable where the boat is used frequently in fresh water. As the timbers are bent in, they are copper riveted to the shell, through the lands of the planking. On many clinker built craft, e. g. in Scandinavia, in Thames skiffs, sometimes the timbers in larger craft were also joggled before being steamed in. With the timbers all fitted, longitudinal members are bent in, the thwart risings are fastened through the timbers with its upper edge on the level of the undersides of the thwarts. Bilge keels are added to the outside of the land on which the boat would lie on a surface to stiffen it. A stringer is usually fitted round the inside of each bilge to strengthen it, in a small boat, this is usually arranged to serve also as a means of retaining the bottom boards
13.
Carvel (boat building)
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Carvel built or carvel planking is a method of boat building where hull planks are fastened edge to edge, gaining support from the frame and forming a smooth surface. In contrast with clinker built hulls, where planked edges overlap, carvel construction gives a stronger hull, capable of taking a variety of full-rigged sail plans, albeit one of greater weight. Carvel developed through transition from the age-old Mediterranean mortise and tenon joint method to the skeleton-first hull building technique, the first carvel-built ships were the carracks and caravels of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Both were developed in Iberia and were sailed by the kingdoms of Portugal, spices, in the era, were expensive luxuries and were used medicinally. The clinker form of construction is linked in peoples minds with the Vikings. It is known as lapstrake in North America, in general, the languages of other countries where the method was current use some version of the word clinker. The smoother surface of a carvel boat gives the impression at first sight that it is more efficient. The lands of the planking are not there to disturb the streamline and this distribution of relative efficiency between the two forms of construction is an illusion, For given hull strength, the clinker boat is lighter, because it has far less heavy timber framing. It, therefore, displaces less water, so it has less to push aside while moving, the reduced displacement could be used to make the lines finer so as to make the passage through the water easier still. That means that a bulkier cargo could be carried if need be and they also lack the internal strength to support a center-board, as well as a deep keel, drastically limiting their ability to sail across or close to the wind. Additionally, the design created a vessel that could twist. This gave it an advantage in North Atlantic rollers so long as the vessel was small in overall displacement, thus, the greater rigidity of carvel-built construction became necessary for larger non-coastal cargo vessels, as the twisting forces grew in proportion to displaced weight. The physics of this imposed a limit on the size of clinker-built vessels. Later carvel-built sailing vessels exceeded the size of clinker-built ships several times over. However, clinker construction remains to this day a valuable method of construction for small wooden vessels, a number of boat building texts are available that describe the carvel planking process in detail. Traditional carvel methods leave a gap between each plank that in the past was filled with any suitable soft, flexible, fibrous material. This caulking would gradually wear out and the hull would leak, the modern variation is to use much narrower planks that are edge-glued instead of caulked. With modern power sanders a much smoother hull is produced, as all the ridges between the planks can be removed
14.
Great Yarmouth
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Great Yarmouth, often known to locals as Yarmouth, is a coastal town in Norfolk, England. It is located at the mouth of the River Yare,20 miles east of Norwich, the town has been a seaside resort since 1760, and is the gateway from the Norfolk Broads to the North Sea. The discovery of oil in the North Sea in the 1960s led to an oil rig supply industry. More recently, the development of energy sources, especially offshore wind power, has created further opportunities for support services. A wind farm of 30 generators is within sight of the town on the Scroby Sands, the town has a beach and two piers. The town itself is on a 3. 1-mile spit sandwiched between the North Sea and River Yare and its well-known features include the historic rows and the main tourist sector on the seafront. The area is linked to Gorleston, Cobholm and Southtown by Haven Bridge and to the A47 and A149 by the Breydon Bridge. The urban area that makes up the town of Great Yarmouth has an area of 8.3 sq mi and it is the main town in the larger Borough of Great Yarmouth. The ONS identify a Great Yarmouth Urban Area, which has a population of 68,317, including the sub-areas of Caister-on-Sea, the wider borough of Great Yarmouth has a population of around 92,500, increasing to 97,277 at the 2011 census. Great Yarmouth lies near the site of the Roman fort camp of Gariannonum at the mouth of the River Yare and its situation having attracted fishermen from the Cinque Ports, a permanent settlement was made, and the town numbered 70 burgesses before the Norman Conquest. Henry I placed it under the rule of a reeve, in 1101 the Church of St Nicholas was founded by Herbert de Losinga, the first Bishop of Norwich, and consecrated in 1119. This was to be the first of several priories founded in what was a trading centre of considerable importance. In 1208, King John granted a charter to Great Yarmouth, a hospital was founded in Yarmouth in the reign of Edward I by Thomas Fastolfe. In 1551, a school founded and the great hall of the old hospital was appropriated to its use. The school was closed from 1757 to 1860, was re-established by the charity trustees, in 1552 Edward VI granted a charter of admiralty jurisdiction, later confirmed and extended by James I. In 1668 Charles II incorporated Little Yarmouth in the borough by a charter which with one brief exception remained in force until 1703, in 1673 during the Third Anglo-Dutch War the Zealand Expedition was assembled in the town. In 1797, during the French Revolutionary Wars, the town was the supply base for the North Sea Fleet. The fleet collected at the roadstead, from whence it sailed to the decisive Battle of Camperdown against the Dutch fleet, again in 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars, the fleet collected at and sailed from the roadstead to the Battle of Copenhagen
15.
Lowestoft
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Lowestoft is a town in the English county of Suffolk. The town is on the North Sea coast and is the most easterly settlement of the United Kingdom and it is 110 miles north-east of London,38 miles north-east of Ipswich and 22 miles south-east of Norwich. It is situated on the edge of The Broads system and is the settlement within the district of Waveney with a population of 71,010 in 2011. Some of the earliest evidence of settlement in Britain has been found in Lowestoft and it is a port town which developed due to the fishing industry, and a traditional seaside resort. It has wide, sandy beaches, two piers and a number of other tourist attractions and this role has since declined and the town has begun to develop as a centre of the renewable energy industry within the East of England. Following the discovery of flint tools in the cliffs at Pakefield in south Lowestoft in 2005 and this establishes Lowestoft as one of the earliest known sites for human habitation in Britain. The area was settled during the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages and during the Roman and Saxon periods, the settlements name is derived from the Viking personal name Hlothver and toft, a Viking word for homestead. The towns name has been spelled variously, Lothnwistoft, Lestoffe, Laistoe, at the Domesday survey the village was known as Lothuwistoft and was relatively small with a population of around 16 households comprising, in 1086, three families, ten smallholders and three slaves. The manor formed part of the kings holding within the Hundred of Lothingland and was worth about four geld in tax income, roger Bigod was the tenant in chief of the village. The village of Akethorpe may have been located close to Lowestoft, in the Middle Ages Lowestoft became an increasingly important fishing town. The industry grew quickly and the town grew to challenge its neighbour Great Yarmouth, the trade, particularly fishing for herring, continued to act as the towns main identity until the 20th century. In June 1665 the Battle of Lowestoft, the first battle of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the battle resulted in a significant victory for the English fleet over the Dutch. The factory, built on the site of a pottery or brick kiln, was later used as a brewery. Most of its buildings were demolished in 1955. In the 19th century, the arrival of Sir Samuel Morton Peto brought about a change in Lowestofts fortunes, Railway contractor Peto was contracted by the Lowestoft Railway & Harbour Company to build a railway line between Lowestoft and Reedham. This stimulated the development of the fishing industry and the Port of Lowestoft in general. The development of the port boosted trade with the continent, during World War I, Lowestoft was bombarded by the German Navy on 24 April 1916 in conjunction with the Easter Rising. In World War II, the town was targeted for bombing by the Luftwaffe due to its engineering industry
16.
Quant pole
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A quant is a pole used to propel a barge or punt through water. A barge quant often has a cap at the top and a prong at the bottom to stop it from sinking into the mud, on the Norfolk Broads these are called a Bott and a Shoe respectively. A quant used with a punt is about 4 metres long and made from wood or a hollow metal. On the Norfolk Broads a quant is used to propel yachts, especially those lacking an engine, large sailing wherries employed a quant pole at least 8 metres in length. A quant is used not only to such craft. The operator of the quant can stick the quant behind the barge or punt to determine the direction of travel, there is also a popular saying, I wouldnt touch that thing with a barge pole. Propulsion The quanter stands at the front of the barge or, for a punt, the angle at which the quant is held depends on the depth of the water and the desired speed of travel. A steeper angle is required for water and a shallower angle required for speed. The quanter drives the quant downward and slightly backward to push the craft forwards, on a larger boat, the quanter then walks down the side of the boat, facing aft and braced against the quant pole, the boat being propelled forward at the speed he walks. To reverse, the quant can be pushed forwards, the quant is then pulled out of the water by placing hand over hand on it and pulling upwards. When punting, as in Oxford and Cambridge, the quanter stands stationary at the back, as the punt glides forwards the loosely held quant becomes increasingly vertical. When the quant is just past the vertical, i. e. sloping downwards from front to back of the punt, a rhythmic and smooth style is usually considered to be good form. Disaster may strike if the quanter loses grip on the quant while attempting to extract it from the bottom, and this, too, is considered not good form. Steering By dragging the quant at an angle behind the barge or punt upon the water, the craft will slow on the side on which the quant is in the water, so the craft will move in that direction. The greater the angle made between the quant and the barge or punt, the greater the turning angle and this effect can be enhanced, by pushing the quant forward through the water on the desired direction side of the craft. This method allows for corrections and steering to be accomplished without significantly slowing the craft, although generally requires a greater degree of skill
17.
River
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A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
18.
North Walsham & Dilham Canal
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The North Walsham and Dilham Canal is a waterway in the English county of Norfolk. It was authorised by Parliament in 1812, but work on the construction of a canal ran parallel to a branch of the River Ant did not start until 1825. It included six locks, which were sized to accommodate wherries and it was 8.7 miles long and ran from two bone mills at Antingham to a junction with the River Ant at Smallburgh. It carried offal for the mills and agricultural products, as it proved cheaper to land coal on the beach at Mundesley. The venture was not a success, and it was sold to various millers. The section above Swafield locks was abandoned in 1893, and from 1922 it was owned by the North Walsham Canal Company, set up by Edward Cubitt and George Walker, the last commercial use of the canal was in 1934, and it avoided nationalisation in 1948. In 2008 the North Walsham and Dilham Canal Trust was formed, in 2009, part of the canal was sold to the Old Canal Company, who have worked to restore two locks and the pounds in between, in order to run Bacton Wood Mill as a watermill. Rewatering was interrupted by the Environment Agency issuing a notice in April 2012. The canal served six mills, located along its banks, including the two mills at Antingham. There has been a mill at Bacton Wood since the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 and it was the home of Sir William Cubitt, who invented the self-regulating windmill sail and the prison treadmill. Since the millpond at Ebridge has been cleared and rewatered by volunteers, the River Ant was navigable to Dilham prior to 1810, when consideration was given to extending navigation northwards along the course of the river. Plans were drawn up by William Youard and John Millington in 1811 and they had powers to raise £30,000 by the issuing of shares, and a further £10,000 if required, either from shares or by mortgage. His case was heard in April 1825 and he was awarded £1,500 in compensation, work began in the same month, employing 100 men from Bedfordshire. Millington came from Hammersmith in London, the North Walsham and Dilham Canal was his only canal-building venture. Later in his career he went to the United States of America, although the line of the canal ran broadly parallel to a branch of the River Ant, it did not occupy the river bed, and so was technically a canal and not a river navigation. The route required six locks to raise the level by 58 feet along its 8. 2-mile length, the locks were sized for wherries, which were 50 by 12.3 feet. Vessels were able to reach Cubitts Mill by 14 June 1826, the water supply for the canal came from the ponds at Antingham, but the link into the ponds could only be used by small lighters, as it was not deep enough to be used by wherries. Consequently, they used a next to Antingham Mills
19.
River Ant
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The River Ant is a tributary river of the River Bure in the county of Norfolk, England. It is 27 kilometres long, and has a drop of 27 metres from source to mouth. It is said that the Ant was formerly known as the River Smale, the rivers source is just east of the village of Antingham in North Norfolk at Antingham Ponds. Just below the pools the rivers route has been used as a canal in the past, an Act of Parliament established the North Walsham & Dilham Canal in 1812, as a wide gauge canal able to take a Norfolk wherry. It was built at a cost of £30,000 and opened on July 25,1826, making the river navigable as far as Dilham and it carried manure, offal, flour, coal, and farm produce. In 1885, the canal was sold for £600, but the companys solicitor disappeared with the money. The flood of 1912 washed away several staithes, the wherry Ella made the final trading journey on the canal from Bacton staithe in 1934. The canal was never nationalised and still belongs to the North Walsham Canal Company, the river, now in its canal form, curves around the north east of the town of North Walsham passing Bacton Wood Mill. Below Bacton Mill the canal reaches a lock at Ebridge mill, the lock is in poor condition but it is hoped that this section of canal will one day be restored and made navigable again. Further on at Briggate Bridge there is another mill and another disused lock, at Honing Bridge the course enters The Broads, administered by The Broads Authority. Here the canal cuts through a wooded area called Dilham Broad and again curves north east around the village of Dilham. Below Tonnage Bridge are the last limits of the Navigation through Broad Fen before reverting to the river, just before Wayford Bridge, a branch of the canal called Tyler’s Cut runs off to the west. This branch links the villages of Dilham and Smallburgh to the river, at Wayford Bridge the river passes the Wayford Bridge Hotel and its row of tiny houseboats lining the east bank of the river. There is only 8 feet of headroom under the bridge, which carries the A149 road, some years ago the ancient hard surface of the ‘ford’ which gave rise to the name “Wayford” was found on the river bed here. Just the other side of the bridge there are boat yards on both banks and the river follows a straight course until it reaches the photogenic “Hunsett Drainage Mill”. As the river nears Barton Broad it passes a triangular island called the Heater, the channels either side lead to Barton Turf staithe and its boatyard. The river now enters Barton Broad, the second largest of the Broads and its crystal clear waters are the result of considerable effort and money spent to clean the broad up over the last few years. Barton Broad is unique in that it has an island, called “Pleasure Hill”, the Ant leaves Barton Broad at its south east corner and enters a stretch called “The Shoals”
20.
Aylsham
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Aylsham is a historic market town and civil parish on the River Bure in north Norfolk, England, about 15 km north of Norwich. The town is close to large estates and grand country houses at Blickling, Felbrigg, Mannington and Wolterton, which are important tourist attractions. The civil parish has an area of 17.52 square kilometres and in the 2001 census had a population of 5,504 in 2448 households, for the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of Broadland. Archaeological evidence shows that the site of the town has been occupied since prehistoric times, excavations in the 1970s provided evidence of several kilns, showing that this was an industrial centre, pottery and metal items being the main items manufactured. Aylsham is thought to have been founded around 500 AD by an Anglo Saxon thegn called Aegel, Aegels Ham, the town is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Elesham and Ailesham, with a population of about 1,000. John of Gaunt was Lord of the manor from 1372 and Aylsham became the town of the Duchy of Lancaster. Although John of Gaunt probably never came to Aylsham, the townspeople enjoyed many privileges, including exemption from jury service outside the manor, the village sign depicts John of Gaunt. In 1519 Henry VIII granted a market on Saturdays and a fair to be held on 12 March. Aylsham markets have always been an important feature of the town, and businesses developed to meet the needs of the town, besides weekly markets there were cattle fairs twice a year and, in October, a hiring fair. The historic Black Boys Inn in the Market Place is one of Aylshams oldest surviving buildings, there is a frieze of small black boys on the cornice and a good staircase and assembly room. The Black Boys was a stop for the post coach from Norwich to Cromer, had stabling for 40 horses, a thatched waterpump was built in 1911 at Carrs Corner in memory of John Soame by his uncle, a wealthy financier. An artesian well 170 feet deep, its canopy is thatched in Norfolk reed, as with many of the other market towns in the county, the weaving of local cloth brought prosperity to the town in medieval times. Until the 15th century it was the manufacture of linen which was the more important, from the 16th century linen manufacture declined and wool became more important, a situation that continued until the coming of the Industrial Revolution. Thereafter the principal trade of the town for the 19th century was grain, records show that Aylsham had markets and fairs, certainly from the 13th century. Such weekly and annual events were important for the trade that they brought, annual horse fairs would bring many other traders to the town, and the weekly market would be the occasion for more local trade. The rights of the stallholders in the place today date back to the rights established in medieval times. In medieval times the parish of Aylsham was established as four manors, the ownership of the Lancaster manor changed hands many times, before James I assigned it to his son, the future Charles I. In the course of the events lead up to the English Civil War Charles I had to raise as much money as possible
21.
River Waveney
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The Waveney is a river which forms the boundary between Suffolk and Norfolk, England, for much of its length within the Broads. The source of the River Waveney is a ditch on the east side of the B1113 road between the villages of Redgrave, Suffolk and South Lopham, Norfolk. The ditch on the side of the road is the source of the River Little Ouse which continues the county boundary and, via the Great Ouse. It is thus claimed that during periods of heavy rainfall Norfolk can be considered to be an island, the explanation of this oddity is that the valley in which the rivers rise was formed, not by these rivers but by water spilling from Lake Fenland. This was a lake of the Devensian glacial, fifteen or twenty thousand years ago. This valley was its spillway into the southern North Sea basin, the river rises close to the 82-foot contour, and flows in an easterly direction though the towns of Diss, Bungay and Beccles. From its source it forms the boundary of Bressingham and Roydon before it reaches Diss. At Scole it is crossed by the course of a Roman road, there is a weir at Billingford and Billingford Windmill is situated a little to the north of the river. Beyond Billingford Bridge the River Dove, flowing northwards from Eye, joins on the bank, the Mid Suffolk Footpath crosses. It turns to the north-east to reach Brockdish and Needham before passing to the south of Harleston, there are several lakes on the south bank, the largest covering 100 acres, which were once Weybread Gravel Pits, but are now used for fishing. Below the lakes are the remains of a Cluniac Priory and the drained area of Mendham Marshes. Mendham, which is the birthplace of the artist Alfred Munnings, lies on the Suffolk bank, Wortwell is in Norfolk, in 1869, Homersfield Bridge, one of the first bridges to be constructed from concrete and iron was built across the river here. It was commissioned by Sir Shafto Adair, had a span of 50 feet and it is now the oldest concrete bridge in England and is a Grade II* listed structure. Road traffic was diverted onto a new bridge in 1970 and it was acquired by Norfolk County Council in 1994, at Earsham the Otter Trust had one of its three UK centres, which opened in 1978 and closed in 2006, having successfully boosted otter numbers on the river. This has now reopened as the River Waveney Study Centre, managed by the River Waveney Trust, at Bungay, the historic head of navigation, the Waveney forms a wide oxbow meander, carrying with it the Norfolk/Suffolk border. Next come Ditchingham, Broome and Ellingham before Geldeston, where an isolated pub stands next to the site of a lock and this is the current limit of navigation for craft larger than a rowing or paddling boat and at this point the Waveney becomes a tidal river. A short way further along is a dyke that leads to the village, gillingham comes next before the river gathers waters at Beccles, as it enters the Broads. Beccles was a port for many years and the parents of Lord Nelson were married in the church of St Michael
22.
Wheelbarrow
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The term wheelbarrow is made of two words, wheel and barrow. Barrow is a derivation of the Old English bearwe which was a used for carrying loads. As such it is a second-class lever, traditional Chinese wheelbarrows, however, had a central wheel supporting the whole load. Use of wheelbarrows is common in the industry and in gardening. Typical capacity is approximately 100 liters of material, the use of one wheel also permits greater control of the deposition of the load upon emptying. The earliest wheelbarrows with archaeological evidence in the form of a one-wheel cart come from 2nd century Han Dynasty Emperor Huis tomb murals, the painted tomb mural of a man pushing a wheelbarrow was found in a tomb at Chengdu, Sichuan province, dated precisely to 118 CE. The stone carved relief of a man pushing a wheelbarrow was found in the tomb of Shen Fujun in Sichuan province, dated circa 150 CE. And then there is the story of the pious Dong Yuan pushing his father around in a single-wheel lu che barrow, however, there are even earlier accounts than this that date back to the 1st century BCE and 1st century CE. It was written that in 231 CE, Zhuge Liang developed the vehicle of the wooden ox, further annotations of the text by Pei Songzhi described the design in detail as a large single central wheel and axle around which a wooden frame was constructed in representation of an ox. Writing later in the 11th century, the Song Dynasty scholar Gao Cheng wrote that the small wheelbarrow of his day, furthermore, he pointed out that the 3rd century gliding horse wheelbarrow featured the simple difference of the shaft pointing backwards. Wheelbarrows in China came in two types, the more common type after the 3rd century has a large, centrally mounted wheel. Prior types were universally front-wheeled wheelbarrows, however, the lower carrying surface made the European wheelbarrow clearly more useful for short-haul work. As of the 1960s, traditional wheelbarrows in China were still in wide use, engravings are found in van Braam Houckgeests 1797 book. But judge by my surprise when today I saw a fleet of wheelbarrows of the same size. I say, with deliberation, a fleet, for each of them had a sail, mounted on a small mast exactly fixed in a socket arranged at the forward end of the barrow. The sail, made of matting, or more often of cloth, is five or six feet high, the sheets join the shafts of the wheelbarrow and can thus be manipulated by the man in charge. These sailing wheelbarrows continued in use into the twentieth century and it was there some sixteen centuries before. However, Lewis proposes that the wheelbarrow could have existed in ancient Greece
23.
Wroxham
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Wroxham is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. The civil parish of Wroxham has an area of 6.21 square kilometres and in 2001 had a population of 1532 in 666 households, the village is situated within the Norfolk Broads on the south side of a loop in the middle reaches of the River Bure. It lies in a position above the Bure, between Belaugh Broad to the west and Wroxham Broad to the east or south east. Wroxham is some eight miles north-east of Norwich, to which it is linked by the A1151 road, the village and broad lie in an area of fairly intensive agriculture, with areas of wet woodland adjoining the broad and river. For the purposes of government, the parish falls within the district of Broadland although the river, broad. On the northern side of the Bure is the village of Hoveton, Wroxham Bridge was rebuilt in brick and stone in 1619 replacing a bridge built in 1576, which itself replaced an earlier, probably wooden, structure. It is considered to be the second most difficult on the Broads to navigate, Wroxham Broad lies about one mile downstream from Wroxham Bridge. The broad has an area of 34.4 hectares and a depth of 1.3 metres. It lies to the west of the Bure, with two openings between river and broad. The broad is popular for sailing and is the home of the Norfolk Broads Yacht Club and it is also an important habitat for broadland flora and fauna. Between 2000 and 2005 the island between the two channels linking Wroxham Broad to the Bure underwent restoration to stop erosion and improve the islands ecology, the project was a joint initiative involving the Broads Authority, Norfolk Broads Yacht Club and the local landowner, Trafford Estates. Scrub was cleared and a stretch of piling installed, allowing sedge, reed, by 2005 it was reported that more birds, including kingfishers, were nesting on the island and the rare Cettis warbler was often spotted. Greater numbers of ducks including pochard and tufted ducks now wintered nearby and there was a profusion of wild flowers. During the course of the work, in 2004, volunteers came across an unexploded Second World War hand grenade in the dredgings, both Wroxham and Hoveton have several boat building and pleasure craft hire yards. Other local industries include the canning of soft fruits, Wroxham village had at one time – for much of the 20th century – its own public house, four village shops and a primary school, all now closed. A public library was built near Bridge Broad, a small broad near Wroxham Bridge, however, Wroxham has almost merged with Hoveton – each village growing on either bank of the river – with much of the areas commercial activity developing in Hoveton. Roys owns much of the property in the area. In fact, Roys of Wroxham is entirely situated in Hoveton – as are the local post office, like many other local amenities, the station – previously called simply Wroxham Station – is actually located in Hoveton
24.
Edwardian era
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The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. The new king Edward VII was already the leader of an elite that set a style influenced by the art. The Liberals returned to power in 1906 and made significant reforms, below the upper class, the era was marked by significant shifts in politics among sections of society that had been largely excluded from wielding power in the past, such as common labourers. The Edwardian period is sometimes imagined as a golden age of long summer afternoons and garden parties. This perception was created in the 1920s and later by those who remembered the Edwardian age with nostalgia, the Edwardian age was also seen as a mediocre period of pleasure between the great achievements of the preceding Victorian age and the catastrophe of the following war. Recent assessments emphasise the differences between the wealthy and the poor during the Edwardian era and describe the age as heralding great changes in political and social life. Robert Tressells popular novel The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists is an example of the eras social critique. Despite this, this type of perception has been challenged more recently by modern historians, the British historian Lawrence James has argued that, during the early 20th century, the British felt increasingly threatened by rival powers such as Germany, Russia, and the United States. There was a political awareness of the working class, leading to a rise in trade unions. The aristocracy remained in control of top government offices, the Conservatives – at the time called Unionists – were dominant from the 1890s to 1906. The party had many strengths, appealing to voters supportive of imperialism, tariffs, the Church of England, a powerful Royal Navy, and traditional hierarchical society. There was a powerful leadership base in the aristocracy and landed gentry in rural England, plus strong support from the Church of England. Historians have used election returns to demonstrate that Conservatives did surprisingly well in working-class districts and they had an appeal as well to the better-off element of traditional working class Britons in the larger cities. Nevertheless, the weaknesses were accumulating, and proved so overwhelming in 1906 that they did not return to power until 1922. The Conservative Party was losing its drive and enthusiasm, especially after the retirement of the charismatic Joseph Chamberlain, there was a bitter split on tariff reform, that drove many of the free traders over to the Liberal camp. Tariff reform was an issue that the Conservative leadership inexplicably clung to. Support among the top tier of the class, and in lower middle class weakened. The 1906 election was a landslide for the opposition, which saw its total vote jump 25 percent, the Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906
25.
Norfolk Wherry Trust
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The Norfolk Wherry Trust is a waterway society and registered charity 1084156 in Norfolk, England, UK. based at Womack Water near Ludham, Norfolk Broads. The Trust keeps afloat Albion, an example of the Norfolk Trading Wherry, so that she can be seen on the rivers and broads. Albion was built in 1898 - unusually - as a carvel wherry in oak on oak frames, by William Brighton, Lake Lothing, Suffolk for Bungay Maltsters WD, all other trading wherries in East Anglia were clinker built. Albions first load was coal from Lowestoft to Bungay, Albion was bought by the General Steam Navigation Company in the Thirties, and later she became a lighter until she was discovered by the Trust in 1949. In February 1949, a letter in the Eastern Daily Press suggested the forming of a trust to preserve a wherry, the fifty-year-old wherry Albion was then owned by Colmans Mustard factory and was moored at the companys works at Carrow Bridge in Norwich. In October 1949, after work, Albion sailed regularly from Great Yarmouth to Norwich, carrying timber or grain. However, freight alone could not sustain Albion, and from 1961, in 1981 The Norfolk Wherry Trust acquired a base at Womack Water near Ludham. During 1997, the black-sailed ex-trader Albion carried 648 persons, she can carry 12 people plus skipper and mate
26.
Maud (wherry)
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Maud is one of only two surviving Norfolk trading wherries to be found on the Norfolk Broads. Maud was built in 1899, and served as a sailing wherry, in 1981, she was refloated and taken to Upton where she was restored over a number of years, finally returning to the water in 1999. As of 2010, Maud is active on the Norfolk Broads and she is listed on the register of National Historic Ships in the United Kingdom, as part of the National Historic Fleet. She is 60 feet 0 inches long, with a beam of 16 feet 6 inches and she is assessed as 20 GT. Maud was built by D S Hall of Reedham for Walter Bunn and she carried general cargo and timber in connection with Bunns business. In 1911, she was sold to the Yare and Waveney Lighter Co Ltd, of Norwich, during Hobroughs ownership, she was dismasted and used as a barge in connection with dredging operations. In 1940, Hobrough was taken over by May, Gurney & Co Ltd and they used Maud as a lighter until after the Second World War, when she was fitted with a Kelvin engine. In the early 1950s, Maud was damaged in an accident whilst loading coal at Norwich Power Station, following this, she was replanked from the waterline up, with a new deck also being provided. May Gurney replaced their wherries with modern lighters in the early 1960s, Maud was sunk as a breakwater on Ranworth Broad in the mid-1960s, along with the wherry Bell. In 1976, Maud was moved elsewhere within Ranworth Broad and was resunk, in 1981, it was decided to pile the riverbank where Maud lay, and she was given to millwright Vincent Pargeter, and his wife Linda, on the understanding that the boat would be restored. Maud was taken to Upton, where she restored over a period of 18 years, restoration was assisted by grants from the Broads Authority and an appeal via the Transport Trust. In 1996, she was added to the register of National Historic Ships in the United Kingdom, boats of the Norfolk Broads WHERRY YACHT CHARTER CHARITABLE TRUST Wherry Maud Trust
27.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
28.
Village sign
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In many parts of southern England an ornamental village sign is erected to announce the village name to those entering the village. They are typically placed on the road entrance or in a prominent location such as a village green. The design often depicts a particularly characteristic feature of the village or a scene from its history, heritage and they are typically made of wood or metal or a combination of both, the designs are often made by the local community. Ornamental timber and iron signs were common historically to identify buildings of such as inns or town halls. The spread of interest beyond Norfolk can be attributed to Prince Albert and this prompted the Daily Mail to run a nationwide village sign competition. The prize fund exceeded £2,000 and ten awards were made, the winning schemes were exhibited at Australia House, London in October 1920. The village sign at Biddenden, Kent, featuring the two Biddenden Maids, was one of the successful Daily Mail competition entries, so too was the sign at Bromley, Kent. In 1924, King George VI recommended that the old custom of identifying villages with carved or painted name signs could be revived, in some places village signs have been surveyed and recorded. In Kent signs have been erected in more than half of the county villages have been identified, in 1929, Harry Carter, an art and woodwork master at Hamonds Grammar School, carved a sign for his home town. By the time of his death in 1983 he had carved over 200 town, while the practice is now widespread, decorative village signs are still common in Norfolk and in the neighbouring county of Suffolk as well as Essex and other East Anglian counties. Some village signs take the form of sculptures, such as the sign at Capel St Andrew in Suffolk, Village Sign Society Village signs on NorfolkCoast. co. uk Norfolk Village Signs Geograph article and photo-record of the Village Signs in Kent
29.
Mosaic
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A mosaic is a piece of art or image made from the assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It is often used in art or as interior decoration. Most mosaics are made of small, flat, roughly square, pieces of stone or glass of different colors, some, especially floor mosaics, are made of small rounded pieces of stone, and called pebble mosaics. Others are made of other materials, mosaics have a long history, starting in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. Pebble mosaics were made in Tiryns in Mycenean Greece, mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times, Early Christian basilicas from the 4th century onwards were decorated with wall and ceiling mosaics. Mosaic fell out of fashion in the Renaissance, though artists like Raphael continued to practise the old technique, Roman and Byzantine influence led Jews to decorate 5th and 6th century synagogues in the Middle East with floor mosaics. Mosaic was widely used on buildings and palaces in early Islamic art, including Islams first great religious building, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Mosaic went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, modern mosaics are made by professional artists, street artists, and as a popular craft. Many materials other than stone and ceramic tesserae may be employed, including shells, glass. The earliest known examples of made of different materials were found at a temple building in Abra, Mesopotamia. They consist of pieces of colored stones, shells and ivory, excavations at Susa and Chogha Zanbil show evidence of the first glazed tiles, dating from around 1500 BC. However, mosaic patterns were not used until the times of Sassanid Empire, mythological subjects, or scenes of hunting or other pursuits of the wealthy, were popular as the centrepieces of a larger geometric design, with strongly emphasized borders. Pliny the Elder mentions the artist Sosus of Pergamon by name, describing his mosaics of the left on a floor after a feast. Both of these themes were widely copied, most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire, no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across North Africa, in such as Carthage. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting, often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which was laid on site, there was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work. In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover surfaces of walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built 64 AD
30.
North Walsham
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North Walsham is a market town and civil parish in Norfolk, England in the North Norfolk district. The civil parish has an area of 11.3 square miles, for the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of North Norfolk. The town is 7.5 mi south of Cromer and the distance north of Wroxham. The county town and city of Norwich is 15 mi south, the town is served by North Walsham railway station, on the Bittern Line between Norwich, Cromer and Sheringham. The main road through the town is the A149, also, the town is located on the B1145 a route which runs between Kings Lynn and Mundesley. The town is on the North Walsham & Dilham Canal, still owned by the North Walsham Canal Company. The canal ran from Antingham Mill, largely following the course of the River Ant to a point below Honing, a short branch canal leaves the main navigation near Honing and terminates at the village of Dilham. North Walsham, an Anglo-Saxon settlement, and the village of Worstead became very prosperous from the 12th century through the arrival of weavers from Flanders. The two settlements gave their names to the textiles they produced, Walsham became the name of a cloth for summer wear. The 14th century wool churches are a testament to the prosperity of the mill owners. North Walshams church of St. Nicholas was originally dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary and is one of the UKs largest parish churches and it was also the site of a wayside shrine to St. Thomas of Canterbury. This church had the second-tallest steeple in Norfolk until its collapse in 1724, plans for its rebuilding were abandoned at the outbreak of the Second World War. The ruined tower dominates the centre and is a famous landmark of the area. In the parish church of St. North Walsham was involved in the Peasants Revolt of 1381, the peasants leaders were defeated at the Battle of North Walsham and the site is marked by a wayside stone near the towns water towers. The English naval hero, Horatio Nelson and his brother William were educated at Paston Grammar School in North Walsham, Nelson left the school to start his naval career at the age of eleven. The school became Paston College in 1984, North Walsham Picturedrome opened in King Arms Street around 1912 and survived until around September 1931. In 1931 the Regal Cinema opened in New Road and was open until 1979, when the Regal closed the building was turned into a bingo hall and it is now occupied by North Walsham Plant Hire. 32 years later, North Walsham now has a once again, in the form of the Atrium which opened in 2011
31.
Arthur Ransome
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Arthur Michell Ransome was an English author and journalist. He is best known for writing the Swallows and Amazons series of books about the school-holiday adventures of children, mostly in the Lake District. Many of the books involve sailing, fishing and camping are other common subjects, the books remain popular and Swallows and Amazons is the basis for a tourist industry around Windermere and Coniston Water, the two lakes Ransome adapted as his fictional North Country lake. He also wrote about the life of London, and about Russia before, during. Ransome was the son of Cyril Ransome and his wife Edith née Boulton, Arthur was the eldest of four children, two sisters Cicely and Joyce and a brother Geoffrey who was killed in the First World War in 1918. Arthur was born in Leeds, the house at 6 Ash Grove, Ransomes father was professor of history at Yorkshire College, Leeds. The family regularly holidayed at Nibthwaite in the Lake District, and his fathers premature death in 1897 had a lasting effect on him. His mother Edith did not want him to abandon his studies for writing and she urged him to publish The Picts and the Martyrs in 1943, although his wife Evgenia hated it, Genia was often discouraging about his books while he was writing them. Ransome was educated first in Windermere and then at Rugby School but did not entirely enjoy the experience, because of his eyesight, lack of athletic skill. He attended Yorkshire College, his fathers college, studying chemistry, after a year, he abandoned the college and went to London to become a writer. He took low-paying jobs as an assistant in a publishing company and as editor of a failing magazine, Temple Bar Magazine. Ransomes sister, Joyce married Hugh Ralph Lupton, the son of Leeds Lord Mayor Hugh Lupton, Joyce and Hugh Ralph had four children, giving one of their sons the name Arthur Ralph Ransome Lupton, in honour of the boys famous literary uncle. Hughs and Joyces children shared with their family a love of nature. When at home in Leeds, the children shared a governess with their second cousin, Peter Francis Middleton, grandfather of Catherine. Ransome married twice, first to Ivy Constance Walker in 1909 with whom he had a daughter Tabitha Ransome and his second marriage, in 1924, was to Evgenia Petrovna Shelepina who is buried in the same grave as Ransome. Ransome died in 1967 in a Greater Manchester hospital and he and his wife Evgenia lie buried in the churchyard of St Pauls Church, Rusland, Cumbria, in the southern Lake District. The Autobiography of Arthur Ransome, edited by Rupert Hart-Davis, was published posthumously in 1976 and it covers his life only to the completion of Peter Duck in 1931. Some of Ransomes early works were The Nature Books for Children, only three of the six planned volumes were published before the publisher went bankrupt
32.
Coot Club
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Coot Club is the fifth book of Arthur Ransomes Swallows and Amazons series of childrens books, published in 1934. Along with a cast of new characters, Dick and Dorothea explore the North and South Broads and become able seamen. The Callum children spend their Easter holidays on The Broads with a friend, Mrs Barrable. There they encounter the Coot Club, a gang of local children comprising Tom Dudgeon, twin girls Port and Starboard, the Coot Club was formed to protect local birds and their nests from egg collectors and other disturbances. Protecting wild birds was a new concept at the time. Despite warnings not to mix with foreigners, Tom stealthily casts off the Margolettas moorings to save the nest and he hides for fear of disgracing his father, who is the local doctor. Casting off boats is considered unthinkable on The Broads, where the economy is so dependent on boating. Mrs Barrable does not give Tom away to the Hullabaloos and instead asks him to teach the Callums to sail. Tom, Port, and Starboard join the crew of the Teasel, and together with Mrs Barrable and her pug William, the women of the party sleep in Teasel and Tom and Dick share Toms small sailing boat Titmouse. Dick shares the Coot Clubs keen interest in bird life. They chase the crew of the Teasel all over the Broads. Through a piece of imprudence on the part of Mrs Barrable, Teasel and Titmouse are caught on a tide on Breydon Water and go aground. They are still stranded on the mud when the Margoletta arrives, at that moment the Death and Glories appear, having rowed all the way from Horning to warn Tom of the Hullabaloos approach. They conduct a rescue, and are rewarded by the owners of the Margoletta with a salvage award which enables them to refurbish their vessel. The Hullabaloos depart without thanking their rescuers, and Tom can return home in the knowledge that the reputation of the family is intact. This rivalry is the subject of the sequel, The Big Six, the BBC produced a television series Swallows and Amazons Forever. Based on Coot Club and The Big Six, in 1984
33.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
34.
Wherryman's Way
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Wherrymans Way is a long distance footpath in the English county of Norfolk. It is 35 miles in length, running between Norwich and Great Yarmouth and it follows the course of the River Yare where possible, with some significant stretches away from the river where there is no continuous path alongside the Yare. Where the River Chet meets the Yare, it follows the former upstream to Loddon, from Reedham the route is along the northern bank of the Yare the rest of the way, passing Berney Arms where it joins the route of the Weavers Way. The two routes follow the northern edge of Breydon Water before going under Breydon Bridge and into Great Yarmouth. By Vauxhall Bridge next to Great Yarmouth railway station a sculpture marks the end points of the Wherrymans Way, Weavers Way, the trail is named after the trading wherries which used the River Yare to travel inland to Norwich. In September,2011 Future Radio broadcast a 5 episode series of documentaries about the Wherrymans Way and this was funded by the Broads Authority Sustainable Development Fund. Wherrymans Way Official Website Wherrymans Way Blog Silk, Steve The Wherrymans Way ISBN 1-84114-852-0
35.
River Yare
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The River Yare is a river in the English county of Norfolk. In its lower reaches it is one of the navigable waterways of The Broads. The river rises south of Dereham to the west to the village of Shipdham, above its confluence with a tributary stream from Garvestone it is known as the Blackwater River. From there it flows in an eastward direction passing Barnham Broom and is joined by the River Tiffey before reaching Bawburgh. It then skirts the southern fringes of the city of Norwich, passing through Colney, Cringleford, Lakenham and Trowse. At Whitlingham it is joined by the River Wensum and although the Wensum is the larger and longer of the two, the downstream of their confluence continues to be called the Yare. Flowing eastward into The Broads it passes the villages of Bramerton, Surlingham, Rockland St. Mary, just before Reedham at Hardley Cross it is joined by the River Chet. The cross marks the ancient boundary between the City of Norwich and Borough of Great Yarmouth, beyond Reedham the river passes the famously isolated marshland settlement of Berney Arms before entering the tidal lake of Breydon Water. Here the Yare is joined by the Rivers Waveney and Bure and finally enters the North Sea at Gorleston, the Yare is the frequent subject of landscape paintings by members of the early 19th century Norwich School of artists. The National Gallery of Art in Washington D. C. contains an oil painting by John Crome entitled Moonlight on the Yare, joseph Stannard depicted the river in Thorpe Water Frolic, Afternoon and Boats on the Yare near Bramerton which is in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The river is navigable to small vessels from Norwich to the sea. At Reedham the river is joined by the Haddiscoe Cut, a canal which provides a navigable link to the River Waveney at Haddiscoe avoiding Breydon Water. The river provides a link between Norwich and the North Sea, but silting has been a long-standing problem. In 1698, an Act of Parliament was obtained which allowed duty to be collected for any traffic using the river. Three more acts attempted to rectify the situation, but the continued to be neglected. A fifth act, obtained in 1772, sought to address the problem in a different way, other rivers benefitted from the remaining 20 per cent. In order to improve the situation the merchants of Norwich asked William Cubitt to look for a solution in 1814 and his proposal consisted of dredging a new channel to the south side of Breydon Water and making various improvements to the river. This was costed at £35,000, but the plan was opposed by Yarmouth Corporation when it was public in 1818
36.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
39.
Sailing
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Sailing employs the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water, on ice or on land over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation. A course defined with respect to the wind direction is called a point of sail. Conventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind, on a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the apparent wind direction to mobilize the power of the wind. In the 21st century, most sailing represents a form of recreation or sport, recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, until the end of the 19th century, sailing ships were the primary means for marine commerce. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating between 5000 and 5500 BCE, polynesian oceanfarers traveled vast distances of open ocean in outrigger canoes using navigation methods such as stick charts. Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were improvements in sails, masts and rigging, improvements in marine navigation including the tree and charts. Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world, the air interacting with the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, however, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack back and forth in order to progress directly upwind, sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat. Sails work in two modes to use the wind to force, PUSH, when the boat is going in the same direction as the wind. The force on the sail is mostly aerodynamic drag, and sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. This force manifests itself as pressure differences between the two sides of the sail - there is a region of low pressure on the front side of the sail and a region of high pressure on the back. Another way to say this is that sails generate lift using the air flows around them in the same way as an aircraft wing. The wind that a boat experiences is the combination of the true wind and this combination is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat. When sailing upwind the apparent wind is greater than the true wind, iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface, the sailboat does this by placing the sail in the air and the hull in the water
40.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
41.
Bermuda rig
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A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
42.
Crab claw sail
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The crab claw sail or, as it is sometimes known, Oceanic lateen or Oceanic sprit, is a triangular sail with spars along upper and lower edges. The crab claw sail is used in many traditional Pacific Ocean cultures, as can be seen by the traditional proa, the crab claw sail consists of a sail, approximately an isosceles triangle in shape. The equal length sides are longer than the side, with spars along the long sides. The forward intersection of the spars is placed towards the bow, the sail is supported by a short mast attached near the middle of the upper spar, and the forward corner is attached to the hull. The lower spar, or boom, is attached at the forward intersection, the crab claw is a shunting sail. It is used on a boat which has a permanent windward and leeward side, to tack, or switch directions across the wind, the forward corner of the sail is loosened and then transferred to the opposite end of the boat. While remaining attached to the top of the mast, the upper spar tilts to vertical and beyond as the forward corner moves past the mast, meanwhile, the mainsheet is detached and used to rotate the rearward end of the boom through a horizontal half circle. The forward corner is then re-attached at the new end of the boat. The crab claw is often compared with the tacking lateen sail, while it is possible for the sails to be identical, the two rigs are not identical. The crab claw pivots around the leading edge spar, while a lateen sail on a boat such as a Sunfish pivots around a mast. These features give it its distinct, claw-like shape, modern crab claws generally have straighter spars and a less convex leech, which gives more sail area for a given length of spar. The crab-claw sail is something of an enigma and it has been demonstrated to produce very large amounts of lift when reaching, and overall seems superior to any other simple sail plan. One popular but disputed theory is that the crab-claw wing works like a wing, generating vortex lift. Since the crab claw does not lie symmetric to the airflow, like a delta wing, but rather lies with the lower spar nearly parallel to the water. This can clearly be seen in Marchajs wind tunnel photos published in Sail Performance, the vortex on the top spar of the sail is much larger, covering most of the sail area, while the lower vortex is very small and stays close to the spar. Marchaj attributes the large lifting power of the sail to lift generated by the vortices, while others attribute the power to a mix of aspect ratio, camber. Video Hot Buoys Self-Tacking Crab-Claw Trimaran Polynesian Voyaging Society Wind Tunnel results on effects of crabclaw sail orientation - apex position and consistent camber
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Fore-and-aft rig
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A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged, fore-and-aft rigged sails include staysails, Bermuda rigged sails, gaff rigged sails, gaff sails, gunter rig, lateen sails, lug sails, the spanker sail on a square rig and crab claw sails. Northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade, the lateen sail was more maneuverable and speedier, while the square rig was clumsy but seaworthy
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Gaff rig
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
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Junk rig
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The junk rig, also known as the Chinese lugsail or sampan rig, is a type of sail rig in which rigid members, called battens, span the full width of the sail and extend the sail forward of the mast. The junk rig is a simple and effective rig, the rig contrasts starkly with the Bermuda rig which is prevalent on Western sail boats. In its most traditional form the junk rig is carried on an unstayed mast however standing rigging of some kind is not uncommon, performance close-hauled is perhaps the strongpoint of the Bermuda rig - key to winning a race with an upwind leg or outmaneuvering an opponent in battle. The junk rig typically produces more drive than a similarly sized Bermuda rig when running downwind without a spinnaker, a junk rigged boat can let its sails out athwartships On a Bermuda rigged boat the shrouds interfere with sails if the sail was let out until it was athwartship. The junk rig is well suited to travel with its working sails. The junk rig appeals to shorthanded sailing crews for many reasons, to lessen sail all that is required is to let out the halyard. It is typical to run the halyards and sheets to the companionway on a junk rigged boat and this means that typical sailhandling can be performed from the relative safety of the cockpit, or even while the crew is below deck. Junk sails are carried on a mast which rakes forward a few degrees from vertical. The forward rake of the sail encourages the sail to swing out, another way to say this is that the sail is stable when swung out and doesnt return to the middle of the ship when the wind drops. Consequently, the airfoil developed in light wind doesnt have enough camber to develop much lift at low wind speeds, perhaps the chief shortcoming of the junk rig is that it typically produces poor drive to windward in light winds. The sail may remain almost entirely flat in light winds and develop unacceptable drive to windward The fully battened sail is much heavier than a sail made entirely of sailcloth with modern battens. The stiff junk battens disturb laminar wind flow over the sail -especially important when sailing to windward, Junk sails are relatively low aspect ratio, resulting in a lower lift-to-drag ratio, consequently the ship cant tack as close to the wind. A junk sail has more running rigging aloft, adding to weight, providing more wind resistance, a junk mast is normally of solid wood and very heavy for its short length. There were two types of ships with Junk Rig in the Malay Archipelago with local hulls instead of the Chinese Junk hull. A light boat used commonly in the early 19th century to carry goods along rivers, twakow, a type of vessel with one mast and junk rig. They were a common sight in the Singapore river in the mid 19th century, among the ships used on the coast of China, Lorcha, a light Chinese sailing vessel. This ship combined a western-style hull of Portuguese influence, with Chinese-style mast, the lorcha were found in the Gulf of Siam and in Philippine waters as well. The Vũng Tàu shipwreck consists of the remains of a late 17th century lorcha from the South China Sea off the islands of Con Dao, about 160 km from Vũng Tàu, each of the traditional sailing rigs can be achieved using the modern junk sail
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Lateen
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A lateen or latin-rig is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. Dating back to Roman navigation, the lateen became the sail of the Age of Discovery. It is common in the Mediterranean, the upper Nile River, and the parts of the Indian Ocean. The lateen is used today in a different form on small recreational boats like the Sailfish and Sunfish. The earliest fore-and-aft rig was the spritsail, appearing in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft, one theory is that the lateen sail originated during the early Roman empire in the Mediterranean Sea. It evolved out of the dominant square rig by setting the sails more fore-and-aft – along the line of the keel – rather than athwartship, while tailoring the luff and leech. The theory of Roman origin for lateen was begun with Lynn White, John M. H. Brindley.25 The original passage cited from Caesarus is, according to Brindley, no more than an allusion, ‘tres naves, quas Latenas vocant, majores, plenas tritico direxerunt’. The assumption is that labelling these three wheat ships ‘latines’ means that they had lateen sails, there is also reason to doubt Sottas’s interpretation of Procopius’ claim – that three ships of Justinian’s fleet in 533 deployed lateen sails. That the triangular sails refer to triangular top sails, which were standard gear on Roman square-rigged ships after 50 ad’, second, White’s claim that the lateen sail was deployed on a European ship in 880 is problematic. We know that the Persians were sailing to India and beyond via the Persian Gulf from the third, and by the mid-seventh century the Muslims were sailing the length of the Indian Ocean. But even if the Romans had invented the lateen sail, it is important to note that after 50 ce there is no evidence of refinement or further development of sails and rigging. Based on this theory, the lateen sail originated in the Near East, most likely in Persia or Arabia and these sailors were likely responsible for introducing the lateen sails and large three-masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. According to the Belgian maritime historian Basch, the earliest true lateen rig appears as early as the 1st century BC, in a Hellenistic wall painting found in a Hypogeum in Alexandria. The earliest archaeologically excavated lateen-rigged ship, the Yassi Ada II, dates to ca.400 AD, the Kelenderis ship mosaic and the Kellia ship graffito from the early 7th century complement the picture. By the 6th century, the lateen sail had largely replaced the square throughout the Mediterranean. It became the standard rig of the Byzantine dromon war galley and was also employed by Belisarius flagship in the 532 AD invasion of the Vandal kingdom. This is also indicated by the terminology of the lateen among Mediterranean Arabs and it has been suggested that the lateen sail was brought to the Indian Ocean by the Alexandrian merchants who sailed the Red Sea in Roman and later Byzantine and Arab times. Such theories have been superseded by unequivocal depictions of lateen-rigged Mediterranean sailing vessels which pre-date the Arab invasion, searches for lateen sails in India were inconclusive
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Mast aft rig
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A mast aft rig, alternately referred to as aft-mast rig, is a sailboat sail-plan that uses a single mast set in the aft half of the hull. The mast supports fore-sails that may consist of a single jib multiple staysails, the mainsail is either small or completely absent. Mast aft rigs are uncommon, but are found on a few custom, many mast-aft rigs utilize a small mainsail and multiple staysails that can resemble some cutter rigs. A mast aft rig could, based on headsail count, be considered a variation of the sloop or cutter, or, based on mast position, in the typical Bermuda rig, the sails located in front of the mast generally deliver a higher percentage of the driving force. The stay that supports the leading edge of the sail causes far less turbulence than a mast, to take advantage of this fact, Bermuda rigs are shifting towards larger fore-sails and smaller mainsails. Fore-sails include jibs, genoas and staysails, the cutter, with its use of multiple foresails, achieves the same goal of placing a higher percentage of the sail area in staysails. By moving the mast toward the back of the sailboat, designers can increase the size, the mainsail is reduced in size or eliminated altogether. An advantage of using foresails, also called staysails, is that they may be rigged for roller furling and this allows the sail to quickly and easily be deployed and reefed by pulling lines. The sail rolls up around the stay and this simplicity and easy operation is one of the main attractions of the mast aft rig. By reducing the mainsail in size or eliminating it altogether, the aft mast rig squarely minimizes or completely solves the problems associated with battens, battens enable designers to increase the size of mainsails by pushing the mainsail away from the mast. However, the forces of the battens pushing against the mast make it difficult to raise or lower the mainsail. On larger rigs, batten cars are needed to overcome these forces, by eliminating the battens and associated batten cars, the material cost savings for a typical 60-ft catamaran can be as much as $12,000 AUD. Aft-mast rigs with no mainsail also require fewer winches to raise and lower sails, when Hot Buoys converted from a Bermuda rig to an aft-mast rig 5 winches were no longer required. For rigs with no mainsail, there is also no boom and this saves the cost of the boom, and hardware and lines associated with the boom. More importantly, eliminating the boom is a matter of safety, the second leading cause of death on sailboats is the boom. Booms cause injuries and deaths directly and indirectly by knocking people overboard, even when stationary, booms represent a hazard. According to a German study, boom strikes were the most common cause of sailing injury overall, another aspect of safety is in regards to the elimination of the lines and hardware to control the boom. With fewer lines and less hardware on the deck there are items to trip over or trap fingers
