1.
Order of the Companions of Honour
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The Order of the Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms. Founded on the date as the Order of the British Empire. The order consists of the Sovereign plus no more than 65 members, additionally, foreigners from outside the realms may be added as honorary members. Membership confers no title or precedence, but those inducted into the order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH. Appointments can be made on the advice of Commonwealth realm prime ministers, for Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom,7 for Australia,2 for New Zealand, the quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding 2 places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the 9 for the other countries to 7. While able to nominate candidates to the Order, New Zealand, as of 2016 those countries have nominated only politicians who have served as Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister. Men wear the badge on a ribbon and women on a bow at the left shoulder. Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II List of Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour List of honorary British Knights List of people who have declined a British honour
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Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Its membership mainly comprises senior politicians, who are present or former members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the Council also holds the delegated authority to issue Orders of Council, mostly used to regulate certain public institutions. The Council advises the sovereign on the issuing of Royal Charters, which are used to grant special status to incorporated bodies, otherwise, the Privy Councils powers have now been largely replaced by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Counsellors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom was preceded by the Privy Council of Scotland, the key events in the formation of the modern Privy Council are given below, Witenagemot was an early equivalent to the Privy Council of England. During the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a court or curia regis. The body originally concerned itself with advising the sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the Courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the sovereign relied on a smaller committee, by the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, and Privy Council had been abolished. The remaining parliamentary chamber, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws, the forty-one members of the Council were elected by the House of Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, de facto military dictator of the nation. In 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, Charles II restored the Royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small group of advisers. Under George I even more power transferred to this committee and it now began to meet in the absence of the sovereign, communicating its decisions to him after the fact. Thus, the British Privy Council, as a whole, ceased to be a body of important confidential advisers to the sovereign and it is closely related to the word private, and derives from the French word privé
3.
Margaret Thatcher
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She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century, and the first woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist dubbed her The Iron Lady, a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics, as Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism. A research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament for Finchley in 1959, Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975, Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition and she became Prime Minister after winning the 1979 general election. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation, flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies and she narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in 1984. Thatcher was re-elected for a term in 1987. During this period her support for a Community Charge was widely unpopular and she resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership. After retiring from the Commons in 1992, she was given a peerage as Baroness Thatcher which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords. After a series of strokes in 2002, she was advised to withdraw from public speaking. Despite this, she managed to pre-record a eulogy to Ronald Reagan prior to his death, in 2013, she died of another stroke in London, at the age of 87. Always a controversial figure, she has described as one of the greatest and most influential politicians in British history. Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925, in Grantham and her father was Alfred Roberts, originally from Northamptonshire, and her mother was Beatrice Ethel from Lincolnshire. She spent her childhood in Grantham, where her father owned two grocery shops, Prior to the Second World War, in 1938 the Roberts family gave sanctuary to a teenage Jewish girl escaping Nazi Germany. Thatcher was to describe this in her memoirs as among the significant events of her formative years, Alfred Roberts was an alderman and a Methodist local preacher, and brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church. He came from a Liberal family but stood as an Independent and he was Mayor of Grantham in 1945–46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950. Margaret Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement, her extracurricular activities included the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, swimming and walking. She was head girl in 1942–43, in her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, but she was initially rejected and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew. Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin, even while working on chemistry, she was already thinking towards law and politics
4.
John Gummer
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John Selwyn Gummer, Baron Deben, PC is a British Conservative Party politician, formerly Member of Parliament for Suffolk Coastal and now a member of the House of Lords. Lord Deben is Chairman of the UKs independent Committee on Climate Change and he is a non-executive director of Veolia Voda, The Catholic Herald and the Castle Trust – a mortgage and investment firm. He is also a Trustee of the conservation charity, Blue Marine Foundation. John Gummer stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election and was appointed to the Upper House as Lord Deben. The eldest son of a Church of England priest, Canon Selwyn Gummer, his brother is Peter Gummer, Baron Chadlington. Gummer attended Kings School, Rochester, before going up to Selwyn College, Cambridge where he read History, first elected to Parliament at the 1970 general election, where he defeated sitting MP James Dickens in Lewisham West, Gummer had previously contested Greenwich in 1964 and 1966. In 1979, he returned to the House of Commons, securing Eye in Suffolk and he held the constituency and its successor Suffolk Coastal until his retirement from the Commons in 2010. He joined the Cabinet in 1989 as Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, as Environment Secretary he introduced the Environment Act 1995 and the Landfill Tax, which was the first such environmental tax in the UK. The BBC Wildlife magazine described him as the Environment Secretary against which all others are judged, in 1997, he was also awarded the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Medal. and Friends of the Earth described his as the best Environment Secretary weve ever had. He had responsibility for safety during the mad cow disease epidemic in 1989–90 which eventually claimed 176 British lives. At the height of the crisis in May 1990, he attempted to refute the evidence for BSE/Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease by feeding his 4-year-old daughter a burger before press cameras. Gummer opposed reduction of beds at the Aldeburgh Cottage Hospital, following the 1997 Labour election victory he became a backbencher and chairman of the All-Party Group on Architecture and Planning. During this time he actively pursued environmental causes, introducing an Early Day Motion on Climate Change to Parliament along with Michael Meacher and he was also instrumental in the passing of the Climate Change Act of 2008. Because of his credentials, in 2005 David Cameron asked Deben to chair the Quality of Life Policy Group with Zac Goldsmith as his deputy. In 2009, Lord Deben attracted attention in the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, after claiming £36,000 for gardening over 4 years, as an parliamentary expense. Although the claims were encouraged and initially approved by the Parliamentary Fees Office and he repaid £11,538 for gardening and household bills and donated £11,500 to charity, paying above the minimum required in order to demonstrate corporate social responsibility for the expenses system. Consequently, the Legg Report showed that 343 MPs had been asked to repay some money with Gummer paying the 7th highest figure and it was announced that Gummer would be awarded a peerage in the 2010 Dissolution Honours List. As a pro-European moderate, Lord Deben supported Kenneth Clarkes leadership bids, in September 2012, Lord Deben was confirmed as Chairman of the UKs independent Committee on Climate Change, succeeding Adair, Lord Turner
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Peter Brooke, Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville
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Peter Leonard Brooke, Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville, CH, PC is a British politician. He is the son of Henry Brooke, a former Home Secretary and he was educated at Marlborough College and Balliol College, Oxford, before going on to the Harvard Business School in the United States. After leaving university he worked as a headhunter and was Chairman of Spencer Stuart, after unsuccessfully challenging Neil Kinnock at the Labour stronghold of Bedwellty in October 1974, he was elected as MP for the Cities of London and Westminster in a by-election in 1977. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1988 and he was made Chairman of the Conservative Party in 1987, and then Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in 1989. In January 1992, Brooke appeared on the Irish chat show, unionists were outraged at what seemed to be a moment clearly out of touch with grieving families, and instantly requested the resignation of Brooke. The incident was a factor in Brookes being dropped from his position after the April 1992 general election, after leaving the Cabinet, Brooke stood unsuccessfully for the position of Speaker of the House of Commons. Brooke then remained on the backbenches for a time before being brought back into the Cabinet later in the year as Secretary of State for National Heritage. During his time as Heritage Secretary, he oversaw the restoration of Windsor Castle following the fire that had struck the state apartments in 1992. Brooke stepped down as an MP at the 2001 general election and was made a peer as Baron Brooke of Sutton Mandeville, of Sutton Mandeville in the County of Wiltshire. He was Chairman of the Association of Conservative Peers and he was appointed Companion of Honour, as his father had been, in 1992. Lord Brooke is one of several peers and MPs with an abiding interest in the works of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Peter Brooke
6.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
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The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster is appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Chancellor is answerable to Parliament for the governance of the Duchy, however, the involvement of the Chancellor in the running of the day-to-day affairs of the Duchy is slight, and the office is held by a senior politician whose main role is usually quite different. The position is held by Patrick McLoughlin. The position has often given to a junior Cabinet minister with responsibilities in a particular area of policy for which there is no department with an appropriate portfolio. In 1491, the office of Vice-Chancellor of the County Palatine of Lancaster was created, in recent times, the Chancellors duties have been said to occupy an average of one day a week. Under the Promissory Oaths Act 1868, the Chancellor is required to take the oath of allegiance, the Office of the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster is part of the Cabinet Office. From 1997 until 2009, the holder of the title served as the Minister for the Cabinet Office. This was true of Alan Milburn, who was given the title by Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2004, however, in the reshuffle of 5 June 2009, the Chancellorship went to the Leader of the House of Lords, the Baroness Royall. In David Camerons first cabinet, announced on 12 May 2010, the position is currently held by Patrick McLoughlin, who is also Chairman of the Conservative Party, following Theresa Mays appointment as Prime Minister. The last holder of the post was Oliver Letwin, having been appointed in July 2014 when he was also Minister for Government Policy, following the 2015 general election, he was also given overall responsibility for the Cabinet Office and made a full member of the Cabinet. He has also been the Member of Parliament for West Dorset since 1997, list of Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster County Palatine of Lancaster
7.
Kenneth Clarke
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Kenneth Harry Clarke, CH, QC, often known as Ken Clarke, is a British Conservative politician who has represented Rushcliffe in Nottinghamshire as a Member of Parliament since 1970. As of February 2017 he is the Father of the House, Clarke has been described by the press as a Big Beast. He served in various British Cabinets as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary, Lord Chancellor and Justice Secretary, Education Secretary, Health Secretary and he has been the President of the Tory Reform Group since 1997. Clarke contested the Conservative Party leadership three times – in 1997,2001 and 2005 – being defeated each time, opinion polls indicated he was more popular with the general public than with his Party, whose generally Eurosceptic stance did not chime with his pro-European views. Notably, he is President of the Conservative Europe Group, Co-President of the pro-EU body British Influence, Clarkes time as a minister is the fifth-longest in the modern era, having spent over 20 years serving under Prime Ministers Margaret Thatcher, John Major and David Cameron. Clarke was born in West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire, and was christened with the name as his father, Kenneth Clarke. He attended Nottingham High School before going to Cambridge University to read Law at Cambridges Gonville and Caius College, Clarke had initially held Labour sympathies, his grandfather having been a Communist, but while at Cambridge he joined the Conservative Party. Clarke opposed the admission of women to the Union, and is quoted as saying upon his election, Cambridge should wait a year to see what happens before any decision is taken on admitting them. Clarke is deemed one of the Cambridge Mafia, a group of prominent Conservative politicians who were educated at Cambridge in the 1960s, after leaving Cambridge, Clarke was called to the bar in 1963 at Grays Inn and took silk in 1980. Clarke sought election to the House of Commons almost immediately after leaving university and his political career began by contesting the Labour stronghold of Mansfield in the 1964 and 1966 elections. In June 1970, at the age of 29, he won the East Midlands constituency of Rushcliffe, south of Nottingham, from Labour MP Tony Gardner. Along with Dennis Skinner, who has served continually since the 1970 general election. He is the subject of a portrait in oil commissioned by Parliament, Clarke first served in the government of Margaret Thatcher as Parliamentary Secretary for Transport and Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Transport, and then Minister of State for Health. He joined the Cabinet as Paymaster-General and Employment Minister, and served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Minister of the DTI with responsibility for Inner Cities. While in that position, Clarke announced the sale to British Aerospace of the Rover Group, a new name for British Leyland, Clarke came to work with John Major very closely, and quickly emerged as a central figure in his government. In May 1993, seven months after the impact of Black Wednesday had terminally damaged Norman Lamonts credibility as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Major sacked Lamont and appointed Clarke in his place. Clarke enjoyed a successful record as Chancellor, as the economy recovered from the recession of the early 1990s. He reduced the rate of income tax from 25% to 23%, reduced UK Government spending as a percentage of GDP
8.
Cecil Parkinson
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Cecil Edward Parkinson, Baron Parkinson, PC was a British Conservative politician and cabinet minister. A chartered accountant by training, he entered Parliament in 1970 and was appointed a minister in Margaret Thatchers first government in 1979, Parkinson subsequently served as Secretary of State for Energy, and later Transport. He resigned that office in 1990, on the day that Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister. He was created Baron Parkinson in 1992 and served in the House of Lords until his retirement in September 2015, Parkinson was born in Carnforth, Lancashire, in 1931. He was the son of a railway worker and he won a Blue as an athlete, competing over 220 and 440 yards. While at university, he was a Labour supporter and for a time was a member of the Labour Party and he did National Service as an NCO in the Royal Air Force. He married Ann Mary Jarvis in 1957 and they had three daughters, Mary, Emma and Joanna. After leaving university, Parkinson worked as a manager for the Metal Box Company and he trained and qualified as a Chartered Accountant and in 1961 founded Parkinson-Hart Securities. Parkinson was a supporter of Preston North End, and in November 1988 paid a tribute to Tom Finney on This Is Your Life, in the June 1970 general election Parkinson stood as candidate for Northampton but was not elected. Parkinson was elected as MP for Enfield West at a by-election in November 1970, when that constituency was abolished for the February 1974 general election he was elected for the new South Hertfordshire constituency. After the 1979 General Election, he was made a trade minister. Despite his relatively junior status, he was a member of the small War Cabinet which Mrs Thatcher set up to run the Falklands War and he worked on the Conservative Partys 1983 election campaign, standing in the new Hertsmere constituency after Hertfordshire Souths abolition. Although Thatcher initially remonstrated with him that Anthony Edens womanising had been no bar on his holding the Foreign Office, she appointed him Secretary of State for Trade. Parkinson was forced to resign on 14 October 1983 after the news of Sara Keays pregnancy had become public knowledge, Flora Keays. Subsequently, as a result of a dispute over child maintenance payments, Parkinson was able to gain an injunction in 1993, following the birth, Parkinson released a statement in which he wished the baby peace, privacy and a happy life. This court order was the subject of controversy until Flora Keays reached her majority at the end of 2001. Upon Flora turning 18, it was noted in the press that Parkinson had never met his child, at the time of the revelation of Parkinsons relationship with Sara Keays in 1983, Parkinson made much of what he described as the volume of letters in support that he received. By 2001, however, the media focused more upon Flora and her difficulties than in protecting Parkinsons reputation, after four years on the back benches, he was appointed Secretary of State for Energy in 1987, and for Transport in the July 1989 reshuffle
9.
Leon Brittan
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Leon Brittan, Baron Brittan of Spennithorne, PC, QC, DL was a British politician, Conservative Member of Parliament and barrister, as well as a member of the European Commission. He served several roles in Margaret Thatchers government, including Home Secretary. Leon Brittan was born in London, the son of Rebecca and Joseph Brittan and his parents were Lithuanian Jews who had migrated to Britain before World War II. Sir Samuel Brittan, the economics journalist, was his brother, the former Conservative MP Malcolm Rifkind, and the music producer Mark Ronson, were cousins. He was made a Queens Counsel in 1978, between 1979 and 1981 he was Minister of State at the Home Office, and was then promoted to become Chief Secretary to the Treasury, becoming the youngest member of the Cabinet. He warned cabinet colleagues that spending on security, health. At the 1983 election Brittan was elected MP for Richmond, following the election, he was promoted to Home Secretary, becoming the youngest since Sir Winston Churchill. During the UK miners strike, Brittan was a critic of the leadership of the National Union of Mineworkers. He accused them of organising violence by flying pickets, whom he described as thugs, one factor in the defeat of the strike was central control of local police forces. As soon as the strike began, Brittan set up a National Reporting Centre in New Scotland Yard to co-ordinate intelligence, Margaret Thatchers government had carefully planned for a miners strike and a Whitehall committee had been meeting in secret since 1981, to prepare for a long dispute. In September 1985, Brittan was moved to Secretary of State for Trade, the reason for his demotion, according to Jonathan Aitken, was that the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher felt that Brittan was not getting the message across on television. In her memoirs, Thatcher wrote of Brittan, Everybody complained about his manner on television, Brittan stated that transmission of the programme would be against the national interest and in August 1985 he wrote to the BBC Chairman, Stuart Young, asking for the broadcast to be cancelled. The BBCs Board of Governors called a meeting and ruled that the documentary could not be shown. The controversy led to a rift in the BBC between the boards of Management and Governors and it also led to a day of strike action by hundreds of television and radio workers who protested against what they perceived as government censorship. Brittan resigned as Trade and Industry Secretary in January 1986, over the Westland affair, the rest of the Government, led by Margaret Thatcher, supported a deal with the American business Sikorsky Fiat. Jonathan Aitken wrote of Brittan’s resignation, Soon after a meeting of Tory backbenchers at the 1922 Committee he fell on his sword. It was a combination of a hunt and a search for a scapegoat – tainted by an undercurrent of anti-Semitism. I believed what should have been obvious to anyone else, that he was being used as a conductor to deflect the fire that the Prime Minister had started and inflamed
10.
Jim Prior
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James Michael Leathes Prior, Baron Prior, PC, usually known as Jim Prior, was a British Conservative politician. He served in two Conservative Cabinets, and outside parliament was Chairman of the Arab British Chamber of Commerce from 1996 to 2004. Under Edward Heath, Prior was Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food from 1970 to 1972 and this made him a leader of the so-called wet faction in the Conservative ranks. In 1981 he was moved to the pivotal role of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, standing down in 1984. Prior was educated at Charterhouse School, before going on to Pembroke College, Cambridge and he did military service as an officer in the Royal Norfolk Regiment of the British Army, serving in Germany and India. He was one of several candidates in the Conservative Partys 1975 leadership election, entering at the second round. Under Margaret Thatcher he was Secretary of State for Employment from May 1979 to 14 September 1981, Thatcher said of their relationship, we agreed that trade unions had acquired far too many powers and privileges. We also agreed that these must be dealt with one step at a time, but when it came down to specific measures, there was deep disagreement about how fast and how far to move. And during his period in the Cabinet, he is believed to have angered the right wing of his party, in September 1981, Prior became Secretary of State for Northern Ireland and was in this office until September 1984. This transfer was seen as a move by Thatcher to isolate Prior. The post of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland was seen as a ground to marginalise ministers. However, when Prior resigned, Thatcher revealed that she was going to him another Cabinet post during the reshuffle. In 1986, he collaborated with John Cassels and Pauline Perry to create the Council for Industry and Higher Education and he retired from Parliament in 1987, and was created a life peer as Baron Prior, of Brampton in the County of Suffolk on 14 October 1987. He was chairman and later vice-president of the Rural Housing Trust, Prior was interviewed about the rise of Thatcherism for the 2006 BBC TV documentary series Tory. Tory. and in 2012 as part of The History of Parliaments oral history project, in January 1954 Prior married Jane Lywood. Prior died on 12 December 2016 at the age of 89, after Priors death MP Keith Simpson, said of him, In many ways he was a larger than life figure. He had a face, he played up to being the farmer. People underestimated him because he didn’t claim to be a Keith Joseph or Enoch Powell parading their intellectualism, but he was somebody who was well-loved by the grassroots and was a decent man who was in politics out of a sense of public service
11.
Tom King, Baron King of Bridgwater
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Thomas Jeremy King, Baron King of Bridgwater, CH, PC is a British politician. A member of the Conservative Party, he served in the Cabinet from 1983–92 and he was made a life peer in 2001. King served as an officer in the Somerset Light Infantry and during period of national service he was seconded to the Kings African Rifles. King was elected to Parliament at the 1970 Bridgwater by-election, following the death of the sitting MP, King was brought into the Cabinet in 1983 by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Kings career in the Cabinet may appear odd to some due to his many quick moves between departments. King never had a public profile compared to other members of the Cabinet. King went on to serve as Defence Secretary under Prime Minister John Major during the Gulf War, King left the House of Commons at the 2001 general election, and was made a life peer as Baron King of Bridgwater. He now sits in the House of Lords and he serves as Deputy Chairman of the Conservative Partys Policy Group on National and International Security, which was set up by David Cameron in 2006. King was the subject of a song in the satirical ITV programme Spitting Image in which he was depicted as the Invisible Man during his term as Employment Secretary, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Tom King
12.
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills
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It was disbanded on the creation of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy on 14 July 2016. Following the departments dissolution, it no longer has ministers responsible, the Permanent Secretary was Sir Martin Donnelly. Economic policy is devolved but several important policy areas are reserved to Westminster. Further and higher education policy is mostly devolved, reserved and excepted matters are outlined below. Official website bis. gov. uk/ Archived Website Precursor departments, Department for Business and Regulatory Reform Archived Website Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills Archived Website
13.
Michael Meacher
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Michael Hugh Meacher was a British academic and Labour Party politician. Before entering politics, he was a lecturer in social administration at the University of Essex and he was a Member of Parliament from 1970 until his death, for Oldham West and Oldham West and Royton. Meacher was born in Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire on 4 November 1939 and he was the only child of Hubert Meacher and his wife Doris. His father had trained as an accountant, but after a breakdown worked on the family farm, with the family having little money, his mother took in lodgers and worked for a local doctor, she had aspirations of Michael becoming an Anglican priest. Meacher was educated at Berkhamsted School, at the time an independent school. Meacher became a researcher and lecturer in social administration at the Essex and York universities, Meacher was first elected to Parliament in 1970 for Oldham West, reversing his previous defeat, and served as a junior minister under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan. During Labours time in opposition he was in the Shadow Cabinet for fourteen years and he was seen as a figure on the left and an ally of Tony Benn, and stood as the lefts candidate against Roy Hattersley in the 1983 deputy leadership election. He was criticised for hypocrisy when he condemned second home owners, according to the BBC and Channel 4s The Mark Thomas Comedy Product, he, Meacher was sacked in June 2003, to be replaced by Elliot Morley. This was seen as giving credence to conspiracy theories as claimed by the Daily Mail, Michael Meacher also wrote a foreword for David Ray Griffins book The New Pearl Harbor. In May 2005, Meacher introduced an early day motion on climate change to parliament, on 22 February 2007, Meacher declared that he would be standing, challenging Brown and John McDonnell. However, on 14 May, after talks with McDonnell, he announced he would stand aside in order to back McDonnell as the candidate of the left, on 23 September 2006, Meacher became the sixth Labour MP to start a blog. Meacher also wrote articles for ePolitix. com, which included criticism of Blair and Brown for perceived right-wing policies and he also called for a more conciliatory policy in the Middle East, attempts to tackle income inequality, and a greater commitment to reducing energy use. Meacher was one of 36 Labour MPs to nominate Jeremy Corbyn as a candidate in the Labour Party leadership election,2015, on 22 February 2007, Meacher declared his intention to stand for the leadership of the Labour Party. On 21 April 2007, The Guardian claimed that Meacher had the support of no more than three MPs and that his campaign was virtually dead in the water. On 14 May 2007, Meacher agreed to stand aside to allow John McDonnell to be the leadership candidate of the left. Subsequent articles reported that Meacher had 21 declarations of support while McDonnell had 24, in the Labour Partys leadership nomination process, McDonnell received nominations from 29 MPs. Meacher appeared briefly as himself in the BBC Television drama serial Edge of Darkness, Meacher was a member of the Fabian Society. From 1962 until 1987, he was married to Molly Meacher, from 1988 until his death he was married to Lucianne Sawyer
14.
Chingford (UK Parliament constituency)
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Chingford was a parliamentary constituency centred on the town of Chingford in the London Borough of Waltham Forest. It returned one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system, the constituency existed from February 1974 until it was abolished for the 1997 general election. It was held by the Conservative Party throughout this period, both of its former Members of Parliament are well known, being Norman Tebbit and Iain Duncan Smith. 1974-1983, The London Borough of Waltham Forest wards of Chapel End, Chingford Central, Chingford North West, Chingford South, 1983-1997, The London Borough of Waltham Forest wards of Chapel End, Chingford Green, Endlebury, Hale End, Hatch Lane, Larkswood, and Valley. The seat was created out of the old Epping and Walthamstow East constituencies and it was replaced in 1997 by the new Chingford and Woodford Green constituency. Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs – Constituencies beginning with C
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Epping (UK Parliament constituency)
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Epping was a parliamentary constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1885 to 1974. It elected one Member of Parliament by the first past the post system of election, the constituency was abolished for the February 1974 general election and divided between the seats of Chingford, Epping Forest and Harlow. Its most prominent MP was Winston Churchill, who served as Prime Minister during the Second World War for the part of his tenure in the seat. In the 1955 and 1959 general elections, the celebrated cricket commentator, 1885-1918, The Sessional Divisions of Epping, Harlow, and Ongar, and part of the Sessional Division of Dunmow. 1918-1945, The Urban Districts of Buckhurst Hill, Chingford, Epping, Loughton, Waltham Holy Cross, Wanstead, and Woodford, 1945-1974, The Municipal Borough of Chingford, the Urban Districts of Epping and Waltham Holy Cross, and the Rural District of Epping. General Election 1914/15, Another General Election was required to place before the end of 1915
16.
Iain Duncan Smith
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George Iain Duncan Smith, often referred to by his initials IDS, is a British Conservative Party politician. The Secretary of State for Work and Pensions from 2010 to 2016, he was previously the Leader of the Conservative Party, Duncan Smith was born in Edinburgh and served in the Scots Guards from 1975 to 1981, seeing tours in Northern Ireland and Rhodesia. Duncan Smith was the first Catholic to serve as a Conservative Leader, in 2010 The Tablet named him one of Britain’s most influential Catholics. Many Conservative MPs came to consider him incapable of winning an election when he was Conservative Party Leader, in 2003 his MPs passed a vote of no confidence in his leadership, he immediately resigned, and was succeeded by Michael Howard. Returning to the backbenches, he founded the centre-right Centre for Social Justice, a think tank independent of the Conservative Party, on 12 May 2010 the new Prime Minister, David Cameron, appointed Duncan Smith to serve in the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions. He resigned from the Cabinet on 18 March 2016, in opposition to Chancellor George Osbornes proposed cuts to disability benefits, Duncan Smith was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1954. He is the son of W. G. G. Duncan Smith, a decorated Royal Air Force flying ace of World War II, and Pamela Summers, a ballerina, who were married in 1946. He is a descendant of Adam Duncan, the admiral who defeated the Dutch Navy at the Battle of Camperdown in 1797, Duncan Smith was educated at what is now St. In 1975 he attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and was commissioned into the Scots Guards, according to the BBC, Duncan Smiths biography on the Conservative Party website and his entry in Whos Who originally stated that he had studied at the University of Perugia in Italy. A BBC investigation in 2002 found this statement to be untrue, in response to the BBC story, Duncan Smiths office stated that he had in fact attended the Università per Stranieri, a different institution in Perugia, for a year. He did not complete his course of study, sit exams, dunchurch was the former staff college for GEC Marconi, for whom Duncan Smith worked in the 1980s. He was commissioned into the Scots Guards as a lieutenant on 28 June 1975. He was promoted to lieutenant on 28 June 1977, and retired from the military on 2 April 1981, at the 1987 general election Duncan Smith contested the constituency of Bradford West, where the incumbent Labour Party MP Max Madden retained his seat. At the 1992 general election he stood in the London constituency of Chingford, following the retirement of Conservative MP, a safe seat, he became a member of the House of Commons with a majority of nearly 15,000. A committed Eurosceptic, Duncan Smith became a constant thorn in the side of Prime Minister John Majors government of 1992 to 1997, Duncan Smith remained on the backbenches until 1997, when the new Conservative leader William Hague brought him into the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Social Security Secretary. At the 1997 general election, boundary changes saw his constituency renamed Chingford and Woodford Green and his majority of 14,938 was reduced to 5,714. Duncan Smith realised the dangers that he and neighbouring Conservative MPs faced, so redoubled his efforts, I held on but everywhere around me went. In 1999, Duncan Smith replaced John Maples as Shadow Defence Secretary, William Hague resigned after the Labour Party returned to government in the 2001 general election with another large parliamentary majority
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Ponders End
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Ponders End is a mid-sized commercial and large residential district of the London Borough of Enfield, north London adjoining to its east the Lee Navigation in the mid-Lea Valley. It has a high street, the Hertford Road and is formed from parts of the north of Edmonton. Wrights Flour Mill here is the oldest working building in the London Borough of Enfield. Elevations range from 21 metres to 13 metres above sea level, the railways are, Lea Valley Lines serving all stations to Hertford East via the Southbury Loop. West Anglia Main Line stopping services to Bishops Stortford Its northern and southern limits are along Hertford Road at The Ride and its loosely defined east and west limits coalesce around Wharf Road in the east and the Southbury station or Kingsway in the west. Ponders End is marked on the Ordnance Survey map of 1822 and it was recorded in 1593 as Ponders ende meaning the end or quarter of the parish associated with the Ponder family from the Middle English ende. John Ponder is mentioned in a document of 1373, the surname is believed to mean a keeper of, or dweller by, a fish-pond or mill-pond. Through the 19th century the area became industrialised, due to its road and waterway network up. The first major firm to arrive was Grout, Baylis & Co, who were established in Norwich in 1807 as crape manufacturers and they opened a dyeing and finishing plant in Ponders End two years later. Crape went out of fashion by late Victorian times, and the closed in 1894. The buildings were taken over by the United Flexible Tubing Company, in 1866 the London Jute Works Company established a factory on the Navigation in a desolate area known locally as Spike Island. Many of the new employees came from Dundee, the centre of the jute industry in Scotland. The jute works closed in 1882, to be replaced by the Ediswan factory, over the years the factory was enlarged, eventually covering 11.50 acres, and employing many people, notably girls, from the area. Ediswan produced electric lamps, and the factory was known as The Lamp. They also manufactured appliances for the shipping and aviation industries, mechanical pianos, to the south of Ponders End Lock a factory making white lead was built in 1893. Further south of that factory, the Cortecine works produced floor-cloth, by 1906 over 2000 people were employed in local factories. Another major industry in the years of the 19th century was horticulture. Tomatoes and cucumbers were the produce but flowers and fruit were also grown in the many orchards
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Middlesex
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Middlesex is a historic county in south-east England. It is now entirely within the wider urbanised area of London and its area is now also mostly within the ceremonial county of Greater London, with small sections in other neighbouring ceremonial counties. It was established in the Anglo-Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons, the largely low-lying county, dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south, was the second smallest county by area in 1831. The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert control over Middlesex. Westminster Abbey dominated most of the financial, judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county. As London grew into Middlesex, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county, in the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county, including the East End and West End of London. From 1855 the southeast was administered, with sections of Kent and Surrey, the City of London, and Middlesex, became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff, lost in 1199. In the interwar years suburban London expanded further, with improvement and expansion of public transport, after the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with high population growth continuing in the outer parts. Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket, Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns. The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the origin of its inhabitants. The word is formed from the Anglo-Saxon, i. e. Old English, middel, in an 8th-century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan. The Saxons derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known, the seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon, there were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county. Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Hounslow, Ossulstone and Spelthorne. The City of London has been self-governing since the century and became a county in its own right. Middlesex also included Westminster, which also had a degree of autonomy. Of the six hundreds, Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London, during the 17th century it was divided into four divisions, which, along with the Liberty of Westminster, largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred. The divisions were named Finsbury, Holborn, Kensington and Tower, the county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century
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British people
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British people, or Britons, are the citizens of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown dependencies, and their descendants. British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which can be acquired, for instance, although early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages, the creation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity. The notion of Britishness was forged during the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and the First French Empire, and developed further during the Victorian era, because of longstanding ethno-sectarian divisions, British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial, but it is held with strong conviction by unionists. Modern Britons are descended mainly from the ethnic groups that settled in the British Isles in and before the 11th century, Prehistoric, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Norse. The British are a diverse, multi-national and multicultural society, with regional accents, expressions. Although none of his own writings remain, writers during the time of the Roman Empire made much reference to them, the group included Ireland, which was referred to as Ierne inhabited by the different race of Hiberni, and Britain as insula Albionum, island of the Albions. The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. Greek and Roman writers, in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, name the inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland as the Priteni, the origin of the Latin word Britanni. It has been suggested that name derives from a Gaulish description translated as people of the forms. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, the term Britannia persisted as the Latin name for the island, during the Middle Ages, and particularly in the Tudor period, the term British was used to refer to the Welsh people and Cornish people. At that time, it was the held belief that these were the remaining descendants of the ancient Britons. This notion was supported by such as the Historia Regum Britanniae. Wales and Cornwall, and north, i. e. Cumbria, Strathclyde and this legendary Celtic history of Great Britain is known as the Matter of Britain. The indigenous people of the British Isles have a combination of Celtic, Norse, Anglo-Saxon, oppenheimer continues that the majority of the people of the British Isles share genetic commonalities with the Basques, ranging from highs of 90% in Wales to lows of 66% in East Anglia. Oppenheimers opinion is that. by far the majority of male gene types in the British Isles derive from Iberia, ranging from a low of 59% in Fakenham, Norfolk to highs of 96% in Llangefni, north Wales. The English had been unified under a single state in 937 by King Athelstan of Wessex after the Battle of Brunanburh. However, historian Simon Schama suggested that it was Edward I of England who was responsible for provoking the peoples of Britain into an awareness of their nationhood in the 13th century
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Conservative Party (UK)
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The Conservative Party, officially the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a political party in the United Kingdom. It is currently the party, having won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election. The partys leader, Theresa May, is serving as Prime Minister. It is the largest party in government with 8,702 councillors. The Conservative Party is one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, the other being its modern rival. The Conservative Partys platform involves support for market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defence, deregulation. In the 1920s, the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives main rivals, Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the twentieth century, including Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher. Thatchers tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation, the Conservative Partys domination of British politics throughout the twentieth century has led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world. The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament, with twenty MEPs, the party is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe Europarty and the International Democrat Union. The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and the second-largest in the Welsh Assembly, the party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. The Conservative Party traces its origins to a faction, rooted in the 18th century Whig Party and they were known as Independent Whigs, Friends of Mr Pitt, or Pittites. After Pitts death the term Tory came into use and this was an allusion to the Tories, a political grouping that had existed from 1678, but which had no organisational continuity with the Pittite party. From about 1812 on the name Tory was commonly used for the newer party, the term Conservative was suggested as a title for the party by a magazine article by J. Wilson Croker in the Quarterly Review in 1830. The name immediately caught on and was adopted under the aegis of Sir Robert Peel around 1834. Peel is acknowledged as the founder of the Conservative Party, which he created with the announcement of the Tamworth Manifesto, the term Conservative Party rather than Tory was the dominant usage by 1845. In 1912, the Liberal Unionists merged with the Conservative Party, in Ireland, the Irish Unionist Alliance had been formed in 1891 which merged anti-Home Rule Unionists into one political movement. Its MPs took the Conservative whip at Westminster, and in essence formed the Irish wing of the party until 1922. The Conservatives served with the Liberals in an all-party coalition government during World War I, keohane finds that the Conservatives were bitterly divided before 1914, especially on the issue of Irish Unionism and the experience of three consecutive election losses
21.
Bury St Edmunds
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Bury St Edmunds is a market town in Suffolk, England. Bury St Edmunds Abbey is near the town centre, Bury is the seat of the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich, with the episcopal see at St Edmundsbury Cathedral. The town, originally called Beodericsworth, was built on a pattern by Abbot Baldwin around 1080. It is known for brewing and malting and for a British Sugar processing factory, the town is the cultural and retail centre for West Suffolk and tourism is a major part of the economy. They all derive from Proto-Germanic *burgs meaning fortress and this in turn derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhrgh meaning fortified elevation, with cognates including Welsh bera and Sanskrit bhrant-. There is thus no justification for the folk etymology stating that the Cathedral Town was so called because St Edmund was buried there, the second section of the name refers to Edmund King of the East Angles, who was killed by the Vikings in the year 869. He became venerated as a saint and a martyr, and his shrine made Bury St Edmunds an important place of pilgrimage, the formal name of both the borough and the diocese is St Edmundsbury. Local residents often refer to Bury St Edmunds simply as Bury, Bury St Edmunds, supposed by some to have been the Villa Faustina of the Romans, was one of the royal towns of the Saxons. The town grew around Bury St Edmunds Abbey, a site of pilgrimage, by 925 the fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town was changed to St Edmunds Bury. In 942 or 945 King Edmund had granted to the abbot and convent jurisdiction over the town, free from all secular services. Edward the Confessor made the lord of the franchise. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the monastery and ejected the secular priests. Count Alan Rufus is said to have been interred at Bury St Edmunds Abbey in 1093, in the 12th and 13th centuries the head of the de Hastings family, who held the Lordship of the Manor of Ashill in Norfolk, was hereditary Steward of this abbey. On 18 March 1190, two days after the more well-known massacre of Jews at Clifford Tower in York, the people of Bury St Edmunds massacred 57 Jews. Later that year, Abbot Samson successfully petitioned King Richard I for permission to evict the towns remaining Jewish inhabitants on the grounds that everything in the town. Belonged by right to St Edmund, therefore, either the Jews should be St Edmund’s men or they should be banished from the town and this expulsion predates the Edict of Expulsion by 100 years. In 1198, a burned the shrine of St Edmund, leading to the inspection of his corpse by Abbot Samson. The town is associated with Magna Carta, by various grants from the abbots, the town gradually attained the rank of a borough
22.
Suffolk
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Suffolk is an East Anglian county of historic origin in England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west, the North Sea lies to the east. The county town is Ipswich, other important towns include Lowestoft, Bury St Edmunds, Newmarket and Felixstowe, the county is low-lying with very few hills, and is largely arable land with the wetlands of the Broads in the north. The Suffolk Coast and Heaths are an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, by the fifth century, the Angles had established control of the region. The Angles later became the folk and the south folk. Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, Suffolk was originally divided into four separate Quarter Sessions divisions. In 1860, the number of divisions was reduced to two, the eastern division was administered from Ipswich and the western from Bury St Edmunds. Under the Local Government Act 1888, the two divisions were made the administrative counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, Ipswich became a county borough. A few Essex parishes were added to Suffolk, Ballingdon-with-Brundon and parts of Haverhill. On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, East Suffolk, West Suffolk, the county was divided into several local government districts, Babergh, Forest Heath, Ipswich, Mid Suffolk, St. Edmundsbury, Suffolk Coastal, and Waveney. This act also transferred some land near Great Yarmouth to Norfolk, in 2007, the Department for Communities and Local Government referred Ipswich Borough Councils bid to become a new unitary authority to the Boundary Committee. The Boundary Committee consulted local bodies and reported in favour of the proposal and it was not, however, approved by the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. Beginning in February 2008, the Boundary Committee again reviewed local government in the county, West Suffolk, like nearby East Cambridgeshire, is renowned for archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Bronze Age artefacts have been found in the area between Mildenhall and West Row, in Eriswell and in Lakenheath, other finds include traces of cremations and barrows. The majority of agriculture in Suffolk is either arable or mixed, Farm sizes vary from anything around 80 acres to over 8,000. Soil types vary from clays to light sands. The continuing importance of agriculture in the county is reflected in the Suffolk Show, although latterly somewhat changed in nature, this remains primarily an agricultural show. Below is a chart of regional gross value added of Suffolk at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling, well-known companies in Suffolk include Greene King and Branston Pickle in Bury St Edmunds
23.
Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
24.
Thatcherism
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An exponent or supporter of Thatcherism is regarded as a Thatcherite. There was one exception, the National Health Service, which was widely popular. She promised Britons in 1982, the NHS is safe in our hands, both the exact terms of what makes up Thatcherism as well as its specific legacy in terms of British history over the past decades are controversial. Thatcherism attempts to promote low inflation, the state, and free markets through tight control of the money supply, privatisation. It is often compared with Reaganomics in the United States, Economic Rationalism in Australia and Rogernomics in New Zealand, Thatcherism is thus often compared to neoliberalism. Milton Friedman said that the thing people do not recognise is that Margaret Thatcher is not in terms of belief a Tory. Thatcher herself stated in 1983, I would not mind betting that if Mr Gladstone were alive today he would apply to join the Conservative Party. In the 1996 Keith Joseph memorial lecture Thatcher argued that The kind of Conservatism which he and I. favoured would be best described as liberal, and I mean the liberalism of Mr Gladstone, not of the latter day collectivists. However, Thatcher once told Friedrich Hayek, I know you want me to become a Whig, no, Hayek believed she has felt this very clearly. But the relationship between Thatcherism and liberalism is complicated, Thatchers former Defence Secretary John Nott claimed that it is a complete misreading of her beliefs to depict her as a nineteenth-century Liberal. As Ellen Meiksins Wood has argued, Thatcherite capitalism was compatible with traditional British political institutions, as Prime Minister, Thatcher did not challenge ancient institutions such as the monarchy or the House of Lords, but some of the most recent additions, such as the trade unions. Indeed, many leading Thatcherites, including Thatcher herself, went on to join the House of Lords, thinkers closely associated with Thatcherism include Keith Joseph, Enoch Powell, Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman. In an interview with Simon Heffer in 1996 Thatcher stated that the two greatest influences on her as Conservative leader had been Joseph and Powell, who were very great men. A number of commentators have traced the origins of Thatcherism in post-war British politics, the historian Dr. Thatcherism is often described as a libertarian ideology. Thatcher saw herself as creating a movement, rejecting traditional Toryism. Thatcherism is associated with libertarianism within the Conservative Party, albeit one of libertarian ends achieved by using strong, British political commentator Andrew Marr has called libertarianism the dominant, if unofficial, characteristic of Thatcherism. However, whereas some of her heirs, notably Michael Portillo and Alan Duncan, embraced this libertarianism, others in the Thatcherite movement, such as John Redwood, some commentators have argued that Thatcherism should not be considered properly libertarian. Noting the tendency towards strong central government in matters concerning the trade unions and local authorities, Andrew Gamble summarised Thatcherism as the free economy, Simon Jenkins accused the Thatcher government of carrying out a nationalisation of Britain
25.
Conservatism
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Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, has since used to describe a wide range of views. There is no set of policies that are universally regarded as conservative, because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a range of issues. In contrast to the definition of conservatism, political theorists such as Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of social. In Great Britain, conservative ideas emerged in the Tory movement during the Restoration period, Toryism supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine right. Tories opposed the idea that sovereignty derived from the people, and rejected the authority of parliament, Robert Filmers Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings, published posthumously in 1680 but written before the English Civil War of 1642–1651, became accepted as the statement of their doctrine. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 destroyed this principle to some degree by establishing a government in England. Faced with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement, now holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons rather than solely in the Crown, Toryism became marginalized during the long period of Whig ascendancy in the 18th century. Conservatives typically see Richard Hooker as the father of conservatism, along with the Marquess of Halifax, David Hume. Halifax promoted pragmatism in government, whilst Hume argued against political rationalism and utopianism, Burke served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party. Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom, Burkes views were a mixture of liberal and conservative. He supported the American Revolution of 1765–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution and he insisted on standards of honor derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw the aristocracy as the nations natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive and he favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration. Burke justified the order on the basis of tradition, tradition represented the wisdom of the species and he valued community. Burke was a leading theorist in his day, finding extreme idealism an endangerment to broader liberties, despite their influence on future conservative thought, none of these early contributors were explicitly involved in Tory politics. Hooker lived in the 16th century, long before the advent of toryism, whilst Hume was an apolitical philosopher, Burke described himself as a Whig. Shortly after Burkes death in 1797, conservatism revived as a political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions
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Neoliberalism
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Neoliberalism refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism. These market-based ideas and the policies they inspired constitute a paradigm shift away from the post-war Keynesian consensus which lasted from 1945 to 1980, as such, neoliberalism shares many attributes with other contested concepts, including democracy. The definition and usage of the term have changed over time, in the 1960s, usage of the term neoliberal heavily declined. When the term was reintroduced in the 1980s in connection with Augusto Pinochets economic reforms in Chile, once the new meaning of neoliberalism was established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. By 1994, with the passage of NAFTA and the Zapatistas reaction to development in Chiapas. Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has been growing, the impact of the global 2008–2009 crisis has also given rise to new scholarship that critiques neoliberalism and seeks developmental alternatives. In 1938 at the Colloque Walter Lippmann, the term neoliberalism was proposed, among other terms, the colloquium defined the concept of neoliberalism as involving the priority of the price mechanism, free enterprise, the system of competition, and a strong and impartial state. To be neoliberal meant advocating an economic policy with state intervention. Neoliberal state interventionism brought a clash with the opposing camp of classical liberals. Although Hayek had intellectual ties to the German neoliberals, his name was occasionally mentioned in conjunction with neoliberalism during this period due to his more pro-free market stance. During the military rule under Augusto Pinochet in Chile, opposition scholars took up the expression to describe the economic reforms implemented there, once this new meaning was established among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy. Another center-left movement from modern American liberalism that used the term neoliberalism to describe its ideology formed in the United States in the 1970s, according to David Brooks, prominent neoliberal politicians included Al Gore and Bill Clinton of the Democratic Party of the United States. The neoliberals coalesced around two magazines, the New Republic and the Washington Monthly, the godfather of this version of neoliberalism was the journalist Charles Peters who in 1983 published A Neoliberals Manifesto. Neoliberal theory argues that a market will allow efficiency, economic growth, income distribution. Any state intervention to encourage these phenomena will worsen economic performance, yet the handbook argues to view the term as merely a pejorative or radical political slogan is to reduce its capacity as an analytic frame. If neoliberalism is to serve as a way of understanding the transformation of society over the last few decades then the concept is in need of unpacking. Other scholars note that neoliberalism is associated with the policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom. There are several usages of the term that can be identified, As a development model
27.
Anti-communism
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Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. It reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States, anti-communism has been an element of movements of many different positions, including capitalist, liberal, socialist, anarchist, and fascist viewpoints. They accuse communists of causing several famines, such as the Russian Famine of 1921, some anti-communists see both communism and fascism as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. Opponents argue that communist parties that have come to power have tended to be intolerant of political opposition. Communist states have also accused of creating a new ruling class, with powers. Examples of left-wing critics of Communist states and parties are Boris Souveraine, Bayard Rustin, Irving Howe, the American Federation of Labor has always been strongly anti-Communist. The more leftist CIO purged its Communists in 1947 and has been staunchly anti-Communist ever since, in Britain, the Labour Party strenuously resisted Communist efforts to infiltrate its ranks and take control of locals in the 1930s. Although some anarchists describe themselves as communists, all anarchists criticize authoritarian Communist parties and states and they argue that Marxist concepts such as dictatorship of the proletariat and state ownership of the means of production are anathema to anarchism. Some anarchists criticize communism from an individualist point of view, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin debated with Karl Marx in the First International, arguing that the Marxist state is another form of oppression. He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, anarchists initially participated in, and rejoiced over, the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves. However, after the October revolution, it became evident that the Bolsheviks, what is needed is local construction by local forces … Russia has already become a Soviet Republic only in name. Many anarchists fought against Russian, Spanish and Greek Communists, many were killed by them, such as Lev Chernyi, Camillo Berneri, neither Marxs 10-point plan nor the rest of the manifesto say anything about who has the right to carry out the plan. Milton Friedman argued that the absence of economic activity makes it too easy for repressive political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers. Friedmans view was shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes. Objectivists who follow Ayn Rand are strongly anti-Communist and this is demonstrated, they believe, by the comparative prosperity of free market and socialist economies. Objectivist Ayn Rand writes that communist leaders typically claim to work for the common good, many ex-communists have turned into anti-communists. Mikhail Gorbachev turned from a Communist into a social democrat, milovan Đilas, was a former Yugoslav Communist official, who became a prominent dissident and critic of Communism. Leszek Kołakowski was a Polish Communist who became a famous anti-communist, the God That Failed is a 1949 book which collects together six essays with the testimonies of a number of famous ex-Communists, who were writers and journalists
28.
Atlanticism
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The term derives from the Atlantic Ocean that separates the two continents. In practice the philosophy of Atlanticism encourages active North American, particularly US, engagement in Europe and this manifested itself most strongly during the Second World War and in its aftermath through the establishment of various euro-Atlantic institutions, most importantly NATO and the Marshall Plan. Atlanticism varies in strength from region to region and country to country based on a variety of historical and cultural factors, Atlanticism is often considered to be particularly strong in eastern and central Europe, and the United Kingdom. Politically, it has tended to be associated most heavily and enthusiastically, Atlanticism often implies an affinity for American political or social culture as well as the historical bonds between the two continents. There is some tension between Atlanticism and continentalism on both sides of the Atlantic, with some people emphasising increased regional cooperation or integration over trans-Atlantic cooperation. However, the relationship between Atlanticism and North American or European integration is complex and they are not seen in opposition to one another by many commentators. Internationalism is the foreign policy belief combining both Atlanticism and continentalism, other international relationships have been increasingly emphasised, although the trans-Atlantic relationship is still arguably the most important in the world. Prior to the World Wars, European countries were preoccupied with creating colonial empires in Africa and Asia. The experience of having American and Canadian troops fighting with British, French, though the US adopted a more isolationist position between the wars, by the time of the Normandy landings the Allies were well integrated on all policies. Following the Second World War, the Western European countries were anxious to convince the US to remain engaged in European affairs to deter any aggression by the Soviet Union. After the end of the war, the relationship between the United States and Europe changed fundamentally, and made both sides less interested in the other. As a result, the relationship became less important strategically speaking. After the September 11,2001, attacks, NATO for the first time invoked Article 5, planes of NATOs multi-national AWACS unit patrolled the U. S. skies and European countries deployed personnel and equipment. However, the Iraq war caused fissures within NATO and the difference of opinion between the US led backers of the invasion and opponents strained the alliance. Some commentators, such as Robert Kagan questioned whether Europe and the United States had diverged to such a degree that their alliance was no longer relevant, Atlanticism is a belief in the necessity of cooperation between North America and Europe. The term can also be used as a shorthand for the security architecture. Supranational integration of the North Atlantic area had emerged as a focus of thinking among intellectuals on both sides of the Atlantic already in the late 19th century. Although it was not known as Atlanticism at the time, they developed an approach coupling soft, the idea of an attractive nucleus union was the greatest soft power element, the empirical fact of the hegemonic global strength such a union would hold was the hard power element
29.
Capitalism
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Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
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Entrepreneurship
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
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Euroscepticism
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Euroscepticism means criticism of the European Union. Some observers though prefer to understand opposition to and total rejection of the EU as Euroscepticism, traditionally, the main source of Euroscepticism has been the notion that integration weakens the nation state, and a desire to slow, halt or reverse integration within the EU. Other views often held by Eurosceptics include perceptions of a deficit in the European Union or a belief that the EU is too bureaucratic. A Eurobarometer survey of EU citizens in 2009 showed that support for membership of the EU was lowest in Latvia, the United Kingdom, by 2016, the countries viewing the EU most unfavourably were Greece, France, Spain and the UK. Euroscepticism is found in political parties across the spectrum, however. Trust in the EU and its institutions has declined strongly since a peak in 2007. In 2016, a referendum asking whether the United Kingdom either should remain a member of, or leave. While having some overlaps, Euroscepticism and anti-Europeanism are different, anti-Europeanism has always had a strong influence in American culture and American exceptionalism, which sometimes sees Europe on the decline or as a rising rival power, or both. Some aspects of euroscepticism in the United Kingdom have been mirrored by US authors, there can be considered to be several different types of Eurosceptic thought, which differ in the extent to which adherents reject European integration and in their reasons for doing so. Aleks Szczerbiak and Paul Taggart described two of these as hard and soft Euroscepticism, the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group in the European Parliament, typified by such parties as the United Kingdom Independence Party, is hard Eurosceptic. In western European EU member countries, hard Euroscepticism is currently a hallmark of many anti-establishment parties, some hard Eurosceptics such as UKIP prefer to call themselves Eurorealists rather than sceptics, and regard their position as pragmatic rather than in principle. I think theyre building an empire there, they want us to be a part of their empire, François Asselineau of the French Popular Republican Union has criticised the use of the term sceptic to describe hard Eurosceptics and would rather advocate the use of the term Euro opponent. Soft Euroscepticism is support for the existence of, and membership of, a form of European Union, some have claimed that there is no clear line between hard and soft euroscepticism. Some scholars consider the difference in terminology between hard and soft Euroscepticism inadequate to accommodate the large differences in terms of political agenda. Therefore, hard Euroscepticism has also referred to as Europhobia. Other alternative names for hard and soft Euroscepticism include withdrawalist respectively reformist Euroscepticism, about 43% of Europeans thought things were going in the wrong direction” in the EU, compared with 23% who thought things were going in the right direction. About 32% of EU citizens tend to trust the European Union as an institution, distrust of the EU was highest in Greece, Cyprus, Austria, France Germany, the United Kingdom and the Czech Republic. Overall, more respondents distrusted their own government than the EU, distrust of national government was highest in Greece, Slovenia, Portugal, Cyprus and France
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Gladstonian liberalism
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Gladstonian liberalism is a political doctrine named after the British Victorian Prime Minister and leader of the Liberal Party, William Ewart Gladstone. Gladstonian liberalism also emphasised free trade, little government intervention in the economy and it is referred to as laissez-faire or classical liberalism in the UK. Salisbury reigned, but Gladstone ruled. However, in the early twentieth-century the Liberal Party began to move away from Gladstonian liberalism, the Liberal government of 1906-1914 is noted for its social reforms and these included old age pensions and National Insurance. Taxation and public expenditure was increased and New Liberal ideas led to David Lloyd Georges Peoples Budget of 1909-10. The first Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, Philip Snowden, had Gladstonian economic views and this was demonstrated in his first Budget in 1924, government expenditure was curtailed, taxes were lowered and duties on tea, coffee, cocoa and sugar were reduced. A. J. P. Taylor has written that this budget would have delighted the heart of Gladstone, ernest Bevin remarked upon becoming Minister of Labour in 1940, They say that Gladstone was at the Treasury from 1860 to 1930. For the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous, William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times. Called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was a popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class. Deeply religious, Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics, with his evangelical sensibility and his moralism often angered his upper-class opponents, and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal Party. In foreign policy, Gladstone was in general against foreign entanglements, for example, he approved of the occupation of Egypt by British forces in 1882. This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms. As prime minister 1868 to 1874, Gladstone headed a Liberal Party which was a coalition of Peelites like himself, Whigs, and Radicals, he was now a spokesman for peace, economy and reform. One major achievement was the Elementary Education Act of 1870, which provided England with a system of elementary schools for the first time. In the 1874 general election Gladstone was defeated by the Conservatives under Disraeli during an economic recession. He formally resigned as Liberal leader and was succeeded by the Marquess of Hartington and he strongly disagreed with Disraelis pro-Ottoman foreign policy and in 1880 he conducted the first outdoor mass-election campaign in Britain, known as the Midlothian campaign. The Liberals won a majority in the 1880 election. Hartington ceded his place and Gladstone resumed office, in the 1885 general election this party won the balance of power in the House of Commons, and demanded Irish Home Rule as the price of support for a continued Gladstone ministry. Gladstone personally supported Home Rule, but a strong Liberal Unionist faction led by Joseph Chamberlain, along with the last of the Whigs, Hartington, opposed it
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Owner-occupancy
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Owner-occupancy or home-ownership is a form of housing tenure where a person, called the owner-occupier, owner-occupant, or home owner, owns the home in which he/she lives. This home can be house, apartment, condominium, or a housing cooperative, in addition to providing housing, owner-occupancy also functions as a real estate investment. Some homes are constructed by the owners with the intent to occupy, a large number are purchased, as new homes from a real estate developer or as an existing home from a previous landlord or owner-occupier. A house is usually the most expensive single purchase an individual or family makes, given the high cost, most individuals do not have enough savings on hand to pay the entire amount outright. In developed countries, mortgage loans are available from institutions in return for interest. If the home owner fails to meet the agreed repayment schedule, in several government-run home sale programs, such as those run by the U. S. Home ownership gives occupants the right to modify the building and land as they please, protects them from eviction, in some jurisdictions, it also confers certain legal rights with regard to abutters. Houses and the land they sit on are expensive, and the combination of monthly mortgage, insurance, maintenance and repairs, and property tax payments are sometimes greater than monthly rental costs. Buildings may also gain and lose substantial value due to real estate market fluctuations and this can make home ownership more constraining if the homeowner intends to move at a future date. Some home owners see their purchase as an investment and intend to sell or rent the property after renovating or letting the house appreciate in value. Compared to renters and absentee landlords, owner-occupiers are sometimes seen as more responsible toward property maintenance and community concerns, traditionally home-ownership has been encouraged by governments in Western countries because it was thought to help people acquire wealth, to encourage savings, and promote civic engagement. However the housing crash of 2008 in most of the English-speaking world has caused academic. Source, Housing Finance Information Network Homeowners are usually required to pay property tax periodically, multiple jurisdictions may tax the same property. In most Canadian provinces home purchasers must pay a tax called a Property Transfer Tax which is based on the cost of the home. Home ownership in Australia Homeownership in the United States Imputed rent Negative equity Ownership Property Kwak, a World of Homeowners, American Power and the Politics of Housing Aid. Home Ownership Rate by U. S. State – Aggregation of Federal Reserve economic data
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Individualism
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Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, Individualism makes the individual its focus and so starts with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation. Classical liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism are examples of movements that take the individual as a central unit of analysis. Individualism thus involves the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization and it has also been used as a term denoting The quality of being an individual, individuality related to possessing An individual characteristic, a quirk. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early Owenite socialist, he rejected its collective idea of property. Without individualism, Smith argued, individuals cannot amass property to increase ones happiness, an individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism, individuality is the state or quality of being an individual, a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires. The individualist does not follow one particular philosophy, rather creates an amalgamation of elements of many, on a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of general will in the contract is not the simple collection of individual wills. Societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly self-regarding behaviors, the principle of individuation, or principium individuationis, describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things. For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and it is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place. Jung considered individuation to be the process of human development. Thus, the atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an incomplete process, always leaving a pre-individual left-over. The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche, for Stiegler the I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we, which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits, methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents
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Monetarism
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Monetarism is a school of thought in monetary economics that emphasizes the role of governments in controlling the amount of money in circulation. Monetarist theory asserts that variations in the supply have major influences on national output in the short run. Monetarists assert that the objectives of monetary policy are best met by targeting the growth rate of the supply rather than by engaging in discretionary monetary policy. Friedman and Anna Schwartz wrote a book, A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960. Monetarism is a theory that focuses on the macroeconomic effects of the supply of money. Formulated by Milton Friedman, it argues that excessive expansion of the supply is inherently inflationary. The result was summarised in a analysis of monetary policy, Monetary History of the United States 1867–1960. The book attributed inflation to excess money supply generated by a central bank and it attributed deflationary spirals to the reverse effect of a failure of a central bank to support the money supply during a liquidity crunch. Friedman originally proposed a fixed rule, called Friedmans k-percent rule. Under this rule, there would be no leeway for the reserve bank, as money supply increases could be determined by a computer. With other monetarists he believed that the manipulation of the money supply or its growth rate is more likely to destabilise than stabilise the economy. Most monetarists oppose the gold standard, Friedman, for example, viewed a pure gold standard as impractical. Clark Warburton is credited with making the first solid empirical case for the monetarist interpretation of business fluctuations in a series of papers from 1945. p,493 Within mainstream economics, the rise of monetarism accelerated from Milton Friedmans 1956 restatement of the quantity theory of money. Friedman argued that the demand for money could be described as depending on a number of economic variables. Thus, where the money supply expanded, people would not simply wish to hold the money in idle money balances. These excess money balances would therefore be spent and hence aggregate demand would rise, similarly, if the money supply were reduced people would want to replenish their holdings of money by reducing their spending. In this, Friedman challenged a simplification attributed to Keynes suggesting that money does not matter, thus the word monetarist was coined. On the one hand, higher unemployment seemed to call for Keynesian reflation, in 1979, President Jimmy Carter appointed a Federal Reserve chief Paul Volcker, who made inflation fighting his primary objective, and restricted the money supply to tame inflation in the economy
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Supply-side economics
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Supply-side economics is a macroeconomic theory that argues economic growth can be most effectively created by investing in capital and by lowering barriers on the production of goods and services. It was started by economist Robert Mundell during the Ronald Reagan administration, typical policy recommendations of supply-side economists are lower marginal tax rates and less government regulation. The term supply-side economics was thought, for time, to have been coined by journalist Jude Wanniski in 1975. Its use connotes the ideas of economists Robert Mundell and Arthur Laffer, the Laffer curve is one of the main theoretical constructs of supply-side economics. However, the Laffer curve only measures the rate of taxation, not tax incidence, in addition, some studies have shown that tax cuts done in the US in the past several decades seldom recoup revenue losses and have minimal impact on GDP growth. It drew on a range of economic thought, particularly the Chicago School. Classical Liberals opposed taxes because they opposed government, taxation being the latters most obvious form and their claim was that each man had a right to himself and his property and therefore taxation was immoral and of questionable legal grounding. Supply-side economists, on the hand, argued that the alleged collective benefit provided the main impetus for tax cuts. As in classical economics, supply-side economics proposed that production or supply is the key to economic prosperity, john Maynard Keynes, the founder of Keynesianism, summarized Says Law as supply creates its own demand. He turned Says Law on its head in the 1930s by declaring that demand creates its own supply. S, monetary policy under Nixon in the 1970s. Wanniski advocated lower tax rates and a return to some kind of gold standard, in 1983, economist Victor Canto, a disciple of Arthur Laffer, published The Foundations of Supply-Side Economics. This theory focuses on the effects of tax rates on the incentive to work and save. While the latter focus on changes in the rate of growth in the long run. This led the supply-siders to advocate large reductions in income and capital gains tax rates to encourage allocation of assets to investment. Jude Wanniski and many advocate an zero capital gains rate. The increased aggregate supply would result in increased demand, hence the term Supply-Side Economics. Supply-side economics holds that increased taxation steadily reduces economic trade between economic participants within a nation and that it discourages investment, taxes act as a type of trade barrier or tariff that causes economic participants to revert to less efficient means of satisfying their needs. As such, higher taxation leads to lower levels of specialization, the idea is said to be illustrated by the Laffer curve
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Friedrich Hayek
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Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal for his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and. Penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena, Hayek served in World War I and said that his experience in the war and his desire to help avoid the mistakes that had led to the war drew him to his career. Hayek lived in Austria, Great Britain, the United States and he spent most of his academic life at the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg. In 1984, he was appointed a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his services to the study of economics and he was the first recipient of the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize in 1984. He also received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991 from President George H. W. Bush, in 2011, his article The Use of Knowledge in Society was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in The American Economic Review during its first 100 years. Friedrich August von Hayek was born in Vienna to August von Hayek, Friedrichs father, from whom he received his middle name, was also born in Vienna in 1871. He was a doctor employed by the municipal ministry of health, with passion in botany. August von Hayek was also a part-time botany lecturer at the University of Vienna, Friedrichs mother was born in 1875 to a wealthy, conservative, land-owning family. Hayek was the oldest of three brothers, Heinrich and Erich, who were one-and-a-half and five years younger than him and his fathers career as a university professor influenced Friedrichs goals later in life. Both of his grandfathers, who lived long enough for Friedrich to know them, were scholars, franz von Juraschek was a leading economist in Austria-Hungary and a close friend of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, one of the founders of the Austrian School of Economics. Von Juraschek was a statistician and was employed by the Austrian government. Friedrichs paternal grandfather, Gustav Edler von Hayek, taught natural sciences at the Imperial Realobergymnasium in Vienna and he wrote systematic works in biology, some of which are relatively well known. On his mothers side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein and his mother often played with Wittgensteins sisters, and had known Ludwig well. As a result of their relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgensteins Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921. Although Hayek met Wittgenstein on only a few occasions, Hayek said that Wittgensteins philosophy and methods of analysis had a influence on his own life. In his later years, Hayek recalled a discussion of philosophy with Wittgenstein, after Wittgensteins death, Hayek had intended to write a biography of Wittgenstein and worked on collecting family materials, and he later assisted biographers of Wittgenstein. Hayek displayed an intellectual and academic bent from a young age. He read fluently and frequently going to school
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Milton Friedman
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Friedmans challenges to what he later called naive Keynesian theory began with his 1950s reinterpretation of the consumption function. In the 1960s, he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies and he theorized that there existed a natural rate of unemployment, and argued that employment above this rate would cause inflation to accelerate. He argued that the Phillips curve was, in the run, vertical at the natural rate. Friedman promoted an alternative macroeconomic viewpoint known as monetarism, and argued that a steady and his ideas concerning monetary policy, taxation, privatization and deregulation influenced government policies, especially during the 1980s. His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserves response to the financial crisis of 2007–08. Friedman was an advisor to Republican U. S. President Ronald Reagan and his political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal intervention. He once stated that his role in eliminating U. S. conscription was his proudest accomplishment and his support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, later renamed EdChoice. His books and essays have had influence, including in former communist states. Friedman was born in Brooklyn, New York on July 31,1912 and his parents, Sára Ethel and Jenő Saul Friedman, were Jewish immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia, Kingdom of Hungary. They both worked as dry goods merchants, shortly after Miltons birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey. In his early teens, Friedman was injured in a car accident, a talented student, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, just before his 16th birthday. In 1932, Friedman graduated from Rutgers University, where he specialized in mathematics and economics, during his time at Rutgers, Friedman became influenced by two economics professors, Arthur F. Burns and Homer Jones, who convinced him that modern economics could help end the Great Depression. After graduating from Rutgers, Friedman was offered two scholarships to do graduate work—one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago, Friedman chose the latter, thus earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933. He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and it was at Chicago that Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director. During the 1933–1934 academic year he had a fellowship at Columbia University and he was back in Chicago for the 1934–1935 academic year, working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on Theory and Measurement of Demand. That year, Friedman formed what would prove to be lifelong friendships with George Stigler, foreshadowing his later ideas, he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued. During 1935, he work for the National Resources Committee. Ideas from this later became a part of his Theory of the Consumption Function
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