1.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
2.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
3.
Battle of Batoche
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The Battle of Batoche was the decisive battle of the North-West Rebellion, which pitted the Canadian authorities against a force of insurrectionist Métis. The defeat of the Métis led to the surrender of Louis Riel on May 15 and their small arms fire did little damage to the armoured ship, but they lowered Batoches ferry cable, into which the Northcote steamed unsuspectingly, slicing off its masts and smokestacks. Crippled, the ship drifted harmlessly down the South Saskatchewan River, ignorant of the Northcotes fate, Middleton approached the church at Mission Ridge on the morning of 9 May in order to bring his plan into effect. Some Métis in two south of the church began firing at Boultons Scouts, but artillery was brought up to shell the houses. The Métis sharpshooters fled toward the settlement, the troops advanced toward the church. As they approached the church and nearby rectory, they saw some people near those buildings whom they took to be the enemy, second Lieutenant Arthur L. Howard, a Gatling gun expert on leave from the Connecticut National Guard, fired his Gatling gun at the rectory. Then a white flag was unfurled, Howards firing stopped, and several priests, nuns, finding the mission occupied only by civilians, Middleton brought his artillery out onto the ridge and began shelling the town. The soldiers began advancing past the church, and got half a kilometre before they came under heavy fire from both sides of the trail. Their enemies, hidden in well-constructed rifle pits, were invisible, the now-dismounted irregular militia cavalry, Boultons and Frenchs Scouts, were deployed on the right. The 10th Royal Grenadiers, militia infantry from Toronto, were in the centre, with the 90th Winnipeg Rifles and Howard and his Gatling on the left, to protect the artillery. The infantry of the Midland Battalion, militia from eastern Ontario, were kept in reserve near the church, a very dangerous situation developed when a group of Métis rushed the artillery. Only Howards directing a stream of Gatling fire at the attackers prevented a disaster. From these few minutes the frustrated soldiers got the clear view of the Métis fighters that they were to have until the final moments of the battle. After the attack was repulsed, the artillery was pulled back a couple of hundred meters, the Métis then redeployed their men to try to outflank the militia, and heavy fighting ensued. After noon, the artillery was ordered forward again, and it began fruitlessly bombarding the invisible Métis rifle pits, the gunners were under heavy fire, in a very unsafe position. The Midlanders, who had brought forward from the church, wanted to charge their unseen enemies. Canadian advances saw less success but were conducted, keeping casualties to a minimum. A Métis attempt to surround the Canadian lines failed when the meant to screen the sortie failed to spread
4.
Battle of Fish Creek
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The Battle of Fish Creek, fought April 24,1885 at Fish Creek, Saskatchewan, was a major Métis victory over the Canadian forces attempting to quell Louis Riels North-West Rebellion. On April 23, as the militia began advancing from Clarke’s Crossing, Dumont took 200 men, when a report arrived that the North-West Mounted Police were advancing on Batoche, Riel returned there with 50 men. Dumont stationed most of his men in the coulée, where set to work digging rifle pits. The militia would cross the coulée the next day, and it was then that the men in the rifle pits would ambush them. Dumont took a party of twenty horsemen forward of the coulée. Their task was to seal the exit when the ambush was sprung, “I want to treat them like buffaloes, ” Dumont said of Middleton’s men. Dumont and his twenty men hid in a poplar bluff, there were not yet any leaves, however. On the morning of April 24, before the infantry could cross the coulée, dumont’s Métis and Boulton’s force then opened fire on each other. The Scouts dismounted and began firing into the coulée, and the body of Canadian infantry advanced to the coulée’s edge. The Métis pounded Middleton’s men with one devastating fusillade before withdrawing into cover, with half of his force on the opposite side of the river, Middleton was unable to bring his full numerical superiority to bear. The only targets the militia could clearly see were the enemy’s tethered horses and they slaughtered about fifty of these. General Middleton behaved with reckless bravery, placing himself in view of the enemy. A bullet tore through his fur hat, and his two aides-de-camp were both wounded by his side, the frustrated Canadians, their casualties mounting, undertook several fruitless rushes into the ravine. A few infantry regulars under Middleton’s command made one charge, another, larger one was carried out by the Royal Winnipeg Rifles militia. This latter advance was parried by Métis use of improvised barricades within the coulée and these uncoordinated advances accomplished nothing but more Canadian casualties. Despite the heavy casualties inflicted upon the enemy, Métis morale deteriorated as the battle wore on, however, Middleton, distressed by the casualties he was taking, erred on the side of caution and opted for retreat. Fish Creek battle site Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Military Map of Fish Creek
5.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south
6.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
7.
Provisional Government of Saskatchewan
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The Provisional Government of Saskatchewan was an independent state declared during the Northwest Rebellion of 1885 in what is today the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The name was given by Louis Riel, although Riel initially hoped to rally the Countryborn, Cree and European settlers of the Saskatchewan Valley to his banner, this did not occur. The government, with the exception of Honoré Jaxon and Chief White Cap, had an entirely French-speaking, gabriel Dumont was proclaimed Adjutant General in which capacity he became supreme military commander, although Riel could, and did, override his tactical decisions. The Provisional Government was declared by Riel on March 19,1885 and it ceased to exist following the defeat of the Métis militarily during the Battle of Batoche which concluded on May 20,1885. During its existence the government only exercised authority over the Southbranch Settlements along the South Saskatchewan River, other major centres in the area such as Prince Albert, Saskatoon, and most First Nations reserves remained outside of its control. The governing council was named the Exovedate, Latin for of the flock and it met at Batoche, Saskatchewan, and only exercised real authority during its existence over the Southbranch Settlement. The provisional government collapsed with the fall of Batoche and Riel was captured a few days later, Batoche, where the Métis Provisional Government had been formed, has been declared a National Historic Site
8.
Canadian Pacific Railway
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The Canadian Pacific Railway, also known formerly as CP Rail between 1968 and 1996, is a historic Canadian Class I railroad incorporated in 1881. The railroad is owned by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited, which began operations as legal owner in a restructuring in 2001. Headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, it owns approximately 20,000 kilometres of track all across Canada and into the United States, stretching from Montreal to Vancouver, and as far north as Edmonton. Its rail network also serves Minneapolis-St. Paul, Milwaukee, Detroit, Chicago, the railway was originally built between Eastern Canada and British Columbia between 1881 and 1885, fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered Confederation in 1871. It was Canadas first transcontinental railway, but no longer reaches the Atlantic coast, the CPR became one of the largest and most powerful companies in Canada, a position it held as late as 1975. Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1986, after being assumed by Via Rail Canada in 1978, a beaver was chosen as the railways logo because it is the national symbol of Canada and was seen as representing the hardworking character of the company. The company acquired two American lines in 2009, the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad and the Iowa, Chicago, the trackage of the ICE was at one time part of CP subsidiary Soo Line and predecessor line The Milwaukee Road. It is publicly traded on both the Toronto Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker CP and its U. S. headquarters are in Minneapolis. The creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task undertaken for a combination of reasons by the Conservative government of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald. He was helped by Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt, who was the owner of the North Western Coal and his company went through several name changes during the process of the construction of the railway. British Columbia, a sea voyage away from the East Coast, had insisted upon a land transport link to the East as a condition for joining Confederation. The government however proposed to build a railway linking the Pacific province to the Eastern provinces within 10 years of 20 July 1871, Macdonald saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent. Moreover, manufacturing interests in Quebec and Ontario wanted access to raw materials, the first obstacle to its construction was political. The logical route went through the American Midwest and the city of Chicago, to ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in the West. Because of this scandal, the Conservative Party was removed from office in 1873, surveying was carried out during the first years of a number of alternative routes in this virgin territory followed by construction of a telegraph along the lines that had been agreed upon. The Thunder Bay section linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875, by 1880, around 1,000 kilometres was nearly complete, mainly across the troublesome Canadian Shield terrain, with trains running on only 500 kilometres of track. With Macdonalds return to power on 16 October 1878, an aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, in 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the 206 km section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia, to Savonas Ferry, on Kamloops Lake
9.
Trial of Louis Riel
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The Trial of Louis Riel is arguably the most famous trial in the history of Canada. Known as the North-West Rebellion, this resistance was suppressed by the Canadian military, the trial, which took place in July 1885 and lasted only five days, resulted in a guilty verdict. He was also given a choice to plead guilty or insanity, Riel was subsequently executed by hanging, an outcome which has had a lasting impact on relations between the Francophone and Anglophone Canadians. Riel was indicted by Judge Hugh Richardson on six counts of treason on July 20, Riels counsel immediately challenged the courts jurisdiction, but these motions were denied. Riel then pleaded not guilty to all charges, Riels lawyers argued for a delay for the defence to obtain witnesses. It was granted and the trial began on July 28,1885, of the 36 people receiving jury duty summons, only one spoke French – and he was unable to attend. Moreover, the only Roman Catholic in the pool was challenged by the prosecution for not being of British stock. In the event, Riel was tried before a jury of six composed entirely of English and Scottish Protestants, Crown counsel comprised some of the most accomplished lawyers in Canada, Christopher Robinson, Britton Bath Osler, George Burbidge, David Lynch Scott, and Thomas Chase-Casgrain. Chase-Casgrain was the lone French-Canadian in the prosecution, the cross-examination of the defence attempted to prove his mental instability and render a not guilty plea by reason of insanity, but to little success. The defence was led by Charles Fitzpatrick, a lawyer from Quebec who subsequently became Chief Justice of Canada. The defence had their turn on July 30 and they produced five witnesses, Dr. François Roy of the Beauport Asylum, Dr. The defences case only lasted one day, Riel delivered two lengthy speeches during his trial, defending his own actions and affirming the rights of the Métis people. He rejected his lawyers attempt to argue that he was not guilty by reason of insanity, asserting, Life, Riel defended his use of religious themes, but insisted that all his political actions were aimed at practical results. He denounced the Federal Government for its lack of regard for the peoples. Although the Province of Ontario is great, he said, it is not as great as the North-West, nonetheless, Riel barely maintained his decorum and proclaimed that he hoped to be one day recognized as a force of good for the whole country. He said, I am glad that the Crown has proved that I am the leader of the Metis in the NorthWest. I will perhaps be one day acknowledged as more than a leader of the Metis, on July 31, after only half an hour of deliberation, the jury found him guilty of treason but recommended mercy. Nonetheless, Judge Hugh Richardson sentenced him to death, with the date of his set for September 18,1885
10.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
11.
Cree
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The Cree are one of the largest groups of First Nations in North America, with over 200,000 members living in Canada. The major proportion of Cree in Canada live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, in the United States, this Algonquian-speaking people historically lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, they live mostly in Montana, where they share a reservation with the Ojibwe, the documented westward migration over time has been strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters in the North American fur trade. The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and these divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic sub-divisions within the larger ethnic group, Naskapi and Montagnais are inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan. Their territories comprise most of the political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec. Their cultures are differentiated, as the Naskapi are still caribou hunters and more nomadic than the Montagnais, the total population of the two groups in 2003 was about 18,000 people, of which 15,000 lived in Quebec. Their dialects and languages are the most distinct from the Cree spoken by the groups west of Lake Superior, Attikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to as Nitaskinan, in the upper St. Maurice River valley of Quebec. James Bay Cree – Grand Council of the Crees, approximately 18,000 Cree of Eeyou Istchee and Nunavik regions of Northern Quebec. Moose Cree – Moose Factory in the Cochrane District, Ontario, Swampy Cree – this group lives in northern Manitoba along the Hudson Bay coast and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, and in Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also in eastern Saskatchewan around Cumberland House, Woods Cree group in northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. Plains Cree 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, due to the many dialects of the Cree language, there is no modern collective autonym. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to using modern forms of the historical nêhiraw, namely nêhiyaw and nêhirawisiw. Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to using modern dialectal forms of the historical iriniw. Moose Cree use the form ililiw, coastal East Cree and Naskapi use iyiyiw, inland East Cree use iyiniw, the Cree use Cree, cri, Naskapi, or montagnais to refer to their people only when speaking the languages of the European colonists, French or English. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Besides these regional gatherings, there was no formal structure. Each band remained independent of each other, however, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. When a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander and this office was different from that of the peace chief, a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat
12.
Assiniboine
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The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people, also known as the Hohe and known by the endonym Nakota, are a First Nations/Native American people originally from the Northern Great Plains of North America. Today, they are centered in present-day Saskatchewan and they have also populated parts of Alberta and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, and northern Montana and western North Dakota in the United States. They were well known throughout much of the late 18th and early 19th century, images of Assiniboine people were painted by such 19th-century artists as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin. The Europeans and Americans adopted names that other tribes used for the Assiniboine, they did not until later learn the tribes autonym, in Siouan, they traditionally called themselves the Hohe Nakota. With the widespread adoption of English, however, many now use the name became common in English. The English adopted Assiniboine, used by the Canadian French colonists and it was a transliteration into French phonetics of what they heard the Ojibwe use as a term for these western people. In the same way, Assnipwan comes from the word asinîpwâta in the western Cree dialects, from asiniy ᐊᓯᓂᐩ NA – rock, stone – and pwâta ᐹᐧᑕ NA – enemy, early French traders in the west were often familiar with Algonquian languages. They transliterated many Cree or Ojibwe exonyms for other western Canadian indigenous peoples during the colonial era. The English referred to the Assiniboine by adopting terms from the French spelled using English phonetics, other tribes associated stone with the Assiniboine because they primarily cooked with heated stones. They dropped hot stones into water to heat it to boiling for cooking meat, some writers believed that the name was derived from the Ojibway term Assin, stone, and the French bouillir, to boil, but such an etymology is very unlikely. Assiniboine is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, in the Western Siouan language family, in the early 21st century, about 150 people speak the language and most are more than 40 years old. The majority of the Assiniboine today speak only American English, the 2000 census showed 3,946 tribal members who lived in the United States. Assiniboine are closely linked by language to the Stoney First Nations people of Alberta, the latter two tribes speak varieties of Nakota, a distant, but not mutually intelligible, variant of the Sioux language. The Assiniboine, along with the Stoney of Alberta, share an ancestry with the Sioux nation. The separation of the Assiniboine from the Sioux must have occurred at some prior to 1640. The Assiniboine and Sioux were both gradually pushed westward onto the plains from the woodlands of Minnesota by the Ojibwe, who had acquired firearms from their French allies. Later, the Assiniboine acquired horses via raiding and trading with neighboring tribes of Plains Indians such as the Crow, the first person of European descent to describe the Assiniboine was an employee of the Hudsons Bay Company named Henry Kelsey in the 1690s. The Assiniboine obtained guns, ammunition, metal tomahawks, metal pots, wool blankets, wool coats, wool leggings, beaver furs and bison hides were the most commonly traded furs
13.
John A. Macdonald
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Sir John Alexander Macdonald GCB KCMG PC PC QC was the first Prime Minister of Canada. The dominant figure of Canadian Confederation, he had a career which spanned almost half a century. He drank heavily, and in 1873 was voted out during the Pacific Scandal, economic growth was slow during his years in office, as Canada verged on stagnation, many residents migrated to the fast-growing United States. He fought to block efforts to take power back from Ottawa. His most controversial move was to approve the execution of Métis leader Louis Riel for treason in 1885, Macdonald was born in Scotland, when he was a boy his family immigrated to Kingston in the colony of Upper Canada. As a lawyer he was involved in several cases and quickly became prominent in Kingston. By 1857, had become premier under the unstable political system. Macdonald was the figure in the subsequent discussions and conferences, which resulted in the British North America Act. Macdonald was the first Prime Minister of the new nation, and served 19 years, John Alexander Macdonald was born in Ramshorn parish in Glasgow, Scotland, on January 11,1815. His father was Hugh Macdonald, a merchant, who had married Johns mother, Helen Shaw. John Alexander Macdonald was the third of five children, after Hugh Macdonalds business ventures left him in debt, the family immigrated to Kingston, in Upper Canada, in 1820, where there were already a number of Macdonald relatives and connections. The Macdonalds initially lived with family, but then resided over a store which Hugh Macdonald ran. Soon after their arrival, Johns younger brother James died from a blow to the head by a servant who was supposed to look after the boys, after Hughs store failed, the family moved to Hay Bay, west of Kingston, where Hugh unsuccessfully ran another shop. His father, in 1829, was appointed a magistrate for the Midland District, John Macdonalds mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining a force in his life until her 1862 death. When he was aged 10, his family scraped together the money to him to Midland District Grammar School in Kingston. Macdonalds formal schooling ended at 15, a common school-leaving age at a time when children from the most prosperous families were able to attend university. Nevertheless, Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, Macdonalds parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school. As Donald Creighton wrote, law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence and it was also the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade
14.
Leif Newry Fitzroy Crozier
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Leif Newry Fitzroy Crozier, commonly known as L. N. F. Crozier was born in June 1846 in Ireland, after immigrating to Canada, he entered Royal Military College in Kingston, Ontario. He served as a major in the military and he joined the NWMP in 1872. He was appointed an inspector of the NWMP in 1873 and he saw first hand the hardships faced by the Native people as the buffalo disappeared. By 1884, he was the Superintendent of the North-West Mounted Police stationed in Fort Carlton and he warned Lieutenant-Governor Edgar Dewdney that government policies were creating unrest among the First Nations and Métis. Since he feared a repetition of the Red River Rebellion, he asked for reinforcements to be sent to the North-West, wanting to avoid conflict, he attempted to negotiate with Louis Riel but was unsuccessful leaving the situation in a stalemate. These men were confronted by Gabriel Dumont and a force of Métis near Duck Lake, Saskatchewan, no shots were fired. In the ensuing Battle of Duck Lake, the NWMP were routed by the Métis, the resistance that he had wanted to avoid earlier broke out. The retreat of the government under heavy fire tarnished the reputation of the NWMP, croziers role in the remainder of the rebellion was minimal, and his force largely remained at its post in Battleford, Saskatchewan. His march on Duck Lake and into an ambush stalled his career with the NWMP, nevertheless, he was on April 1 promoted to assistant commissioner of the NWMP, a post which he held until his retirement in 1886. In 1886, after the Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, appointed a commissioner instead of himself. He spent his years in as a merchant and banker in Oklahoma Territory, dying of a heart attack in Cushing. His body was brought back to Belleville, Ontario, to be buried, Saskatchewan Herald, Articles on the Frog Lake Massacre, Article Carlton 4237 Dr. Adrian Preston & Peter Dennis Swords and Covenants Rowman And Littlefield, London. H16511 Dr. Richard Arthur Preston To Serve Canada, A History of the Royal Military College of Canada 1997 Toronto, h1877 R. Guy C. Smith As You Were
15.
Frederick Dobson Middleton
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General Sir Frederick Dobson Middleton KCMG CB was a British general noted for his service throughout the Empire and particularly in the North-West Rebellion. Educated at Maidstone Grammar School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and he served in the New Zealand Wars and in 1845, he was mentioned in dispatches for his part in the capture of the stronghold of Māori chief Te Ruki Kawiti. He went on to be Commandant of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and he was appointed General Officer Commanding the Militia of Canada in 1884. In 1885 the North-West Rebellion took place and Middleton had to respond, despite a defeat at the Battle of Fish Creek, his cautious approach reached Batoche, Saskatchewan, where the Métis surrendered after three days bombardment. For his service in the war, Middleton was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1885 and he also received the thanks of Parliament and the sum of $20,000. He resigned as head of the Militia in 1890 when a committee of the House of Commons criticized him for the misappropriation of furs from a Métis named Charles Bremner during the rebellion. Frederick Dobson Middleton married, as his first wife, Mary Emily Hassall and he married in February 1870 as his second wife, Marie Cecile Eugénie Doucet, daughter of Theodore Doucet, N. P. of Montreal. She was born in Montreal in 1846, and was educated at the Convent of the Sacred Heart, the couple had two sons and a daughter. She died at Tateley, Hants, England,1 November 1899
16.
John Laurie (soldier)
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John Wimburn Laurie CB was a soldier and political figure in Nova Scotia, Canada for thirty years and then returned to England. He was the father of George Brenton Laurie and he was born in London, England, the son of John Laurie and Eliza Helen Collett, and educated at Harrow, Dresden and Sandhurst. He entered the British Army in 1853 and served in 4th Kings Own Regiment in Crimea, while in Nova Scotia, Laurie also served during the North-West Rebellion of 1885, at which point he was the highest-ranking officer in Canada. He achieved the rank of Lieutenant General in 1887, in 1862 he arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia, married Frances Robie Collins in 1863 and developed Oakfield, Nova Scotia on the shores of Grand Lake. In 1863, he married Frances R. Collins, Laurie was warden for Halifax County in 1880. He was appointed Lieutenant General, became an MP for Shelburne in the Canadian House of Commons, in 1886, he greeted James J. Bremner and the Halifax Volunteer Battalion upon their return from the Northwest Rebellion. He was defeated by Thomas Robertson in the 1887 general election, Robertsons election was overturned on appeal and that election was declared void but Laurie was elected again in 1888. He represented Shelburne in the Canadian House of Commons from 1887 to 1891 as a Conservative member, Laurie was a prominent freemason, serving as Grand Master for Nova Scotia and provincial grand master for South Wales. During his time in Nova Scotia, he served as president of the Central Board of Agriculture, Laurie was chairman of the Canadian trade section of the London Chamber of Commerce. He was named a knight of the Order of St. Sava, although retaining Oakfield, he returned to England in 1889, and was an unsuccessful candidate for a seat in the British House of Commons in 1892. He was elected a member of the British House of Commons at the general election, representing Pembroke. He entered local politics, becoming Mayor of Paddington in 1907 and he was appointed CB in the 1905 Birthday Honours. Laurie was given a pot by Dr. Inglis which was a precious heirloom in Colonel Lauries family. Built St. Margaret’s of Scotland Church namesake of Laurie Park, Oakfield, military history of Nova Scotia John Wimburn Laurie – Parliament of Canada biography Oakfield and its Founder, by Miss Margaret Laurie, Vol #24, pp.15
17.
William Dillon Otter
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General Sir William Dillon Otter, KCB, CVO, VD was a professional Canadian soldier who became the first Canadian-born Chief of the General Staff, the head of the Canadian Militia. Otter was born near The Corners, Canada West and his parents were Anna Louisa, née de la Hooke and Alfred William Otter, both English immigrants who married in Ontario on 15 September 1842. He began his career in the Non-Permanent Active Militia in Toronto in 1864. Captain William Otter was Adjutant of the Queens Own Rifles of Toronto in 1866 and he first saw combat with them at the Battle of Ridgeway during the Fenian Raids. He joined the Permanent Force as an officer when Canada established its own professional infantry unit in 1883. On May 2,1885, he led a Canadian force of more than 300 in the Battle of Cut Knife against Poundmakers Cree Indians, otters tactics were ineffective against the defending warriors, forcing him to retreat. In 1890, Otter founded the Royal Canadian Military Institute as a body for the promotion and fostering of military art, science, the Gen Sir William Otter Papers are selected from those presented at events organized by the Defence Studies Committee of the Royal Canadian Military Institute. He was appointed as the first Commanding Officer of the Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry in 1893, lieutenant Colonel Otter commanded the Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry at the time of the Second Boer War, during which he played an important part in the Battle of Paardeburg. Otter commanded the 2nd Battalion of The Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry in South Africa and he became the first Canadian-born officer to command Canadas military in 1908, and he retired in 1910 as a full general. Otter had the reputation of being something of a martinet – due mainly to his desire that the young Canadian Army should not show up badly when compared to British troops. During the First World War he came out of retirement to command operations for the internment of enemy nationals resident in Canada, without this work of the Otter Commission the CEF and its achievements would have had no continuance with existing units of the Canadian Army today. General Sir William Otter died on 6 May 1929, Otter was initiated into the Ionic Lodge of Freemasonry in Toronto in February 1869. He became Worshipful Master in 1873, Otter Squadron, composed of University Training Plan Non Commissioned Member Officer Cadets, at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario, was named in his honour. Otter was the grandfather of Canadian Military historian Desmond Morton, Desmond Morton, The Canadian General Sir William Otter, Toronto, Hakkert,1974. Canadian War Museum historical publication Commander Chas, celebrities of the Army, London, George Newnes Limited,1900. Major-General Sir William D.1914 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Information from civilisations. ca Information on Otter and the Otter Committee at canadiansoldiers. com
18.
Thomas Bland Strange
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Thomas Bland Strange, known as Gunner Jingo, was a British soldier noted for his service with the Canadian militia during the North-West Rebellion of 1885. Strange was a retired major-general at the time of the rebellion, stranges greater importance is as the father of the Canadian artillery and one of the initial organizers of the Canadian army. Works by or about Thomas Bland Strange at Internet Archive Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Strange, Thomas Bland
19.
Francis Dickens
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Francis Jeffrey Dickens was the third son and fifth child of Victorian English novelist Charles Dickens and his wife Catherine Dickens née Hogarth. He was born in England and went to school in Germany to train to become a doctor, giving up this ambition, he obtained a commission in the Bengal Mounted Police and served in India for seven years. He would remain in the force 12 years, serving at Fort Walsh, Fort Macleod and Fort Pitt, during the North West Rebellion of 1885, Francis Dickens was in charge of the defence of Fort Pitt on the North Saskatchewan River. Francis Dickens diary written during his charge at Fort Pitt, though brief, is an important document of the events of the siege that led to the evacuation of the mounted police from the fort. On his website, David J. Carter describes the events at Fort Pitt and this site was 35 miles northwest of Fort Pitt. Dickens sent out three scouts to reconnoitre, when they returned they were attacked by Cree warriors, one escaped unharmed, one was wounded – played dead then crawled to the fort, the other Constable Cowan was killed within sight of Fort Pitt. Then the warrior cut out young Cowans heart and ate a piece of it before the defenders of the fort. The NWMP detachment were outnumbered and outgunned 200 to 20, negotiations led to the civilians agreeing to become prisoners of the Cree and Big Bear. The Chief gave Dickens and his men a short time to abandon the fort and this they did, and travelled amongst the ice pans in a leaky scow. Scouts from Fort Battleford reported that everyone at Fort Pitt had been massacred, however, after six days on the river Dickens and his men arrived at Battleford and received a heros welcome. Contemporary portrayals of Francis Dickens, conformed to a conventional heroic type, in histories of the Mounted Police, Francis Dickens is described as a tragic character, struggling to live in the shadow of his great father. Charges against him include drunkenness, laziness and recklessness, David Carter in the third chapter of his book questions the evidence that these claims are based on. An article in a special RCMP issue of the Canadian history magazine The Beaver called Francis J, the events surrounding Frog Lake and the battle of Fort Pitt are treated in The Temptations of Big Bear by Rudy Wiebe. In recent decades, Francis Dickens has been depicted as a comic figure, Francis Dickens later was the subject of a comic novel by humorist Eric Nicol, Dickens of the Mounted. The book is a series of letters, a mock document purporting to be a record of Dickenss correspondence spanning his twelve years in Canada. It is still frequently mistaken for non-fiction, frank Dickens also appears in the science fiction novel that deals with the NWMP in an alternative history, The Apparition Trail by Lisa Smedman. In the novels The Winnipeg Wolf and The Search for Spade belonging to the Inspector Bucket NWMP series by Jeremy Allen the leading character and he is played by Joe Prospero in the TV mini-series Hans Christian Andersen, My Life as a Fairytale. In 2007 a Fringe festival play called Dickens of the Mounted based on Nicols novel toured several Canadian cities, Francis Dickens is a character in Matthew Pearls 2009 novel, The Last Dickens
20.
Louis Riel
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Louis David Riel was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people of the Canadian prairies. He led two resistance movements against the Canadian government and its first post-Confederation prime minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, Riel sought to preserve Métis rights and culture as their homelands in the Northwest came progressively under the Canadian sphere of influence. Over the decades, he has made a folk hero by the Francophones, the Catholic nationalists, the native rights movement. Riel has received scholarly attention than practically any other figure in Canadian history. His first resistance was the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870, the provisional government established by Riel ultimately negotiated the terms under which the modern province of Manitoba entered the Canadian Confederation. Riel ordered the execution of Thomas Scott, and fled to the United States to escape prosecution, despite this, he is frequently referred to as the Father of Manitoba. While a fugitive, he was elected three times to the Canadian House of Commons, although he never assumed his seat, because of this new religious conviction, Catholic leaders who had supported him before increasingly repudiated him. He married in 1881 while in exile in Montana in the United States, in 1884 Riel was called upon by the Métis leaders in Saskatchewan to articulate their grievances to the Canadian government. Instead he organized a resistance that escalated into a military confrontation. Ottawa used the new lines to send in thousands of combat soldiers. It ended in his arrest and conviction for high treason, rejecting many protests and popular appeals, Prime Minister MacDonald decided to hang him. Riel was seen as a victim by francophone Canadians, his execution had a lasting negative impact on Canada. An even more important long-term impact was the bitter alienation Francophones across Canada showed and he is increasingly celebrated as a proponent of multiculturalism, although that downplays his primary commitment to Métis nationalism and political independence. Louis Riel was born there in 1844, near modern Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Louis Riel, Sr. Riel was the eldest of eleven children in a locally well-respected family. Sayers eventual release due to agitations by Louis Sr. s group effectively ended the monopoly, and his mother was the daughter of Jean-Baptiste Lagimodière and Marie-Anne Gaboury, one of the earliest white families to settle in the Red River Settlement in 1812. The Riels were noted for their devout Catholicism and strong family ties, Riel was first educated by Roman Catholic priests at St. Boniface. At age 13 he came to the attention of Alexandre Taché, the Suffragan Bishop of St. Boniface, in 1858 Taché arranged for Riel to attend the Petit Séminaire of the Collège de Montréal, under the direction of the Sulpician order. Descriptions of him at the time indicate that he was a scholar of languages, science, and philosophy
21.
Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
22.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
23.
Big Bear
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Big Bear also known as Mistahi-maskwa was a powerful and popular Cree chief who played many pivotal roles in Canadian history. He was appointed to chief of his band at the age of 40 upon the death of his father, Black Powder, under his father’s harmonious and inclusive rule which directly impacted his own leadership. Big Bear is most notable for his involvement in Treaty Six and he felt that signing the treaty would ultimately have devastating effects on his tribe as well as other Aboriginal tribes. This included losing the free nomadic lifestyle that his tribe and others were accustomed to, Big Bear also took part in one of the last major battles between the Cree and the Blackfoot tribe. He was one of the leaders to lead his people against the last largest battle on the Canadian Plains, Big Bear was born in 1825 in Jackfish Lake, near North Battleford, Saskatchewan. His father, Black Powder, was the chief of a tribe of 80 Plains Cree-Saulteaux people who were deemed to be true nomadic hunters, little is known about Big Bear’s mother. When Big Bear was old enough to walk on his own he spent his time wandering the camp socializing with many people, upon his reflection, Big Bear was visited by many spirits, but the bear took great prominence in his mind. After his reflection was complete he created a fur necklace in the shape of a paw with five ivory claws hanging from it. This necklace was the source of his nickname Maskwa, meaning bear and it is reported that over the course of Big Bears life he took several wives, in turn producing at least four male children who would carry on his name. However, there is documentation to support the names of these individuals. Before becoming a leader, Big Bear became a great warrior. Upon the death of his father Black Powder in the winter of 1864, Big Bear was 40 years old and was the obvious choice as the next leader of the Cree people. The Western Plains Aboriginal population underwent a cultural, environmental and structural change starting in the mid 1870s, the Dominion of Canada was attempting to cultivate the land that the indigenous population occupied for European settlers. However the Aboriginal groups who did not want to sign were ultimately forced to sign because of environmental and cultural changes in 1870-1885. The disappearance of the bison has been explained to some extent by the hunting by white settlers. There were some attempts by the Canadian government to conserve the bison, the Canadian government was the only option of survival but this meant signing the numbered treaties which would change their culture indefinitely. Big Bear was ultimately forced to sign the treaty to save his people from starvation, to be a Scrub Plains Cree aboriginal man it was an expectation to be an accomplished hunter and warrior, Big Bear was no exception to the rule. Big Bear was known to be a warrior and was often, as an adult
24.
Fine-Day
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Fine Day or Kamiokisihkwew was a Cree war chief of the River People band of Plains Cree. He participated in the North-West Rebellion of 1885, during the Battle of Cut Knife, he acted as the Battle Chief, taking control of the war fighting parties from the political chief, Poundmaker. When Fine Days men gained the hand and started to pursue the retreating Canadian soldiers. Described by a contemporary as brave in all things, he was a warrior, hunter, trapper. Fine Days memories of the North-West Rebellion were published by the Canadian North-West Historical Society in 1926, david G. Mandelbaum, in the introduction to his extensive study of the Plains Cree cites Fine Day as his principal informant
25.
Nez Perce people
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The Nez Perce /ˌnɛzˈpɜːrs/ are an Indigenous people of the Plateau, who live in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, which is on the Columbia River Plateau. They are federally recognized as the Nez Perce Tribe and govern their reservation in Idaho and they are one of five federally recognized tribes in the state. Anthropologists have written that the Nez Percé descend from the Old Cordilleran Culture and this name was given to this tribe and the nearby Chinook people by French explorers and trappers, meaning pierced nose, but only the Chinook used that form of decoration. Their name for themselves is Nimíipuu, meaning, The People, in their language, Nez Percé is an exonym given by French Canadian fur traders who visited the area regularly in the late 18th century, meaning literally pierced nose. English-speaking traders and settlers adopted the name in turn, since the late 20th century, the Nez Perce identify most often as Niimíipu in Sahaptin. The tribe also uses the term Nez Perce, as does the United States Government in its dealings with them. Older historical ethnological works and documents use the French spelling of Nez Percé, the original French pronunciation is, with three syllables. In his journals, William Clark referred to the people as the Chopunnish /ˈtʃoʊpənɪʃ/, Walker in 1998, writing for the Smithsonian, this term is an adaptation of the term cú·pʼnitpeľu. The term is formed from cú·pʼnit and peľu, by contrast, the Nez Perce Language Dictionary has a different analysis than did Walker for the term cúpnitpelu. The prefix cú- means in single file and this prefix, combined with the verb -piní, to come out. Finally, with the suffix of -pelú, meaning people or inhabitants of, together, these three elements, cú- + -piní + pelú = cúpnitpelu, or the People Walking Single File Out of the Forest. Nez Perce oral tradition indicates the name Cuupnitpeluu meant we walked out of the woods or walked out of the mountains, the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark Expedition mistakenly identified this people as the Nez Perce when the team encountered the tribe in 1805. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments, the tribe known as pierced nose lived on and around the lower Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. They are commonly called the Chinook tribe by historians and anthropologists, the Chinook relied heavily upon salmon as a food staple, as did the Nez Perce. The peoples shared fishing and trading sites, but the Chinook had a different culture and more hierarchical social arrangements. The Nez Perce language, or Niimiipuutímt, is a Sahaptian language related to the dialects of Sahaptin. The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of the Plateau Penutian family, the tribal area extended from the Bitterroots in the east to the Blue Mountains in the west between latitudes 45°N and 47°N. In 1800, the Nez Perce had more than 100 permanent villages, ranging from 50 to 600 individuals, depending on the season, archeologists have identified a total of about 300 related sites including camps and villages, mostly in the Salmon River Canyon
26.
Battle of Duck Lake
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The Battle of Duck Lake was an infantry skirmish 2. The battle is considered the initial engagement of the North-West Rebellion, although Louis Riel proved to be victorious at Duck Lake, the general agreement among historians is that the battle was strategically a disappointment to his cause. On March 19,1885, Louis Riel self-affirmed the existence of the new Provisional Government of Saskatchewan, following Riels declaration, the Canadian government sought to reassert their control over the turbulent territory. Riel dispatched emissaries to deliver an ultimatum calling for the surrender of Fort Carlton without bloodshed, Croziers representatives rejected the demand and vowed that the Métis leaders would be brought to justice. On March 25, in need of supplies for his men and horses, Crozier ordered Sergeant Alfred Stewart, Thomas McKay, unbeknownst to Crozier, however, commander Gabriel Dumont and his Métis force had already entrenched themselves on the road to Duck Lake. On the morning of the 26th, Stewarts party encountered the band of Métis near Duck Lake, after ample harassment, Stewart decided not to risk a physical engagement, and chose to return to Fort Carlton, no shooting occurred. The forces met about 2.5 kilometres outside Duck Lake on a plateau covered by trees, shrubs. Having spotted Croziers force, Gabriel Dumont ordered his men to set up positions around the log cabin. Both sides took up defensive positions, Gabriel Dumont dispatched his brother, Isidore, and an elderly half-blind chief, Assiwiyin, with a white flag in hopes of distracting Croziers forces. The superintendent, believing that Dumont was interested in a parley, walked forward with an English Métis interpreter, during the half-hearted discussion, Crozier came to believe that Isidore and Assiwiyin were stalling so that the Métis force could manoeuver to flank his own men. As they began to leave, both Assiwiyin and Isidore attempted to draw their guns, prompting Crozier to give McKay the order to fire, a brief scuffle ensued between the two parties, which resulted in McKay shooting, and killing, both Dumont and Assiwyin. Despite the superior firepower and training of Croziers militia, the Métis force were more numerous and their position within the log cabins, in an attempt to relieve the pressure on the Prince Albert Volunteers, Crozier ordered the 7-pound cannon to target the log cabins. After numerous discharges, a shell was placed in before the charge was inserted. Within half an hour, Crozier recognized the unavoidable and sounded a retreat back to Fort Carlton. The Métis were eager to chase down Crozier and his retreating force, the battle toll was high for the government forces. Twelve men were killed, and eleven men seriously injured, for the separatists, five Métis warriors were killed in the skirmish, including Dumonts brother. Furthermore, Gabriel Dumont himself was injured in the head by a passing bullet, losing to Riel and the Métis force came as a great shock to Croziers superiors. Colonel Acheson Irvine, Croziers supervisor, suggested that Croziers officerial prowess, Fort Carlton, a trading post with few defensive installations, was now in serious risk of attack
27.
Looting of Battleford
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The Looting of Battleford began at the end of March,1885, during the North-West Rebellion, in the town of Battleford, Saskatchewan, then a part of the Northwest Territories. Prominent leaders of this uprising were Chief Poundmaker and Chief Big Bear, Poundmaker and his band had a reserve near present-day Cut Knife about 50 km west of Fort Battleford. Big Bear and his band had settled near Frog Lake about 55 km northwest of Fort Pitt but had not yet selected a reserve site, both bands were signatories of Treaty 6 and were unhappy in the way it was implemented by the Canadian government. The loss of the buffalo and the inadequate rations provided by the Indian agents kept the bands in a state of near-starvation. The District of Saskatchewan in 1885 was divided into three sub-districts and had a population of 10,595, to the east the Carrot River sub-district with 1,770 people remained quiet. The Prince Albert sub-district located in the centre of the district had a population of 5,373 which included the Southbranch settlements with about 1,300, the Southbranch settlements was the centre of Louis Riels Provisional Government during the Rebellion. To the west where the Cree uprising led by Poundmaker and Big Bear occurred was the Battleford sub-district with 3,603 people. The largest settlement and the capital of the district was Prince Albert with about 800 people followed by Battleford with about 500 people divided about equally between French, Métis and English, Battleford is located on the Battle River near the North Saskatchewan River. On the south side of the Battle River was the Old Town and on the side nearest the North Saskatchewan River was the New Town. The city of North Battleford was founded later in 1905 when the construction of the Canadian Northern Railway main line to Edmonton placed the line on the side of the North Saskatchewan River. Over the next several days 500 civilians would take refuge within the palisades, many crossed over an unstable ice bridge on the Battle River leaving most of their possessions behind in the Old Town. During the night of March 29 nearby homesteads were raided their horses, also on the trail to join Poundmaker in Battleford were the Assiniboine from the Eagle Hills approximately 30 km south of Battleford. On March 29 they killed their farm instructor John Payne and raided homesteads on the way killing a farmer by the name of Fremont, on March 30 Poundmaker asked for a meeting with the Indian agent J. M. Rae. After Rae refused to meet him the combined Battleford bands took food. The next day the bands camped a few miles away bringing with them their looted provisions including cattle, while the New Town was protected by its proximity to the Fort and its cannon the Old Town was not. Every day until the arrival of Colonel Otters column on April 24 the occupants of the Fort watched as the Old Town about a mile away was plundered, stolen vehicles and horses carried away the supplies of the Hudsons Bay Company and the other merchants. All the public buildings were sacked including the Battleford Industrial School, most homes were burned including the imposing home of Judge Rouleau. Just half a dozen were left standing, on May 2 Colonel Otters column attacked Poundmakers camp at Cut Knife Creek but was forced to retreat to Battleford
28.
Frog Lake Massacre
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The Frog Lake Massacre was part of the Cree uprising during the North-West Rebellion in western Canada. Led by Wandering Spirit, young Cree warriors attacked the community of Frog Lake in the District of Saskatchewan in the Northwest Territories on 2 April 1885, where they killed nine settlers. Chief Big Bear and his band had settled near Frog Lake about 55 km northwest of Fort Pitt but had not yet selected a reserve site and he had signed Treaty 6 in 1882. Angered by what seemed to be a treaty and by the dwindling buffalo population. The nearest source of supplies and the first to be looted were the government stables, a band of Cree led by the war chief Wandering Spirit took Thomas Quinn hostage in his home in the early morning of 2 April. The Cree then took more white settlers hostage and took control of the community and they gathered the Europeans, including two priests, in the local Catholic church, where Mass was in progress. After Mass concluded, at around 11,00 a. m. the Cree ordered the prisoners to move to their encampment a couple of kilometres away, Quinn steadfastly refused to leave the town, in response, Wandering Spirit shot him in the head. A Hudsons Bay Company clerk, William Bleasdell Cameron, one of the men rounded up into the church, went to the Hudsons Bay shop to fill an order made by Quinn for Miserable Man after Mass. When the first shots were fired, he escaped with the help of sympathetic Cree, and made his way to a nearby Wood Cree camp, where the chief pledged to protect him. Theresa Gowanlock and Theresa Delaney, wives of two of the men, their families, and approximately seventy others from the town were taken captive. After the massacre, the bodies of Fafard, Marchand, Delaney, at great risk, they also moved the bodies of Quinn and Gouin into the cellar of a house near where they were killed. However, they were refused permission to touch the other victims, the church, the rectory and all the buildings of the Frog Lake settlement were burned on April 4,1885. All that remained of the mission was the tower and the cemetery. On June 14 the Midland Battalion arrived and buried the victims of the massacre in the cemetery, during their occupation the bell, which was suspended from the fire blackened bell tower, disappeared. The Cree moved on to Fort Pitt, the massacre prompted the Canadian government to take notice of the growing unrest in Western Canada. Wandering Spirit and five warriors were convicted of treason for their actions in the Frog Lake Massacre. They were hanged with two other Cree convicted of murder in the largest mass execution in Canadian history, although Big Bear had opposed the attack, he was charged with treason because of his efforts to organize resistance among the Cree. He was convicted and sentenced to three years in the Manitoba Penitentiary, Frog Lake became part of the province of Alberta in 1905
29.
Battle of Fort Pitt
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Cree warriors began attacking Canadian settlements on April 2. On April 15, they captured Fort Pitt from a detachment of North-West Mounted Police, in the Canadian North-West, a period of escalating unrest immediately preceded the rebellion as Ottawa refused to negotiate with its disaffected citizens. This nominally peaceful disposition was shattered in late March by news of the Métis victory over government forces at Duck Lake, support for Riel was strong among native peoples. On April 2, Big Bears warriors attacked the town of Frog Lake, Big Bear, against his wishes, was drawn into the rebellion. Similar attacks continued, with Cree raiding parties pillaging the towns of Lac La Biche Saddle Lake, Beaverhill Lake, Bear Hills, Lac St. Anne and these events prompted the mobilization of an Alberta field force under Thomas Bland Strange. The Cree would later defeat the Albertans at the Battle of Frenchmans Butte, on April 15,200 Cree warriors descended on Fort Pitt. They intercepted a police scouting party, killing a constable, wounding another, surrounded and outnumbered, garrison commander Francis Dickens capitulated and agreed to negotiate with the attackers. Big Bear released the remaining police officers but kept the townspeople as hostages, six days later, Inspector Dickens and his men reached safety at Battleford. Fort Pitt, the scene of the Battle of Fort Pitt, is a Provincial Park and National Historic site where a National Historic Sites and Monuments plaque designates where Treaty six was signed
30.
Battle of Cut Knife
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The warriors defeated the Canadian forces, with losses on both sides. In the spring of 1885, the Métis living in the District of Saskatchewan formed a government under Louis Riel. Soon, Riel began to contact the local natives, the Cree, the Government of Canada decided to crush the separatist movement, afraid that it would spread to the tribes across the North-West Territories. Bands of Cree, assembled under the leadership of Poundmaker, went to Battleford to talk to the Indian agent, the purpose of the visit was to lobby Rae for better supplies and to discuss the political situation. On the night of March 30,1885, townspeople began to abandon the town, when Poundmaker and his party reached the town, the Indian agent refused to come out of the fort to meet with them. He kept them waiting for two days, suffering from hunger and having been refused supplies by the Indian Agent meant to attend their well being, some of the party began looting the abandoned buildings. The identity of the looters is disputed, some reports claimed Poundmakers people were responsible, but one observer alleged that most of the looting had already been done by whites. Oral history accounts claim that the looting was done by Nakoda people, either way, Poundmakers people left the next day. Meanwhile, bands of Assiniboine living south of Battleford had heard about the Métis rebellion, a small group of them killed a local farmer who had treated them harshly in the past, and shot their Indian agent for beating a teenage girl. They then decided to go north to Battleford to meet up with Poundmaker, although there is some controversy as to who was responsible and to the extent of the destruction, a number of homes and businesses in Battleford were looted and burned. The Canadian government sent Major General Frederick Middleton to Saskatchewan to crush the Métis rebellion, Middleton detached a column under the leadership of Lieutenant Colonel William Otter to relieve Battleford. The column travelled by rail to Swift Current, setting out on the march for Battleford on April 13, when Otter arrived, he found hundreds of civilians, including Métis, crammed into the fort. However, Poundmakers followers were nowhere to be found, overjoyed at Otters arrival, the townspeople and settlers wanted revenge on the Indians for the losses in lives and material that they had suffered. Many of Otters troops, inexperienced militiamen, were angry that they had missed out on a fight, pressured by the townspeople and his own troops, Otter decided to take action. Despite orders from General Middleton to stay in Battleford, he wired the Lieutenant-Governor of the Northwest Territories, Edgar Dewdney, a garrison was left in Battleford, while he led a flying column of 392 men to attack the Cree and Assiniboine at Cut Knife Hill. His force was made up of 75 North-West Mounted Police, several units of Canadian army regulars. He carried with him two 7-pounder field rifles and a Gatling gun and he set out on the afternoon of May 1. His plan was to march until dusk, rest until the rose, then continue on to attack the Cree and Assiniboine early in the morning
31.
Duck Lake, Saskatchewan
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Duck Lake is a town in the boreal forest of central Saskatchewan, Canada. Its location is eighty-eight kilometres north of Saskatoon and forty-four kilometres south of Prince Albert on highway 11, immediately to the north of Duck Lake is the south block of the Nisbet Provincial Forest. It is also the centre of the Beardys and Okemasis Cree First Nations band government. Duck Lake was home to one of the last operating Residential Schools in Canada, St. Michael’s Indian Residential School, Duck Lake was one of the 5 Southbranch settlements settled by French speaking Métis from Manitoba in the 1860s and 1870s. A Roman Catholic Mission was established in Duck Lake in 1874 by Father André O. M. I. and by 1888 the village had a school, a post office, a flour mill and a trading post. From 1882 to 1905 Duck Lake was within the District of Saskatchewan of the North-West Territories, in 1885, Duck Lake was the site of the Battle of Duck Lake, a conflict between Métis warriors and the Government of Canada, at the start of the Northwest Rebellion. Historic Carpenter Gothic style All Saints Anglican Church built in 1896 is a heritage site. Its historic cemetery contains the graves of some of those who fought in the Battle of Duck Lake as well as those of other pioneers of the community, the 1973 western Alien Thunder was partially filmed here. Gabriel Dumont - Leader of Métis forces in the North-West Rebellion 1885, town of Duck Lake Duck Lake Regional Interpretive Centre Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan NFB PowWow at Duck Lake Barnholden, Michael. Circumstances Alter Photographs, Captain James Peters Reports from the War of 1885
32.
Battleford
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Battleford is a small town located across the North Saskatchewan River from the City of North Battleford, in Saskatchewan, Canada. Battleford and North Battleford are collectively referred to as The Battlefords by Saskatchewan residents, although there has been occasional talk of the two communities merging, as of 2012 they remain separate entities. The local economy is fuelled mainly by agriculture, Battleford is bordered by the Rural Municipality of Battle River No. 438, as well as by the city of North Battleford, the 1973 western Alien Thunder was partially filmed in Battleford. The Battleford area was the site of numerous independent and Hudsons Bay Company fur trading houses dating from the 1770s, william Holmes operated a post for the North West Company just above the confluence of the Battle and Saskatchewan rivers in 1784. At least three posts were in use between 1868 and 1914, the town was founded in 1875 as a fur trading post and North-West Mounted Police fort. Its post office opened in 1877, between 1876 and 1883, Battleford was the territorial capital of the North-West Territories and the NWMP fort located there played an important role in the 1885 North-West Rebellion. On March 30,1885, during the North-West Rebellion, the town of Battleford was looted by a party of Cree people, when the Cree approached Battleford, the 500 residents fled to the nearby North-West Mounted Police post, Fort Battleford. The Crees then took food and supplies from the stores and houses. Newspaper The local newspaper is The Battlefords News Optimist and it is published weekly on Wednesdays and Fridays, and has circulation in the surrounding area. Radio Three local radio stations serve the area, CJNB, CJCQ-FM, some Saskatoon radio stations can also be received. Television The Battlefords are served by CFQC-TV-2 channel 6, a repeater of CTV station CFQC-DT Saskatoon
33.
District of Saskatchewan
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The District of Saskatchewan was a regional administrative district of Canadas Northwest Territories. It was formed in 1882 was later enlarged then abolished with the creation of the provinces of Saskatchewan, much of the area was incorporated into the province of Saskatchewan. The western part became part of Alberta, and the part is now part of Manitoba. The conflicts during the Northwest Rebellion of 1885 occurred in the District of Saskatchewan, the District of Saskatchewan in 1888 included the five French speaking settlements of St. Laurent, Fish Creek, Duck Lake, Batoche and St. The district was home to Cree people of Treaty 4, Treaty 5 and Treaty 6 who lived on Indian reserves, the population of the District of Saskatchewan in 1885 was 10,595. The Prince Albert sub-district had a population of 5,373 people which included the Southbranch settlements with about 1,300, to the west was the Battleford sub-district with 3,603 people and to the east the Carrot River sub-district with 1,770. The largest settlement and the capital of the district was Prince Albert with about 800 people followed by Battleford with about 500 people, most of the boundaries of the district in 1882 were defined by lines of the Dominion Land Survey. On the south, the 9th Correction Line, about 51, territorial evolution of Canada District of Alberta District of Assiniboia District of Athabasca Lorne Provisional District of Saskatchewan
34.
Rebellion
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Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the resistance against the orders of an established authority. The term comes from the Latin verb rebellō, I renew war (from re- + bellō, the rebel is the individual that partakes in rebellion or rebellious activities, particularly when armed. Thus, the rebellion also refers to the ensemble of rebels in a state of revolt. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation, Rebellion can be individual or collective, peaceful or violent In political terms, rebellion and revolt are often distinguished by their different aims. If rebellion generally seeks to evade an oppressive power, a revolt seeks to overthrow and destroy that power, the goal of rebellion is resistance while a revolt seeks a revolution. As power shifts relative to the adversary, or power shifts within a mixed coalition, or positions harden or soften on either side. The following theories broadly build on the Marxist interpretation of rebellion and they explore the causes of rebellion from a wide lens perspective. Marx writes about the structure of society that must be elucidated through an examination of the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers. The mismatch, between one mode of production, between the forces and the social ownership of the production, is at the origin of the revolution. The inner imbalance within these modes of production is derived from the modes of organization, such as capitalism within feudalism. The dynamics engineered by these class frictions help class consciousness root itself in the collective imaginary, for example, the development of the bourgeoisie class went from oppressed merchant class to urban independence, eventually gaining enough power to represent the state as a whole. Social movements, thus, are determined by a set of circumstances. The proletariat must also, according to Marx, go through the process of self-determination which can only be achieved by friction against the bourgeoisie. In Marxs theory revolutions are the locomotives of history, it is because rebellion has for ultimate goal to overthrow the ruling class and its antiquated mode of production. Later, rebellion attempts to replace it with a new system of political economy, one that is suited to the new ruling class. The cycle of rebellion, thus, replaces one mode of production by another through the constant class friction, in his book Why Men Rebel, Ted Gurr looks at the roots of political violence itself applied to a rebellion framework. He defines political violence as, all collective attacks within a political community against the political regime, the concept represents a set of events, a common property of which is the actual or threatened use of violence
35.
Government of Canada
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The Government of Canada or more formally Her Majestys Government, is the federal government of Canada, a country in North America, composed of 10 provinces, Ottawa, and 3 territories. The head of government is Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, whose party the Liberal Party of Canada won the majority of seats in the Canadian Parliament in the 2015 Canadian federal election, in Canadian English, the term can mean either the collective set of institutions or specifically the Queen-in-Council. Further elements of governance are outlined in the rest of the Canadian constitution, which includes written statutes, court rulings, in Canadian English, the word government is used to refer both to the whole set of institutions that govern the country, and to the current political leadership. In federal department press releases, the government has sometimes referred to by the phrase Government. The same cabinet earlier directed its press department to use the phrase Canadas New Government, as per the Constitution Acts of 1867 and 1982, Canada is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and practical, but not political. The executive is formally called the Queen-in-Council, the legislature the Queen-in-Parliament. The government is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her privy council, however, the Privy Council—consisting mostly of former members of parliament, chief justices of the supreme court, and other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full. This body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet, one of the main duties of the Crown is to ensure that a democratic government is always in place, which means appointing a prime minister to thereafter head the Cabinet. The monarch and governor general typically follow the advice of their ministers. The royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations, politicians can sometimes try to use to their favour the complexity of the relationship between the monarch, viceroy, ministers, and parliament, and the publics general unfamiliarity with it. Per democratic tradition, the House of Commons is the dominant branch of parliament, the Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint. The Constitution Act,1867, outlines that the general is responsible for summoning parliament in the Queens name. After a number of sessions, each parliament comes to an end via dissolution. As a general election typically follows, the timing of a dissolution is usually politically motivated, the sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. However, she does not personally rule in cases, instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust. Below this is the Federal Court, which cases arising under certain areas of federal law. It works in conjunction with the Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court of Canada, in some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the federal parliament regulates marriage and divorce in general, other examples include the powers of both the federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes, borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture
36.
Red River Rebellion
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For a period it had been a territory called Ruperts Land under control of the Hudsons Bay Company. The Rebellion was the first crisis of the new government faced following Canadian Confederation in 1867. The Canadian government had bought Ruperts Land from the Hudsons Bay Company in 1869 and appointed an English-speaking governor and he was opposed by the French-speaking, mostly Métis inhabitants of the settlement. Before the land was transferred to Canada, McDougall sent out surveyors to plot the land according to the square township system used in Ontario. The Métis, led by Riel, prevented McDougall from entering the territory, McDougall declared that the Hudsons Bay Company was no longer in control of the territory and that Canada had asked for the transfer of sovereignty to be postponed. The Métis created a government, to which they invited an equal number of Anglophone representatives. Riel negotiated directly with the Canadian government to establish Manitoba as a province, meanwhile, Riels men arrested members of a pro-Canadian faction who had resisted the provisional government. They included an Orangeman named Thomas Scott, Riels government tried and convicted Scott, and executed him for threatening to murder Louis Riel. Canada and the Assiniboia provisional government soon negotiated an agreement, in 1870, the national legislature passed the Manitoba Act, allowing the Red River Colony to enter Confederation as the province of Manitoba. The Act also incorporated some of Riels demands, such as provision of separate French schools for Métis children, after reaching agreement, Canada sent a military expedition to Manitoba to enforce federal authority. Now known as the Wolseley Expedition, it consisted of Canadian militia, outrage grew in Ontario over Scotts execution, and many eastern folk demanded that Wolseleys expedition arrest Riel for murder and suppress what they considered to be rebellion. Riel peacefully withdrew from Fort Garry the day the troops arrived, warned by many that the soldiers would harm him, and denied amnesty for his political leadership of the rebellion, Riel fled to the United States. The arrival of troops marked the end of the Rebellion, during the late 1860s the Red River Colony of Ruperts Land was changing rapidly. It had developed under the aegis of the Hudsons Bay Company and they had been confirmed on this territory by Queen Anne, who had evicted from it Louis XIV and his subjects through the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Further notice was given when in 1763 George III dispossessed Louis XV of nearly all his North American colonies in the Treaty of Paris. Historically, the population had been composed mainly of Francophone Métis, who developed an ethnicity of mixed First Nations-French descent and a unique culture during the decades of the fur trade. During the 18th and 19th centuries, they married among themselves, establishing a tradition of the men working as trappers, guides and interpreters to fur traders, Métis women also were sometimes active in the trade, as among several influential families in Sault Ste. Marie in the early 19th century in which the husbands were European, the Métis culture was based in the French language and Roman Catholic religion
37.
Manitoba
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Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada. It is one of the three provinces and Canadas fifth-most populous province with its estimated 1.3 million people. Manitoba covers 649,950 square kilometres with a varied landscape. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years, in the late 17th century, fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Ruperts Land and owned by the Hudsons Bay Company. In 1869, negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada. The rebellions resolution led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 that created the province, Manitobas capital and largest city, Winnipeg, is Canadas eighth-largest census metropolitan area. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, four of the provinces five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg. The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree, the name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit, a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba. It may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie, the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies. Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name, and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 and it adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast, and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline. The Port of Churchill is Canadas only Arctic deep-water port and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia, Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Hudson Bay is the worlds second-largest bay, Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed, once known as Ruperts Land. It was a area of the Hudsons Bay Company, with many rivers. The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, Manitobas major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipegs east side are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg. This basins rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers
38.
Fort Carlton
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Fort Carlton was a Hudsons Bay Company fur trade post from 1795 until 1885. It was rebuilt by the Saskatchewan government as a historic park. It is about 65 kilometers north of Saskatoon, First called Carlton House, two previous posts were established in 1795 and 1805 respectively, before being abandoned for the third and permanent fort. The first Fort Carlton was built at a site near the old French post of Fort de la Corne in 1795 following the destruction of South Branch House. James Bird was in charge, James Sandison was his assistant, from 1799 to 1801, Joseph Howse was the writer in charge. The NWC had a nearby post called Fort St. Louis and it produced few furs and was closed in 1801. The second Fort Carlton was built on the South Saskatchewan River six miles upstream from the former South Branch House, there was a nearby NWC post. In 1810 both companies abandoned the South Saskatchewan and moved to the third Fort Carlton, the third Fort Carlton was built on the south bank of the North Saskatchewan at the Great Crossing Place, a ford of that river. John Peter Pruden was master, master and trader and chief trader except for a furlough to London in 1824-1825. The area was prairie and not beaver country, but there were plentiful woods nearby, the NWC had its Fort La Montée inside the same stockade as Fort Carlton. In 1816 the NorWesters moved out and established a second Fort La Montée on the north bank 3 miles upstream, with the union in 1821 La Montée was abandoned and whatever could be salvaged was rafted down to Fort Carlton. In 1824 a group of Plains Indians tried to attack the fort but were driven off, by 1835 the buildings were in disrepair and a new hexagonal fort was built 200 yards to the west. This fell into disrepair and a new fort was built a few yards east of the first fort in 1855-58, about this time it was a depot for the winter express mail. Men coming from the upper Saskatchewan and Athabasca would meet and exchange mail with men coming from the Red River country south of Lake Winnipeg, there was a smallpox epidemic in 1869. Steamboats arrived on the Saskatchewan in 1874, as a Company post it primarily dealt in provisions, namely pemmican and buffalo robes although other furs were traded as well. Lawrence Clarke served as its last Chief Factor and it was a major base of operations for the Companys Saskatchewan District. Situated on the Carlton Trail from the Red River Colony in present-day Manitoba to Fort Edmonton in what is now Alberta and it was located along the North Saskatchewan River not far from Duck Lake, Saskatchewan. Treaty Six between the Canadian monarch and various Cree and Saulteaux First Nations was initially negotiated and signed near the Fort in 1876
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Districts of the Northwest Territories
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The vastness of Canadas Northwest Territories meant that for much of its history it was divided into several districts for ease of administration. The number and size of these territorial districts varied as other provinces and territories of Canada were created and expanded, the districts of the Northwest Territories were abolished in 1999 with the creation of Nunavut territory and the contraction of the Northwest Territories to its current size. The North-West Territories were administered as an entity, with no districts. In 1870 Canada gained control of Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory from the Hudsons Bay Company and that same year, a small piece of Ruperts Land was formed into the province of Manitoba, but the rest of the area was merged and renamed the North-West Territories. This region included the vast bulk of Canadas present day landmass and this autonomous territory is not to be confused with the districts which would later be created within the North-West Territories. In 1880 the Canadian Arctic Archipelago was ceded to Canada by the United Kingdom, the District of Athabasca covered the northern half of what is today Alberta. The District of Assiniboia was where the southernmost quarter of Saskatchewan is today, the District of Saskatchewan was to the north of Assiniboia extending halfway up modern Saskatchewan. It stretched further east than Assiniboia, running all the way to the shore of Lake Winnipeg and it also stretched west into what is now Alberta. In 1895 the northern portion of the North-West Territories was divided into four more internal districts for ease of administration, the District of Ungava was made up of what is today northern Quebec, parts of Labrador, and offshore islands that are today part of Nunavut. The District of Yukon was made up of what is today the Yukon, the District of Mackenzie was the rest, stretching from the Yukon border in the west to the Keewatin border in the east, and containing none of the islands. The District of Athabasca expanded and covered the half of what is today both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The North-West Territories shrunk in 1898 when the Klondike Gold Rush necessitated the conversion of the District of Yukon into the autonomous Yukon Territory, as well, the southernmost part of Ungava was ceded to Quebec. A minor boundary adjustment was made, as a portion of land in the northwestern portion of Mackenzie District was ceded to the Yukon Territory. A small eastern portion of the defunct Districts of Saskatchewan and Athabaska were added to the District of Keewatin, a portion of the District of Mackenzie was added to the District of Keewatin. The hyphen was removed from North-West Territories, so that the area was now named the Northwest Territories, the Northwest Territories now consisted of the Districts of Franklin, Ungava, Mackenzie and Keewatin. The Northwest Territories experienced further attrition in 1912, The entire continental portion of the District of Ungava was converted into the expansion of the province of Quebec. Only the districts 1500+ almost entirely uninhabited offshore islands remained part of the Northwest Territories, most of the District of Keewatin was converted into the northern expansion of the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba. The Northwest Territories now consisted of the Districts of Franklin, Mackenzie, Ungava was still technically a district until 1920, but with no population to administer, this district designation was effectively unused after 1912
40.
Southbranch Settlement
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Southbranch Settlement was the name ascribed to a series of French Métis settlements on the Canadian prairies in the 19th Century, in what is today the province of Saskatchewan. Métis settlers began making homes here in the 1860s and 1870s, many of them fleeing economic and social dislocation from Red River, Manitoba. The Settlements stretched along both sides of the South Saskatchewan River in river lot style from Fish Creek north through Batoche and they included Duck Lake 12 kilometers from St. Laurent accessed by the St. Laurent Ferry. The distance from Fish Creek to St. Louis was less than 50 kilometres and they were proximal to several Cree reserves, as well as Anglo-Metis settlements to the north around Prince Albert. Batoche and St. Laurent de Grandin were founded by French Métis hivernants from the Red River settlement, hivernants were hunters and trappers who spent the winter on the prairies and returned to the Red River settlement in the spring with their winter catch. Gabriel Dumont was the leader of the hunt for his group of 200 hunters living in the Southbranch settlements from 1863 to the end of the Métis buffalo hunts in about 1875. In 1873 the Southbranch settlements organized a form of government, under Gabriel Dumont. In the 1880s the population of the Southbranch settlements may have been as high as 1300 with 40 to 60 families living in each of the four largest communities, some of the settlements, such as St. Louis still remain however. Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate established missions in the settlements during the 1870s and 1880s, St. Laurent, the oldest of the settlements, was originally the wintering home of Métis plains buffalo hunters. A mission was established in 1873 by Father Andre o. m. i, Duck Lake Mission was also established by Father Andre o. m. i. in 1874. Batoche Mission was established in 1882 by Father Vegreville o. m. i, St. Louis de Langevin Mission was established in 1886 by Father Lecoque o. m. i. Fish Creek Mission was also established by Father Lecoque o. m. i, by 1888 all the Missions except Fish Creek had schools. St. Laurent had a post office, a telegraph office, Duck Lake had a post office a flour mill and a trading post. Batoche had three stores, a post office and a saloon, St. Louis had a store and a post office. 2nd Meridian, being the commonly known as St. Louis de Langevin, St. Laurent or Batoche
Canada
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Métis people
