1.
Ruger P-Series
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The Ruger P-Series is a line of centerfire semi-automatic pistols made by Sturm, Ruger & Company produced from 1985 to 2013. The P-Series pistols were designed for military, police, civilian, the designs are largely based on the Browning action found in the M1911 pistol, but with minor variations, generally related to the safety mechanism and the barrel-camblock interface. Reviews have considered them rugged, reliable, and strong, though this comes at the price of bulk. The P-Series are short recoil–operated, locked breech semi-automatic pistols and they use a SIG P220 type locking system, and an M1911-style tilting barrel. The P-Series were made with a traditional double-action/single-action, or double-action-only trigger mechanism, the decocker models have no manual safety, instead, when the lever is lowered, it only cams the firing pin into the slide and drops the hammer. When the lever is released, the firing pin springs back to the normal position, the DAO models have no manual safety or decocker. All models feature an automatic firing pin safety that blocks the firing pin unless the trigger is pulled fully rearward, the pistols make extensive use of investment-cast parts and proprietary Ruger alloys. Nearly all internal parts, including the barrel, are steel, while the slide. The P85 through P944 use an investment-cast aluminum frame, while the P95, the 9mm and.40 S&W versions use double-column box magazines, the 9mm has a 15-round capacity, and the.40 has a 10-round capacity. The.45 ACP versions use single-column magazines holding seven or eight rounds, Ruger did not keep track of the magazine models so an older magazine may not secure in a newer frame. The Ruger Police Carbine also uses P-Series magazines, the P-Series pistols have an ambidextrous magazine release located behind the trigger guard, it can be pushed forward from either side to eject the magazine. The early-model P95s have fixed, three-dot sights, newer P95s, P97s, most models were available with blued steel or stainless steel slides, a manual safety or decocker, and DA/SA or DAO triggers. Some DAO versions were discontinued in 2004, and by 2013, the P85 was developed in 1985, but was not available until 1987. It was only available with a DA/SA trigger, decocker, early P85 pistols were recalled for a safety issue that resulted in one accidental discharge. If the firing pin broke in front of the firing pin block, applying the safety, the P85 was recalled, and a new safety was installed that prevented contact between firing pin and hammer during a decocking operation. This modification was done free of charge, the P85 MKII was released with the safety fix, larger safety levers, improved accuracy, and the option of a stainless-steel slide. P85 production stopped in 1990, and the P85 MKII was discontinued in 1992, the P89 is an upgraded P85 MKII that introduced a number of new features, including a DAO model. In 1992, Ruger produced a limited-run P89X convertible model, which came with a second barrel, Ruger only made 5750 with both barrels
2.
Interceptor aircraft
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An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically to prevent successful missions by enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. For daytime operations, conventional fighters normally fill the interceptor role, few aircraft can be considered dedicated daytime interceptors. Night fighters and bomber destroyers are, by definition, interceptors of the heavy type, examples of classic interceptors of this era include the F-106 Delta Dart, Sukhoi Su-15 and English Electric Lightning. Dedicated interceptor designs became rare, with the widely used examples designed after the 1960s being the Tornado F3, Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat. The first dedicated interceptor squadrons were formed up during World War I in order to defend London against attacks by Zeppelins, early units generally used aircraft withdrawn from front-line service, notably the Sopwith Pup. They were told about their targets prior to take-off from a centralized command center in the Horse Guards building. The Pup proved to have too low performance to intercept the Gotha G. IV bombers. Before Second World War started, offensive bomber speeds had improved so much that it appeared that the mission would be effectively impossible. The visual and acoustic detection had a range on the order of a few miles. This could be addressed by a cover of aircraft. The conclusion at the time was that the bomber will always get through, the introduction of radar upset this equation. Radar was able to detect aircraft at long range, on the order of 100 miles even for early systems and this provided enough time for fighters to start up, climb to altitude and chase down their targets. The introduction of jet power increased speeds from perhaps 200 miles per hour to 600 miles per hour in a single step, although radars also improved in performance, the gap between offense and defense was dramatically reduced. Large attacks could so confuse the defenses ability to communicate information to the pilots that the method of manual ground controlled interception was increasingly seen as inadequate. In the United States, this led to the introduction of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment to computerize this task. In the 1950s, during the Cold War, an interceptor force was crucial for the great powers. Hence for a period of time they faced rapid development. Thus, the doctrine of mutually assured destruction replaced the trend of defense strengthening and their utility waned as the role became blurred into the role of the heavy air superiority fighters dominant in military thinking at the time
3.
Northrop Corporation
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Northrop Corporation was a leading United States aircraft manufacturer from its formation in 1939 until its 1994 merger with Grumman to form Northrop Grumman. The company is known for its development of the wing design. Jack Northrop founded three companies using his name, the first was the Avion Corporation in 1927, which was absorbed in 1929 by the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation as a subsidiary named Northrop Aviation Corporation. However, labor difficulties led to the dissolution of the corporation by Douglas in 1937, Northrop still sought his own company, and so in 1939 he established the Northrop Corporation in nearby Hawthorne, California, a site located by co-founder Moye Stephens. The corporation ranked 100th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, the F-5 was so successful that Northrop spent much of the 1970s and 1980s attempting to duplicate its success with similar lightweight designs. Their first attempt to improve the F-5 was the N-300, which featured more powerful engines. The P-530 also included radar and other systems considered necessary on modern aircraft, nevertheless, the YF-17 Cobra was modified with help from McDonnell Douglas to become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet in order to fill a similar lightweight design competition for the US Navy. Northrop intended to sell a version as the F-18L, but the basic F-18A continued to outsell it, leading to a long. This garnered little interest in the market, and the project was dropped, in 1985, Northrop bought northrop. com, the sixth. com domain created. Based on the experimentation with flying wings the company developed the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber of the 1990s
4.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
5.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part
6.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
7.
Missile
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In modern language, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket. Missiles have four components, targeting and/or missile guidance, flight system, engine. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes, surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, all known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is any thrown object, the word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning to send. In military usage, munitions projected towards a target are broadly categorised as follows, a powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions not fired from a gun are called bombs whether guided or not, munitions that are fired from a gun are known as projectiles whether guided or not. If explosive, they are more specifically as shells or mortar bombs. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes, hand grenades are not usually classed as missiles. The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II, most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, however, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. Guided missiles have a number of different system components, Targeting and/or missile guidance Flight system Engine Warhead Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves and this radiation may emanate from the target, it may be provided by the missile itself, or it may be provided by a friendly third party. The first two are known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV guidance—using either visible light or infrared—in order to see the target, the picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target or by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead used a pigeon to steer the missile to its target, many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a system such as INS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the current position and the position of the target
8.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
9.
AIR-2 Genie
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The Douglas AIR-2 Genie was an unguided air-to-air rocket with a 1.5 kt W25 nuclear warhead. It was deployed by the United States Air Force and Canada during the Cold War, production ended in 1962 after over 3000 were made, with some related training and test derivatives being produced later. The interception of Soviet strategic bombers was a major preoccupation of the late 1940s and 1950s. The World War II-age fighter armament of guns and cannon were inadequate to stop attacks by massed formations of high-speed bombers. Firing large volleys of unguided rockets into bomber formations was not much better, in 1954 Douglas Aircraft began a program to investigate the possibility of a nuclear-armed air-to-air weapon. To ensure simplicity and reliability, the weapon would be unguided, the resultant weapon carried a 1. 5-kiloton W25 nuclear warhead and was powered by a Thiokol SR49-TC-1 solid-fuel rocket engine of 162 kN thrust. It had a range of slightly under 10 km, targeting, arming, and firing of the weapon were coordinated by the launch aircrafts fire-control system. Detonation was by time-delay fuze, although the mechanism would not arm the warhead until engine burn-out, to give the launch aircraft sufficient time to turn. Lethal radius of the blast was estimated to be about 300 metres, the first test firings of inert rounds took place in 1956, and the weapon entered service with the designation MB-1 in 1957. The popular name was Genie, but it was often nicknamed Ding-Dong, about 3,150 rounds were produced before production ended in 1963. In 1962 the weapon was redesignated AIR-2A Genie, many rounds were upgraded with improved, longer-duration rocket motors, the upgraded weapons sometimes known as AIR-2B. An inert training round, originally MB-1-T and later ATR-2A, was produced in small numbers. A live Genie was detonated only once, in Operation Plumbbob on 19 July 1957 and it was fired by AF Captain Eric William Hutchison and AF Captain Alfred C. Barbee flying an F-89J over Yucca Flats, sources vary as to the height of the blast, but it was between 18,500 and 20,000 ft above mean sea level. A group of five USAF officers volunteered to stand hatless in their light summer uniforms underneath the blast to prove that the weapon was safe for use over populated areas and they were photographed by Department of Defense photographer George Yoshitake who stood there with them. Gamma and neutron doses received by observers on the ground were negligible, doses received by aircrew were highest for the fliers assigned to penetrate the airburst cloud ten minutes after explosion. The Genie was cleared to be carried on the F-89 Scorpion, F-101B Voodoo, F-106 Delta Dart, a trapeze launcher was fitted beneath a Starfighter, but it was never carried in operational service. Convair offered an upgrade of the F-102 Delta Dagger that would have been Genie-capable, operational use of the Genie was discontinued in 1988 with the retirement of the F-106 interceptor
10.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
11.
Night fighter
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A night fighter is a fighter aircraft adapted for use at night or in other times of bad visibility. Night fighters began to be used in World War I and included types that were modified to operate at night. Many WW II night fighters also included instrument landing systems for landing at night as turning on the runway lights made runways into a target for opposing intruders. The use of the night fighter gradually faded away as a result of these improvements making the vast majority of fighters capable of night operation. At the start of World War I, most combatants had little capability of flying at night, the only targets that could be attacked with any possibility of being hit in limited visibility would be cities, an unthinkable target at the time. The general assumption of a war meant there was no need for strategic attacks. Things changed on 22 September and 8 October 1914, when the Royal Naval Air Service bombed the production line and hangars of the Zeppelin facilities in Cologne, although defences had been set up, all of them proved woefully inadequate. As early as 1915, a number of B. E. 2c aircraft were modified into the first night fighters and this technique would prove to be very effective. After over a year of night Zeppelin raids, on the night of 2–3 September 1916, a B. E. 2c flown by Captain William Leefe Robinson downed the SL11, the first German airship to be shot down over Britain. This action won the pilot a Victoria Cross and cash prizes totaling £3,500 put up by a number of individuals, because of airships limitations, the Luftstreitkräfte began to introduce long-range heavy bombers, starting with the Gotha G. IV aircraft that gradually took over the offensive. To counter night attacks, Sopwith Camel day fighters were deployed in the fighter role. Further modification led to the cockpit being moved rearwards, the modified aircraft were nicknamed the Sopwith Comic. With little money to spend on development, especially during the great depression and they flew fast enough that the time between detecting them and the bombers reaching their targets left little time to launch interceptors to shoot them down. At night, or with limited visibility, these problems were compounded, the Spanish Republican Air Force used some Polikarpov I-15 as night fighters. Pilot José Falcó had equipped his fighter with a receiver for land-based guidance for interception. One of the I-15s configured for night operations, fitted with tracer and explosive.30 rounds, nevertheless, there were some new technologies that appeared to offer potential ways to improve night fighting capability. During the 1930s there was development of infrared detectors among all of the major forces. The only such system to see any sort of operational use was the Spanner Anlage system used on the Dornier Do 17Z night fighters of the Luftwaffe
12.
Northrop P-61 Black Widow
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The Northrop P-61 Black Widow, named for the American spider, was the first operational U. S. warplane designed as a night fighter, and the first aircraft designed to use radar. The P-61 had a crew of three, pilot, gunner, and radar operator and it was armed with four 20 mm Hispano M2 forward-firing cannons mounted in the lower fuselage, and four.50 in M2 Browning machine guns mounted in a remote-controlled dorsal gun turret. It was an all-metal, twin-engine, twin-boom design developed during World War II, the first test flight was made on 26 May 1942, with the first production aircraft rolling off the assembly line in October 1943. The last aircraft was retired from government service in 1954 and it replaced earlier British-designed night-fighter aircraft that had been updated to incorporate radar when it became available. On the night of 14 August 1945, a P-61B of the 548th Night Fight Squadron named Lady in the Dark was unofficially credited with the last Allied air victory before VJ Day. The P-61 was also modified to create the F-15 Reporter photo-reconnaissance aircraft for the United States Army Air Forces, in August 1940,16 months before the United States entered the war, the U. S. Air Officer in London, Lieutenant General Delos C. Emmons, was briefed on British research in radar, which had been underway since 1936 and had played an important role in the defense against the Luftwaffe during the Battle of Britain. General Emmons was informed of the new Airborne Intercept radar, a unit that could be installed in an aircraft. In September 1940, the Tizard Mission traded British research on aspects including radar for American production. The aircraft would need to continuously over the city throughout the night. The aircraft would carry one of the early AI radar units, the British conveyed the requirements for a new fighter to all the aircraft designers and manufacturers they were working with. Jack Northrop was among them, and he realized that the speed, altitude, fuel load, the Emmons Board developed basic requirements and specifications, handing them over towards the end of 1940 to Air Technical Service Command at Wright Field, Ohio. The United States had two twin-row radials of at least 46 liters displacement in development since the late 1930s, the Double Wasp and the Duplex Cyclone. These engines had been airborne for their flight tests by the 1940/41 timeframe. Vladimir H. Pavlecka, Northrop Chief of Research, was present on unrelated business at Wright Field. On 21 October 1940, Colonel Laurence Craigie of the ATSC phoned Pavlecka, explaining the U. S. Army Air Corps specifications, the mission, Craigie explained, was the interception and destruction of hostile aircraft in flight during periods of darkness or under conditions of poor visibility. Pavlecka met with Jack Northrop the next day, and gave him the USAAC specification and he was already a month along, and a week later, Northrop pounced on the USAAC proposal. On 5 November, Northrop and Pavlecka met at Wright Field with Air Material Command officers, Douglas XA-26A night fighter proposal was the only competition, but Northrops design was selected and the Black Widow was conceived
13.
Autocannon
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An autocannon or automatic cannon is a large, fully automatic, rapid-fire projectile weapon that fires armour-piercing or explosive shells, as opposed to the bullet fired by a machine gun. Autocannons often have a larger calibre than a gun, but are usually smaller than a field gun or other artillery. When used on its own, the word autocannon indicates a single-barrel weapon, when multiple rotating barrels are involved, the word rotary is added, and such a weapon is referred to as a rotary autocannon. As such, ammunition is fed from a belt to reduce reloading or for a faster rate of fire. They can use a variety of ammunition, common shells include high-explosive dual-purpose types, any variety of armour-piercing types, both the US25 mm Bushmaster and the British 30 mm Rarden have relatively slow rates of fire so as not to use ammunition too quickly. The rate of fire of a modern autocannon ranges from 90 rounds per minute, systems with multiple barrels can have rates of fire of over 10,000 rounds per minute. The first modern autocannon was the British QF1 pounder, also known as the pom-pom, during the First World War, autocannons were mostly used in the trenches as an anti-aircraft gun. Attempts to use them in aircraft failed as the severely limited both speed and altitude, thus making successful interception impossible. The more effective QF2 pounder naval gun would be developed during the war to serve as an anti-aircraft, autocannons would serve in a much greater capacity during the Second World War. During the inter-war years, aircraft underwent an evolution and the monoplane, pioneered as far back as the end of 1915, almost replaced wood. The subsequent increase in speed and durability greatly reduced the window of opportunity for defence and this was only reversed with the introduction of computer-controlled systems. The German Panzer II light tank, which was one of the most numerous in German service during the invasion of Poland and the campaign in France, used a 20 mm autocannon as its main armament. Although ineffective against tank armour even during the years of the war. Larger examples, such as the 40 mm Vickers S, were mounted in ground attack aircraft to serve as an anti-tank weapon, Polish 20 mm 38 Fk auto cannon was expensive to produce, but an exception. Unlike the Oerlikon, it was effective against all the tanks fielded in 1939, largely because it was built as an upgrade to the Oerlikon, Hispano—Suiza and it, with great difficulty, proved capable of knocking out even early Panzer IIIs and IVs. Only 55 were produced by the time of the Polish Defensive War, in aircraft, several factors brought about the replacement of rifle-calibre machine guns by autocannons. Early autocannons were heavy and had a rate of fire. Along with the speed, the size of aircraft grew substantially, particularly in the 1930s, so that the weight was less of an issue while the rate of fire, and reliability were greatly improved
14.
Bell Aircraft
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Bell also developed the Reaction Control System for the Mercury Spacecraft, the North American X-15 and the Bell Rocket Belt. The company was purchased in 1960 by Textron, and lives on today as Bell Helicopter, as a teenager, Larry Bell saw his first plane at an air show, starting a lifelong fascination with aviation. Bell dropped out of school in 1912 to join his brother in the burgeoning aircraft industry at the Glenn L. Martin Company. By 1920 Bell was vice president and general manager of Martin, by now based in Cleveland, feeling that he deserved part ownership, in late 1924 he presented Martin with an ultimatum. Mr. Martin refused, and Bell quit, Bell spent several years out of the aviation industry, but in 1928 was hired by Reuben H. Fleet at Consolidated Aircraft, in Buffalo, New York where he was guaranteed an interest in the company, before long, Bell became general manager and business was booming, but he still wanted to be able to run his own company. He knew that, although he could raise capital, he would not be able to compete with either Consolidated or Curtiss-Wright. Incidentally, Bell was the major aircraft builder to occupy the site. The factory complex was built in 1916 for the Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Company. Bells first military contract followed in 1937 with the development of the ill-fated YFM-1 Airacuda, the YFM-1 incorporated groundbreaking technology for the time, with gyro stabilized weapons sighting and a thermionic fire control system. Including the prototype, just 13 Airacudas were produced, and these saw limited service with the USAAC before being scrapped in 1942. Bell enjoyed much success the year with the development of the single engine P-39. The P-39 performed poorly at high altitudes compared to newer, late-war designs, indeed, the Soviet-flown P-39s were the main reason that the aircraft is credited with highest number of individual kills attributed to any U. S. fighter type. A somewhat larger and more version of the P-39 was produced shortly before the end of World War II. Called the P-63 Kingcobra, this warplane addressed many of the shortcomings of the P-39,2,971 P-63s were built between 1943 and 1945, many delivered to the Soviet Union. Also, by time, the Army Air Forces already had the superior P-47 Thunderbolt. In October 1942, The Bell-built twin-jet P-59 Airacomet was the first American jet aircraft to fly. Design had begun in September 1941, during which time the Bell team was guided mostly by theory, as General Electric would not finish, Bell engineers could only guess at the performance characteristics
15.
Convair
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Convair was an American aircraft manufacturing company which later expanded into rockets and spacecraft. It also manufactured the first Atlas rockets, including the rockets that were used for the manned flights of Project Mercury. The companys subsequent Atlas-Centaur design continued this success and derivatives of the remain in use as of 2010. In 1994 most of the divisions were sold by then-owners General Dynamics to McDonnell Douglas and Lockheed. Navy, the Royal Canadian Air Force, the British flying forces, the Catalina remained in production through May 1945, and more than 4,000 were built. What was soon to be called Convair, was created in 1943 by the merger of the Consolidated Aircraft Company and the Vultee Aircraft Company. Convair always had most of its research, design, and manufacturing operations in San Diego County of Southern California, the Convair B-36 was the largest landbased piston engined bomber in the world. The Atlas missile, the F-102 Delta Dagger and F-106 Delta Dart delta-winged interceptors, and the delta-winged B-58 Hustler supersonic intercontinental nuclear bomber were all Convair products. For a period of time in the 1960s, Convair manufactured its own line of jet airliners, the Convair 880 and Convair 990. The Convair Division produced its own designs, such as several airliners, until 1965. In the 1950s Convair shifted money and effort into its missile and rocket projects, convairs Atlas rocket was originally developed in 1957 as an ICBM for the U. S. Air Force. It was replaced in 1962 by the room-temperature liquid-fueled Titan II missile, the Atlas rocket transitioned into a civilian launch vehicle and was used for the first orbital manned U. S. space flights during Project Mercury in 1962 and 1963. The S-IVB had earlier also used as the second stage of the smaller Saturn IB rocket. In 1994, the General Dynamics Corporation split and sold the original Convair Division, the airframe/aerostructures manufacturing company and the space boosters company were sold to the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. S. In 1996, General Dynamics deactivated all of the legal entities of the Convair Division. 1923 Consolidated Aircraft Corporation formed by Major Reuben H. S, Air Force and U. S. Navy aircraft designations that begin with X are merely experimental models of aircraft made only in small numbers. Military aircraft designations that begin with Y are developmental models made in small batches, in the former designation system that the Navy and the Marine Corps used, a final letter of Y identified a Convair or a Consolidated product, such as the PBY-5 flying boat. Centaur BGM-109 Tomahawk long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile, aGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missile – stealthy, nuclear, air-launched cruise missile Convair Drive at the Toronto Pearson International Airport is believed to be named for the Convair company
16.
Douglas Aircraft Company
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The Douglas Aircraft Company was an American aerospace manufacturer based in Southern California. It was founded in 1921 by Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. Douglas Aircraft Company largely operated as a division of McDonnell Douglas after the merger. MD later merged with Boeing in 1997, the Douglas Aircraft Company was founded by Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. on July 22,1921 in Santa Monica, California, following dissolution of the Davis-Douglas Company. An early claim to fame was the first circumnavigation of the world by air in Douglas airplanes in 1924. In 1923, the U. S. Army Air Service was interested in carrying out a mission to circumnavigate the Earth for the first time by aircraft, Donald Douglas proposed a modified Douglas DT to meet the Armys needs. The two-place, open cockpit DT biplane torpedo bomber had previously produced for the U. S. Navy. The DTs were taken from the lines at the companys manufacturing plants in Rock Island, Illinois and Dayton. The modified aircraft known as the Douglas World Cruiser, also was the first major project for Jack Northrop who designed the system for the series. After the prototype was delivered in November 1923, upon the completion of tests on 19 November. Due to the expedition ahead, spare parts, including 15 extra Liberty L-12 engines,14 extra sets of pontoons. These were sent to airports along the route, the last of these aircraft was delivered to the U. S. Army on 11 March 1924. After the success of the World Cruiser, the Army Air Service ordered six similar aircraft as observation aircraft. The success of the DWC established the Douglas Aircraft Company among the aircraft companies of the world. Douglas adopted a logo that showed aircraft circling a globe, replacing the original winged heart logo, the logo evolved into an aircraft, a rocket, and a globe. It was later adopted by the McDonnell Douglas Corporation, and then became the basis of the current logo of the Boeing Company after their 1997 merger, many Douglas aircraft had long service lives. Douglas Aircraft designed and built a variety of aircraft for the U. S. military, including the Navy, Army Air Forces, Marine Corps, Air Force. The company initially built torpedo bombers for the U. S. Navy, within five years, the company was building about 100 aircraft annually. Among the early employees at Douglas were Ed Heinemann, Dutch Kindelberger, and Jack Northrop, the company retained its military market and expanded into amphibian airplanes in the late 1920s, also moving its facilities to Clover Field at Santa Monica, California
17.
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
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The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company is an American multinational tire manufacturing company founded in 1898 by Frank Seiberling and based in Akron, Ohio. Goodyear manufactures tires for automobiles, commercial trucks, light trucks, motorcycles, SUVs, race cars, airplanes, farm equipment, the company was named after American Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanized rubber. The first Goodyear tires became popular because they were easily detachable, Goodyear is also known for the Goodyear Blimp. Though Goodyear had been manufacturing airships and balloons since the early 1900s, today it is one of the most recognizable advertising icons in America. The company is the most successful tire supplier in Formula One history, with starts, wins. They pulled out of the sport after the 1998 season and it is the sole tire supplier for NASCAR series. Goodyear is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The company opened a new headquarters building in Akron in 2013. The first Goodyear factory opened in Akron, Ohio, in 1898, the thirteen original employees manufactured bicycle and carriage tires, rubber horseshoe pads, and poker chips. The company grew with the advent of the automobile, in 1901 Frank Seiberling provided Henry Ford with racing tires. In 1903, Paul Weeks Litchfield was granted a patent for the first tubeless automobile tire, by 1908 Ford was outfitting his Model T with Goodyear tires. In 1909 Goodyear manufactured its first aircraft tire, in 1911 Goodyear started experimenting with airship design. It later manufactured airships and observation balloons for the United States Army Air Service during World War I, the transport and reconnaissance capabilities that Goodyear provided contributed significantly to the Allied victory. In 1916, Litchfield found land in the Phoenix area suitable for growing long-staple cotton, the 36,000 acres purchased were controlled by the Southwest Cotton Company, formed with Litchfield as president. In 1924, Litchfield, as Goodyear Vice President, forged a joint venture with the German Luftschiffbau Zeppelin Company to form the Goodyear-Zeppelin Corporation, by 1926 Goodyear was the largest rubber company in the world. Only four years earlier it was forced to halt production of racing tires due to heavy competition. Nevertheless, the popularity of the Goodyear tire on the circuit led to a popular demand for the return of the brand. On August 5,1927, Goodyear had its public offering and was listed on the New York Stock Exchange
18.
Curtiss-Wright
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The Curtiss-Wright Corporation is an American-based, global diversified product manufacturer and service provider for the commercial, industrial, defense and energy markets. S. It has since evolved away from final assembly of finished aircraft, becoming a component manufacturer specializing in actuators, aircraft controls, valves and it also is a supplier to commercial nuclear power, nuclear navy systems, industrial vehicles and to the oil and gas industries. With $75 million in capital, it was the largest aviation company in the country, after 1929, most engines produced by the new company were known as Wrights, while most aircraft were given the Curtiss name, with a few exceptions. Throughout the 1930s, Curtiss-Wright designed and built aircraft for military, commercial, but it was the Wright engine division and the longstanding relationship with the US military that would help the company through the difficult years of the Great Depression. In 1937, the developed the P-36 fighter aircraft, resulting in the largest peacetime aircraft order ever given by the Army Air Corps. Curtiss-Wright also sold the P-36 abroad, where they were used in the days of World War II. During World War II, Curtiss-Wright produced 142,840 aircraft engines,146,468 electric propellers and 29,269 airplanes, Curtiss-Wright employed 180,000 workers, and ranked second among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. Its most visible success came with the P-40, variously known as the Tomahawk, Kittyhawk, and Warhawk, which were built between 1940 and 1944 at the main production facilities in Buffalo, New York. During the war, a large plant was added at Buffalo, followed by new plants at Columbus, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri. Engine and propeller production was at plants in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the Louisville plant was converted to C-46 Commando production, eventually delivering 438 Commandos to supplement the roughly 2,500 C-46s produced at Buffalo. The C-46 cargo plane was fitted with two radial engines, and could carry more cargo at higher altitudes than any other Allied aircraft. Consequently, it was used extensively in the China-Burma-India Theater, from 1941 to 1943, the Curtiss Aeronautical plant in Lockland, Ohio produced aircraft engines under wartime contract destined for installation in U. S. Army Air Forces aircraft. Wright officials at Lockland insisted on high production levels, resulting in a significant percentage of engines that did not meet Army Air Forces inspection standards. These defective engines were nevertheless approved by inspectors for shipment and installation in U. S. military aircraft, Army Air Forces technical adviser Charles W. Bond was dismissed by the Army in 1943 for gross irregularities in inspection procedure. In 1944, three Army officers, Lt. Col. Frank Constantine Greulich of Detroit, former chief inspection officer for the material command, All three men were later convicted of neglect of duty. Arthur Millers play All My Sons is based on this incident, in 2011, columnist Richard J. Eskow, senior fellow with the Campaign for Americas Future and columnist for the Huffington Post, alleged that his uncle Jack Temple died in World War II. Temples death in a bomber crash was allegedly tied to engine failure due to improper manufacture and/or assembly. Eskow referenced a 2006 article by Sarah Anderson that appeared in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Anderson had alleged that Curtiss-Wright had sold leaky motors to the government and covered it up with forged inspection reports
19.
Curtiss-Wright XF-87 Blackhawk
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The Curtiss-Wright XF-87 Blackhawk was a prototype American all-weather jet fighter interceptor and the companys last aircraft project. Designed as a replacement for the World War II–era propeller-driven P-61 Black Widow night/interceptor aircraft, the loss of the contract was fatal to the company, the Curtiss-Wright Corporation closed down its aviation division, selling its assets to North American Aviation. The aircraft started life as a project for an attack aircraft, when the United States Army Air Forces issued a requirement for a jet-powered all-weather fighter in 1945, the design was reworked for that request. The XP-87 was a large mid-wing aircraft with four engines paired in underwing pods, with a mid-mounted tailplane, two crew members sat side by side under a single canopy. Armament was to be a nose-mounted, powered turret containing four 20 mm cannon, the first flight of the XF-87 Blackhawk was on 1 March 1948. Since the performance problems were due to lack of power, the four Westinghouse XJ34-WE-7 turbojets of the prototypes were to be substituted for two General Electric J47 jets in production models, one of the two XF-87 prototypes was to be modified as a test bed for the new engines. At this point, the USAF decided that the Northrop F-89 Scorpion was a more promising aircraft, the F-87 contract was cancelled on 10 October 1948, and both prototypes were scrapped. Takeoff weight,49,900 lb Powerplant,4 × Westinghouse XJ34-WE-7 turbojets,3,000 lbf each Performance Maximum speed,600 mph Range,1,000 mi Service ceiling,41,000 ft Climb to 35,000 ft,13
20.
Attack aircraft
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This class of aircraft is designed mostly for close air support and naval air-to-surface missions, overlapping the tactical bomber mission. Designs dedicated to non-naval roles are often known as ground-attack aircraft, Strike fighters, which have effectively replaced the fighter-bomber and light bomber concepts, also differ little from the broad concept of an attack aircraft. The dedicated attack aircraft as a separate class existed primarily during, the precise implementation varied from country to country, and was handled by a wide variety of designs. In the US and UK, attack aircraft were based on light bombers, sometimes carrying heavier forward-firing weapons like the B-25G. In Germany and USSR, where they were known as schlachtflugzeug or sturmovik, in the late-war era, the fighter-bomber began to take over many attack roles, a change that continued in the post-war era. Jet powered examples were relatively rare, but not unknown, like the Blackburn Buccaneer, the US Navy continued to introduce new aircraft in their A-series, but these were purely light and medium bombers. Since the 1960s, only two dedicated attack aircraft designs have been introduced, the US A-10 Thunderbolt II and Soviet Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. One oddity belonging to class is the AC-130, which features as its primary armament high-caliber artillery guns adapted for aircraft use. A variety of attack aircraft exist, usually based on adapted trainers or other light fixed-wing aircraft. Presently, U. S. attack aircraft are identified by the prefix A-, as in A-6 Intruder, however, until the end of World War II the A- designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for the Army aircraft. The US Navy used a separate system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers or torpedo bombers. For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the attack designation, as with many aircraft classifications, the definition of attack aircraft is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U. S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an attack mission, Attack mission means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing is considered an attack mission. In United States Navy vocabulary, the designation for the same activity is a strike mission. Attack missions are divided into two categories, air interdiction and close air support. In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current U. S. designation system, an aircraft is designed primarily for air-to-surface
21.
Cockpit
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A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. Most modern cockpits are enclosed, except on small aircraft. The cockpit of an aircraft flight instruments on an instrument panel. In most airliners, a separates the cockpit from the aircraft cabin. After the September 11,2001 attacks, all major airlines fortified their cockpits against access by hijackers, the word cockpit was originally a sailing term for the coxswains station in a Royal Navy ship, and later the location of the ships rudder controls. Cockpit first appeared in the English language in the 1580s, a pit for fighting cocks, used in nautical sense for midshipmens compartment below decks, transferred to airplanes and to cars. From about 1935, cockpit came to be used informally to refer to the seat of a car, especially a high performance one. In the US and many countries, however, the term cockpit is also used for airliners. Military biplanes and the first single-engined fighters and attack aircraft also had open cockpits, the largest impediment to having closed cabins was the material the windows were to be made of. Prior to Perspex becoming available in 1933, windows were either safety glass, which was heavy, or cellulose nitrate, in the mid-1920s many aircraft manufacturers began using enclosed cockpits for the first time. Open-cockpit airplanes were almost extinct by the mid-1950s, with the exception of training planes, crop-dusters, Cockpit windows may be equipped with a sun shield. Most cockpits have windows that can be opened when the aircraft is on the ground, nearly all glass windows in large aircraft have an anti-reflective coating, and an internal heating element to melt ice. Smaller aircraft may be equipped with a transparent aircraft canopy, in most cockpits the pilots control column or joystick is located centrally, although in some military fast jets the side-stick is located on the right hand side. In some commercial airliners both pilots use a side-stick located on the side, so Captains side-stick on the left. Except for some helicopters, the seat in the cockpit of an aircraft is the seat used by the co-pilot. The captain or pilot in command sits in the seat, so that he can operate the throttles. The tradition has maintained to this day, with the co-pilot on the right hand side. The layout of the cockpit, especially in the military fast jet, has undergone standardisation, One of the most important developments was the Basic Six pattern, later the Basic T, developed from 1937 onwards by the Royal Air Force, designed to optimise pilot instrument scanning
22.
Conventional landing gear
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Conventional landing gear, or tailwheel-type landing gear, is an aircraft undercarriage consisting of two main wheels forward of the center of gravity and a small wheel or skid to support the tail. The term taildragger is also used, although some claim it should apply only to aircraft with a tail skid rather than a wheel. The term conventional persists for historical reasons, but all modern jet aircraft, in early aircraft, a tailskid made of metal or wood was used to support the tail on the ground. In most modern aircraft with landing gear, a small articulated wheel assembly is attached to the rearmost part of the airframe in place of the skid. This wheel may be steered by the pilot through a connection to the pedals, allowing the rudder. Before aircraft commonly used tailwheels, many aircraft were equipped with steerable tailskids and this is also used on some tricycle gear aircraft, with the nose wheel being the freely castering wheel instead. Like the steerable tailwheel/skid, it is integrated with the rudder pedals on the craft to allow an easy transition between wheeled and aerodynamic control. The tailwheel configuration offers several advantages over the landing gear arrangement. Due to its much further from the center of gravity. As a result, the wheel weighs less and causes less parasitic drag. If a tailwheel fails on landing, the damage to the aircraft will be minimal and this is not the case in the event of a nosewheel failure, which usually results in a prop strike. Tailwheel aircraft are suitable for operation on skis. Tailwheel aircraft are easier to fit into and maneuver inside some hangars, the conventional landing gear arrangement has disadvantages compared to nose wheel aircraft. Tailwheel aircraft are subject to nose-over accidents due to injudicious application of brakes by the pilot. Conventional geared aircraft are more susceptible to ground looping. A ground loop occurs when directional control is lost on the ground and this event can result in damage to the aircrafts undercarriage, tires, wingtips, propeller and engine. Avoiding ground loops requires more pilot training and skill, tailwheel aircraft generally suffer from poorer forward visibility on the ground, compared to nose wheel aircraft. Often this requires continuous S turns on the ground to allow the pilot to see where they are taxiing and they also suffer from lower crosswind capability and in some wind conditions may be unable to use crosswind runways or single-runway airports
23.
Drag (physics)
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In fluid dynamics, drag is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two layers or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are independent of velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow, even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the object in the fluids path. In the case of viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, in physics of sports, the drag force is necessary to explain the performance of runners, particularly of sprinters. Types of drag are generally divided into the categories, parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag. The phrase parasitic drag is used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag it is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, form and interference drags often dominate, further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in aviation or in the design of semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs either when an object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound or when a solid object is moving along a fluid boundary. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, at low R e, C D is asymptotically proportional to R e −1, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high R e, C D is more or less constant, the graph to the right shows how C D varies with R e for the case of a sphere. As mentioned, the equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity. This is also called quadratic drag, the equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference areas, in the case of a wing the reference areas are the same and the drag force is in the same ratio to the lift force as the ratio of drag coefficient to lift coefficient. Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the area rather than the frontal area. For an object with a surface, and non-fixed separation points—like a sphere or circular cylinder—the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re. For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a disk with its plane normal to the flow direction
24.
Allison J35
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The J35 was fairly simple, consisting of an eleven-stage axial-flow compressor and a single-stage turbine. With the afterburner, which most models carried, it produced a thrust of 7,400 lbf, like the J33, the design of the J35 originated at General Electric, but major production was by the Allison Engine Company. While developing the T31 axial turboprop in 1943 GE realized that they had the resources to design an axial turbojet at the time as their centrifugal J33 engine. They recognized the axial would have potential for the future. GE axial compressor designs were developed from the NACA 8-stage compressor, the engine had its starter and accessories mounted in the centre of the compressor inlet. This accessory layout, as used on engines, restricted the area available for compressor inlet air. It was carried over to the J47 but revised on the J73 when a 50% increase in airflow was required and it also had an inlet debris guard which was common on early jet engines. GE developed a variable afterburner for the engine, although electronic control linked with engine controls had to wait until the J47, marrett describes one of the consequences if the link is human on an afterburning engine. If the afterburner lit but the nozzle didnt open the RPM governor would overfuel the engine until the turbine failed, the General Electric J35 first flew in the Republic XP-84 Thunderjet in 1946. More than 14,000 J35s had been built by the production ended in 1955. It is probably best known, however, as the used in two of the leading fighters of the United States Air Force in the 1950, the Republic F-84 Thunderjet. A largely redesigned development of the J35 was later produced as the Allison J71, j35-GE-23,820 lbf thrust, prototypes built by General Electric. J35-C-34,000 lbf thrust, production by Chevrolet.1 lb/ Thrust-to-weight ratio,2, Turbojet History and Development 1930-1960 Volume 2, USSR, USA, Japan, France, Canada, Sweden, Switzerland, Italy and Hungary. Foremost American Turbojet a 1948 Flight article
25.
Fuselage
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The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section. It holds crew, passengers, and cargo, the fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. This type of structure is still in use in lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form an aerodynamic shape. Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions and this proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types, the geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the completed the aerodynamic shell. The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this was built using molded plywood, a later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II, no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative molds is prevalent in the production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This is the method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers and these are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls
26.
Horizontal stabilizer
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Not all fixed-wing aircraft have tailplanes. The function of the tailplane is to provide stability and control, in particular, the tailplane helps adjust for changes in the center of pressure or center of gravity caused by changes in speed and attitude, fuel consumption, or dropping cargo or payload. The tailplane comprises the fixed horizontal stabiliser and movable elevator. Besides its planform, it is characterised by, Number of tailplanes - from 0 to 3 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fixed stabilizer and movable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilator or flying tail. This means that any disturbance which raises the nose produces a pitching moment which tends to raise the nose further. The longitudinal stability of an aircraft may change when it is flown hands-off, i. e. when the controls are subject to aerodynamic forces. In addition to giving a restoring force a tailplane gives damping and this is caused by the relative wind seen by the tail as the aircraft rotates around the center of mass. For example, when the aircraft is oscillating, but is aligned with the overall vehicles motion. Depending on the design and flight regime, its tailplane may create positive lift or negative lift. It is sometimes assumed that on an aircraft this will always be a net down force. On some pioneer designs, such as the Bleriot XI, the center of gravity was between the center of pressure from the wings and the tailplane, which provided positive lift. However this arrangement can be unstable and these often had severe handling issues. Later examples of aircraft from World War I and onwards into the years that had positive lift tailplanes include, chronologically. But with care a lifting tailplane can be made stable, an example is provided by the Bachem Ba 349 Natter VTOL rocket-powered interceptor, which had a lifting tail and was both stable and controllable in flight. In many modern aircraft, the center of gravity is placed ahead of the center of pressure of the main wing. The wing lift then exerts a pitch-down moment around the centre of gravity, a disadvantage is that it generates trim drag. Using a computer to control the elevator allows aerodynamically unstable aircraft to be flown in the same manner, aircraft such as the F-16 are flown with artificial stability. The advantage of this is a significant reduction drag caused by the tailplane, at transonic speeds, an aircraft can experience a shift rearwards in the center of pressure due to the buildup and movement of shockwaves
27.
Dihedral (aeronautics)
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Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Anhedral angle is the given to negative dihedral angle, that is. Dihedral angle has an influence on dihedral effect, which is named after it. Dihedral effect is the amount of roll moment produced per degree of sideslip, dihedral effect is a critical factor in the stability of an aircraft about the roll axis. It is also pertinent to the nature of an aircrafts Dutch roll oscillation, longitudinal dihedral is a comparatively obscure term related to the pitch axis of an airplane. It is the angle between the zero axis of the wing and horizontal tail. Longitudinal dihedral can influence the nature of controllability about the pitch axis, when the term dihedral is used by itself it is usually intended to mean dihedral angle. However, context may otherwise indicate that dihedral effect is the intended meaning, dihedral Angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft, or of any paired nominally-horizontal surfaces on any aircraft. The term can apply to the wings of a bird. Dihedral Angle is also used in some types of such as box kites. Wings with more than one Angle change along the span are said to be polyhedral. Dihedral Angle has important stabilizing effects on flying bodies because it has an influence on the dihedral effect. Dihedral effect of an aircraft is a rolling moment resulting from the vehicle having an angle of sideslip. Increasing the dihedral angle of an aircraft increases the effect on it. However, many other parameters also have a strong influence on dihedral effect. Some of these important factors are, wing sweep, vertical center of gravity, dihedral angle on an aircraft almost always implies the angle between two paired surfaces, one on each side of the aircraft. Even then, it is almost always between the left and right wings, however, mathematically dihedral means the angle between any two planes. Longitudinal dihedral can also mean the angle between the zero axis of the wing and tail instead of between the root chords of the two surfaces
28.
Aircraft canopy
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An aircraft canopy is the transparent enclosure over the cockpit of some types of aircraft. The function of the canopy is to provide a weatherproof and reasonably quiet environment for the aircrafts occupants, the canopy will be as aerodynamically shaped as possible to minimize aerodynamic drag. Very early aircraft had no canopies at all, the pilots were exposed to the wind and weather, although most flying was done in good weather. Through World War I most aircraft had no canopy, although they often had a windshield to deflect the prop wash. In the 1920s and 1930s, the speed and altitude of airplanes necessitated a fully enclosed cockpit. Early canopies were made of pieces of Flat glass held in position by a frame. The muntins reduced visibility, which was problematic for military aircraft. Also, glass canopies were much heavier than acrylic canopies, which were first introduced shortly before World War II, the acrylic bubble canopy was used on aircraft such as the Supermarine Spitfire and Westland Whirlwind, which gave better all-round visibility and reduced weight. It is still being used today on most fighter aircraft and this ruse was inspired by animals and fishes that have similar markings on the head and tail, so they can confuse other creatures. Pilots remain skeptical of this feature, asserting that if the enemy is close enough to see the marking, on many high-performance military aircraft, the canopy is an integral part of the ejection seat system. The pilot cannot be ejected from the aircraft until the canopy is no longer in the path of the ejection seat, in most ejection seat equipped aircraft, the canopy is blown upwards and rearwards by explosive charges. The relative wind then blows the canopy away from the ejection path, in that situation, the pilot could possibly impact the canopy when ejecting. To overcome that possibility, some aircraft have a cord of plastic explosive zig-zagging across the canopy over the pilots head. In the event of an ejection, the cord is activated first. Then the ejection seat are launched through the shattered canopy, a technician must meet the qualifications of E-6 in rank. Most modern acrylic canopies are vacuum formed, a sheet of acrylic is secured to a female mould, then the entire assembly is heated in an oven until the acrylic is pliable. The air is removed from the mould and the acrylic sheet is drawn into it. The acrylic is then trimmed to the shape and attached to an aluminum or composite frame
29.
Angle of attack
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In fluid dynamics, angle of attack is the angle between a reference line on a body and the vector representing the relative motion between the body and the fluid through which it is moving. Angle of attack is the angle between the reference line and the oncoming flow. This article focuses on the most common application, the angle of attack of a wing or airfoil moving through air, since a wing can have twist, a chord line of the whole wing may not be definable, so an alternate reference line is simply defined. Often, the line of the root of the wing is chosen as the reference line. Another choice is to use a line on the fuselage as the reference line. Some authors do not use a chord line, but use the zero lift axis. Some British authors have used the angle of incidence instead of angle of attack. However, this can lead to confusion with the term angle of incidence meaning the angle between the chord of an airfoil and some fixed datum in the airplane. The lift coefficient of a fixed-wing aircraft varies with angle of attack, increasing angle of attack is associated with increasing lift coefficient up to the maximum lift coefficient, after which lift coefficient decreases. The figure shows a curve for a cambered straight wing. A symmetrical wing has zero lift at 0 degrees angle of attack, the lift curve is also influenced by the wing shape, including its airfoil section and wing planform. A swept wing has a lower, flatter curve with a critical angle. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack which produces maximum lift coefficient and this is also called the stall angle of attack. Below the critical angle of attack, as the angle of attack increases, conversely, above the critical angle of attack, as angle of attack increases, the air begins to flow less smoothly over the upper surface of the airfoil and begins to separate from the upper surface. On most airfoil shapes, as the angle of attack increases, at the critical angle of attack, upper surface flow is more separated and the airfoil or wing is producing its maximum coefficient of lift. As angle of attack increases further, the surface flow becomes more and more fully separated. Above this critical angle of attack, the aircraft is said to be in a stall, a fixed-wing aircraft by definition is stalled at or above the critical angle of attack rather than at or below a particular airspeed. The airspeed at which the aircraft stalls varies with the weight of the aircraft, the load factor, however the aircraft always stalls at the same critical angle of attack
30.
Elevator (aeronautics)
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Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircrafts pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer and they may be the only pitch control surface present, sometimes located at front or integrated into a rear all-moving tailplane also called a slab elevator or stabilator. The effects of drag and engine thrust may also result in pitch moments that need to be compensated with the horizontal stabilizer, both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator contribute to pitch stability, but only the elevators provide pitch control. They do so by decreasing or increasing the force created by the stabilizer, an increased downward force, produced by up elevator, forces the tail down. At constant speed, the wing angle of attack causes a greater lift to be produced by the wing, accelerating the aircraft upwards. The drag and power demand also increase, a downward force at the tail, produced by down elevator, allows the tail to rise. At constant speed, the decrease in angle of attack reduces the lift, on many low-speed aircraft, a trim tab is present at the rear of the elevator, which the pilot can adjust to eliminate forces on the control column at the desired attitude and airspeed. Supersonic aircraft have all-moving tailplanes, because shock waves generated on the horizontal stabilizer greatly reduced the effectiveness of hinged elevators, delta winged aircraft combine ailerons and elevators –and their respective control inputs– into one control surface called elevon. Elevators are usually part of the tail, at the rear of an aircraft, in some aircraft, pitch-control surfaces are in the front, ahead of the wing, in a two-surface aircraft, this type of configuration is called a canard or a tandem wing. The Wright Brothers early aircraft were of type, Mignet Pou-du-Ciel. Some early three surface aircraft had front elevators, modern three surface aircraft may have both front and rear elevators and these may be used in many unmanned aerial vehicles and 6th generation fighter aircraft. Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics, in flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort, the Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, and simplicity
31.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
32.
Hispano-Suiza HS.404
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The HS.404 was an autocannon originally designed and produced by Hispano-Suiza. It was widely used as both an aircraft, naval and land based weapon in the 20th century by French, British, American and numerous other military services, particularly during the Second World War. The cannon is also referred to as Birkigt type 404, after its designer Marc Birkigt, firing a 20 mm caliber projectile, it delivered a useful load of explosive from a relatively light weapon. The HS.404 was produced by the French subsidiary of Hispano-Suiza, in the 1930s, Hispano Suiza S. A. This made the relatively slow, with typical firing rates on the order of 500 rounds per minute. The Hispano-Suiza version was called the Hispano-Suiza Automatic Cannon Type HS.7, shortly after production began, the Hispano-Suiza and Oerlikon companies disagreed over patent rights and their business connection came to an end. The result was the Type 404, or HS.404, while the HS.404 resembled the parent Oerlikon FF S in many respects, its repeating mechanism was a gas-operated locking bolt. On firing the 404, when the projectile passes a hole cut into the barrel about half way along its length hot gas behind the projectile is siphoned off and enters a chamber. Inside the chamber is a piston that presses on a rod running along the top of the back to the bolt, unlocking it and allowing it. Since the bolt was locked during firing, it could be lighter than that of the Oerlikon, thus facilitating an increase in rate of fire to 700 rounds per minute, in 1938, Birkigt patented it and started production in their Geneva factory. The HS. 404s predecessor, the Oerlikon type S auto-cannon, was heavy and this. In contrast the lighter bolt of the HS.404 made it well suited to mounting on vehicles, the M16, an anti-aircraft version of the M3 Half-track, could be equipped with single or double American made copies of the Hispano-Suiza auto-cannon. This variant of the M3 Half-track was used by US and Commonwealth forces late in the Second World War, in 1938, an aircraft based version of the HS.404 was produced at the request of the French government. The HS.404 was fed by drum magazines that could accommodate 60 rounds at most, since in most installations the magazine could not be switched during flight, the small ammunition capacity was a weakness. In 1940, Hispano-Suiza was developing a system, as well as derivatives of the HS.404 in heavier calibres such as 23 mm. In the buildup to the Second World War, the United Kingdom had embarked on a programme to develop cannon-armed fighters and they acquired a licence to build the HS.404, which entered production as the Hispano Mk. I intended as aeroplane armament. Its first use was in the Westland Whirlwind of 1940, and later in the more powerful Bristol Beaufighter and this led to the Air Ministry for a brief period specifying 12-machine gun armament for new fighters. Subsequently a suitable belt-feeding system was developed by Martin-Baker, and the new design was adopted by the RAF, four cannons replaced the eight.303 Browning machine guns in the Hurricane and in some tropical versions of the Spitfire, becoming standard armament in later fighters
33.
Aspect ratio (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, the aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area, thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio. A large wingspan is working on a cylinder of air. The aft-leaning component of change in velocity is proportional to the induced drag. The interaction between undisturbed air outside the cylinder of air, and the downward-moving cylinder of air occurs at the wingtips. Also, longer wings may have some torsion for a given load, maneuverability, a low aspect-ratio wing will have a higher roll angular acceleration than one of high aspect ratio, because a high-aspect-ratio wing has a higher moment of inertia to overcome. In a steady roll, the longer wing gives a roll moment because of the longer moment arm of the aileron. Low aspect ratio wings are used on fighter aircraft, not only for the higher roll rates. Parasitic drag, While high aspect wings create less induced drag and this is because, for an equal wing area, the average chord is smaller. However, this variation is small when compared to the variation in induced drag with changing wingspan. For example, the drag coefficient c d of a NACA23012 airfoil is inversely proportional to chord length to the power 0.129. A20 percent increase in length would decrease the section drag coefficient by 2.38 percent. Practicality, low aspect ratios have a greater internal volume, since the maximum thickness is greater. This limits the Airbus A380 to 80m wide with a ratio of 7.8, while the Boeing 787 or Airbus A350 have an aspect ratio of 9.5. Aircraft which approach or exceed the speed of sound sometimes incorporate variable-sweep wings and these wings give a high aspect ratio when unswept and a low aspect ratio at maximum sweep. In subsonic flow, steeply swept and narrow wings are inefficient compared to a high-aspect-ratio wing, thus a long span, valuable at low speeds, causes excessive drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. By varying the sweep the wing can be optimised for the current flight speed, however the extra weight and complexity of a moveable wing mean that it is not often used. The aspect ratios of birds and bats wings vary considerably, birds that fly long distances or spend long periods soaring such as albatrosses and eagles often have wings of high aspect ratio
34.
Northrop XP-79
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The Northrop XP-79 was an ambitious design for a flying wing fighter aircraft, designed by Northrop. In 1942, John K. Northrop conceived the XP-79 as a high-speed rocket-powered flying-wing fighter aircraft, in January 1943, a contract for two prototypes with designation XP-79 was issued by the United States Army Air Forces. To test the design, glider prototypes were built. One, designated MX-324, was towed into the air on 5 July 1944 by a P-38, however, the rocket motor configuration using canted rockets to drive the turbopumps was unsatisfactory and the aircraft was subsequently fitted with two Westinghouse 19-B turbojets instead. This led to changing the designation to XP-79B, after the failure of the rocket motor, further development of the first two prototypes ended. The pilot controlled the XP-79 through a bar and rudders mounted below. The XP-79B was lost during its first flight on 12 September 1945, while performing a slow roll 15 minutes into the flight, control was lost for unknown reasons. The nose dropped and the roll continued with the aircraft impacting in a vertical spin, test pilot Harry Crosby attempted to bail out but was struck by the aircraft and fell to his death. Shortly thereafter, the prototype and the overall project was cancelled.27 Armament Guns,4 ×. 50-cal machine guns Aircraft of comparable role, configuration
35.
Aileron
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An aileron is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll, movement around this axis is called rolling or banking. The aileron was first patented by the British scientist and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in 1868, considerable litigation ensued within the United States over the legal issues of lateral roll control, until World War I which compelled the U. S. Government to legislate a legal resolution. The name aileron, from French, meaning wing, also refers to the extremities of a birds wings used to control their flight. It first appeared in print in the 7th edition of Cassells French-English Dictionary of 1877, in the context of powered airplanes it appears in print about 1908. Prior to that, ailerons were often referred to as rudders, their older technical sibling, among the earliest printed aeronautical use of aileron was that in the French aviation journal LAérophile of 1908. He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868, Boultons description of his lateral flight control system was both clear and complete. It was the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from, with this invention of Boultons we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control as was praised by Charles Manly. This was also endorsed by C. H, the fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boultons lost and forgotten invention. The pioneering U. S. aeronautical engineer Octave Chanute published descriptions and drawings of the Wright brothers 1902 glider in the leading periodical of the day, LAérophile. This prompted Esnault-Pelterie, a French military engineer, to build a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing warping. The French journal L’Aérophile then published photos of the ailerons on Esnault-Pelterie’s glider which were included in his June 1905 article, during the early years of powered flight the Wrights had better roll control on their designs than airplanes that used movable surfaces. From 1908, as aileron designs were refined it became clear that ailerons were much more effective, ailerons also had the advantage of not weakening the airplanes wing structure as did the wing warping technique, which was one reason for Esnault-Pelteries decision to switch to ailerons. By 1911 most biplanes used ailerons rather than wing warping - by 1915 ailerons had become almost universal on monoplanes as well, the Wright brothers quietly changed their aircraft flight controls from wing warping to the use of ailerons at that time as well. In 1886 his third glider design used rotation of the wing rather than just a trailing edge portion for roll control. By his own all of these changes in addition to his use of an elevator for pitch control provided entire control of the machine in the wind. Both Bullet prototypes crashed during their first flights when their wings broke off in flight due to flutter as a result of being deliberately unbraced. S, the patents importance lay in its claim of a new and useful method of controlling an airplane. Curiously, John J. Montgomery was granted U. S, Patent 831173 at nearly the same time for his methods of wing warping
36.
Flap (aeronautics)
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Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown. Flaps also cause an increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed, extending the wing flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing, raising the maximum lift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. The increase in camber also increases the drag, which can be beneficial during approach and landing. In other configurations, however, depending on the type of flap, plain flaps, slotted flaps, and Fowler flaps are the most common. Krueger flaps are positioned on the edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners. The Fowler, Fairey-Youngman and Gouge types of flap increase the area in addition to changing the camber. The larger lifting surface reduces wing loading, hence reducing the stalling speed. Leading-edge flaps form the leading edge and when deployed they rotate down to increase the wing camber. The de Havilland DH.88 Comet racer had flaps running across beneath the fuselage, many of the Waco Custom Cabin series biplanes have the flaps at mid-chord on the underside of the top wing. Here, it can be seen that increasing the area and lift coefficient allow an amount of lift to be generated at a lower airspeed. Extending the flaps also increases the coefficient of the aircraft. Therefore, for any given weight and airspeed, flaps increase the drag force, flaps increase the drag coefficient of an aircraft due to higher induced drag caused by the distorted spanwise lift distribution on the wing with flaps extended. Some flaps increase the area and, for any given speed. Depending on the type, flaps may be partially extended for takeoff. When used during takeoff, flaps trade runway distance for climb rate—using flaps reduces ground roll, the amount of flap used on takeoff is specific to each type of aircraft, and the manufacturer will suggest limits and may indicate the reduction in climb rate to be expected. The Cessna 172S Pilot Operating Handbook generally recommends 10° of flaps on takeoff, flaps may be fully extended for landing to give the aircraft a lower stall speed so the approach to landing can be flown more slowly, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance
37.
Pounds per square inch
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The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14
38.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
39.
Edwards Air Force Base
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Edwards Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation in southern California, located approximately 22 miles northeast of Lancaster and 15 miles east of Rosamond. It operates the U. S. Air Force Test Pilot School and is home to NASAs Armstrong Flight Research Center, previously known as Muroc Air Force Base, Edwards AFB is named in honor of Captain Glen Edwards. Edwards became a test pilot in 1943 and spent much of his time at Muroc Army Air Field, on Californias high desert and he died in the crash of a Northrop YB-49 flying wing near Muroc AFB on 5 June 1948. The base is next to Rogers Dry Lake, an endorheic salt pan whose hard dry lake surface provides a natural extension to Edwards runways. This large landing area, combined with excellent year-round weather, makes the good for flight testing. The lake is a National Historic Landmark, the base has played a significant role in the development of virtually every aircraft to enter the Air Force inventory since World War II. Almost every United States military aircraft since the 1950s has been at least partially tested at Edwards, the Wing also oversees the base’s day-to-day operations and provides support for military, federal civilian, and contract personnel assigned to Edwards AFB. 412th Operations Group. There are eight flight test squadrons under the 412th Operations Group with as many as 20 aircraft assigned to each, the 412 OS flies an average of 90 aircraft with upwards of 30 different aircraft designs. It also performs more than 7,400 missions on an annual basis and they provide the tools, talent and equipment for the core disciplines of aircraft structures, propulsion, avionics and electronic warfare evaluation of the latest weapon system technologies. The Project and Resource Management Divisions provide the foundation for the program management of test missions. 412th Civil Engineer Division 412th Maintenance Group 412th Medical Group 412th Mission Support Group U. S, the comprehensive curriculum of Test Pilot School is fundamental to the success of flight test and evaluation. There are a vast array of organizations at Edwards that do not fall under the 412th Test Wing and these units do everything from providing an on-base grocery store to testing state-of-the-art rockets. The 31st Test and Evaluation Squadron provides Air Combat Command personnel to support combined test, established in 1917, it is one of the oldest units of the United States Air Force. The Desert Pirates are part of the 53d Test and Evaluation Group, Nellis AFB, Nevada, the 31st is staffed with a mixture of operations, maintenance and engineering experts who plan and conduct tests, evaluate effectiveness and suitability, and influence system design. The squadrons personnel are integrated into the B-1, B-2, B-52, Global Hawk, MQ-9 and their results and conclusions support Department of Defense acquisition, deployment and employment decisions. AFOTEC Detachment 5 is responsible for conducting the operational test and evaluation of USAF aircraft, certification by Detachment 5 is required in advance prior to new aircraft prior to AFMC full rate production and combat fielding decisions. During 1978 and 1979, an AFFTC test pilot and a pair of flight test engineers were engaged in testing with Lockheeds low-observable technology demonstrator. The successful conduct of tests led immediately to the development of the F-117A Nighthawk
40.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
41.
Douglas F3D Skyknight
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The Douglas F3D Skyknight was a United States twin-engined, mid-wing jet fighter aircraft manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company in El Segundo, California. The F3D was designed as a carrier-based all-weather night fighter and saw service with the United States Navy, the mission of the F3D was to search out and destroy enemy aircraft at night. The F3D Skyknight was never produced in numbers but it did achieve many firsts in its role as a night fighter over Korea. The Skyknight played an important role in the development of the radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow missile which led to further guided air-to-air missile developments and it also served as an electronic warfare platform in the Vietnam War as a precursor to the EA-6A Intruder and EA-6B Prowler. The aircraft is sometimes unofficially called Skynight, dropping the second k, the unusual, portly profile earned it the nickname Willie the Whale. Some Vietnam War U. S. Marine veterans have referred to the Skyknight as Drut and this may be in reference to its age, unflattering looks or its low-slung air intakes that made it vulnerable to foreign object damage. The F3D was not intended to be a typical sleek and nimble dogfighter, but as a night fighter, packing a powerful radar system. It originated in 1945 with a US Navy requirement for a jet-powered, radar-equipped, carrier-based night fighter, the Douglas team led by Ed Heinemann designed around the bulky air intercept radar systems of the time, with side-by-side seating for the pilot and radar operator. The result was an aircraft with a wide, deep, instead of ejection seats, an escape tunnel was used, similar to the type used in the A-3 Skywarrior. The XF3D-1 beat out Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporations G-75 two-seat, four-engined, Westinghouse J30-powered night fighter design, the US Navys Bureau of Aeronautics also issued a contract to Grumman for two G-75 XF9F-1 experimental aircraft on 11 April 1946 in case the Skyknight ran into problems. Grumman soon realized that the G-75 was a design but had been working on a completely different. The first flight of the XF3D-1 was on 23 March 1948 at Douglas El Segundo facility with test pilot Russell Thaw at the controls, further flight testing followed at El Segundo until October 1948. Three prototypes were taken to Muroc Air Force Base for service trials. These units were powered by two Westinghouse J34-WE-24 turbojets of 3,000 lbf thrust, mounted under the roots of then-standard straight wings of the jet era. A production contract for 28 F3D-1 J34-WE-32 powered production aircraft was issued in June 1948 with the first production aircraft flying on 13 February 1950, the F3D was, however, able to outturn a MiG-15. The fire control system in the F3D-1 was the Westinghouse AN/APQ-35, the complexity of this vacuum tube-based radar system, which was produced before the advent of semiconductor electronics, required intensive maintenance to keep it operating properly. The F3D-1 was followed by the F3D-2, which was first ordered in August 1949, higher-thrust J34-WE-38 engines which increased aircraft performance were installed later. The F3D-2 also incorporated an improved Westinghouse AN/APQ-36 fire control system, a total of 237 F3D-2s were built before production ended on 23 March 1952
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Non-commissioned officer
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A non-commissioned officer or noncommissioned officer is a military officer who has not earned a commission. Such is also called sub-officer in some countries, Non-commissioned officers, in the English-speaking world, usually obtain their position of authority by promotion through the enlisted ranks. In contrast, commissioned officers hold higher ranks than NCOs, have more legal responsibilities, are paid more, commissioned officers usually earn their commissions without having risen through the enlisted ranks. Mustang is a term in the United States Armed Forces used to refer to a commissioned officer who began his or her career as an enlisted service member. The NCO corps usually includes all grades of corporal and sergeant, in some countries, the naval equivalent includes some or all grades of petty officer, although not all navies class their petty officers as NCOs. There are different classes of non-commissioned officer, including junior non-commissioned officers, the non-commissioned officer corps is often referred to as the backbone of the armed services, as they are the primary and most visible leaders for most military personnel. Additionally, they are the leaders responsible for executing a military organizations mission. NCO training and education typically includes leadership and management as well as service-specific, senior NCOs are considered the primary link between enlisted personnel and the commissioned officers in a military organization. Their advice and guidance is important for junior officers, who begin their careers in a position of authority. In the Australian Army, Lance corporals and corporals are classified as junior NCOs, while sergeants, in the New South Wales Police Force, NCOs perform supervisory and coordination roles. The ranks of probationary constable through to leading senior constable are referred to as constables, all NCOs within the NSW Police are given a warrant of appointment under the Commissioners hand and seal. All officers within the Australian Defence Force Cadets are non-commissioned, ADFC officers are appointed by the Director-General of their respective branch. In the Canadian Forces, the Queens Regulations and Orders formally defined a non-commissioned officer as A Canadian Forces member holding the rank of Sergeant or Corporal. In the 1990s, the term non-commissioned member was introduced to all ranks in the Canadian Forces from recruit to chief warrant officer. In the Royal Canadian Navy, however, the definition of NCO reflects the international use of the term. Junior Non-commissioned officers mess and billet with privates and seamen, their mess is usually referred to as the junior ranks mess, as a group, NCOs rank above privates and below warrant officers. The term non-commissioned members includes these ranks, in the Finnish Defence Force, NCOs includes all ranks from corporal to sergeant major. Ranks of lance corporal and leading seaman are considered not to be NCO ranks and this ruling applies to all branches of service and also to the troops of the Border Guard
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Lockheed F-94 Starfire
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The Lockheed F-94 Starfire was a first-generation jet aircraft of the United States Air Force. It was developed from the twin-seat Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star in the late 1940s as an all-weather, the aircraft reached operational service in May 1950 with Air Defense Command, replacing the piston-engined North American F-82 Twin Mustang in the all-weather interceptor role. The F-94 was the first operational USAF fighter equipped with an afterburner and was the first jet-powered all-weather fighter to combat during the Korean War in January 1953. It had a brief operational life, being replaced in the mid-1950s by the Northrop F-89 Scorpion. The last aircraft left active-duty service in 1958 and Air National Guard service in 1959, the F-94 was derived from the TF-80C which was a two-seat trainer version of the F-80 Shooting Star. A lengthened nose area with guns, radar and automatic control system was added. Since the conversion seemed so simple, a contract was awarded to Lockheed in early 1949, the early test YF-94s used 75% of the parts used in the earlier F-80 and T-33As. The fire control system was the Hughes E-1, which incorporated an AN/APG-33 radar and this short-range radar system was useful only in the terminal phases of the interception. Most of the operation would be directed using ground-controlled interception, as was the case with the aircraft it replaced. The combination reduced the fuel capacity. The F-94 was to be the first US production jet with an afterburner, the J33-A-33 had standard thrust of 4,000 pounds-force, and with water injection this was increased to 5,400 pounds-force and with afterburning a maximum of 6,000 pounds-force thrust. The YF-94As afterburner had many teething problems with its igniter and the stabilization system. The initial production model was the F-94A, which entered service in May 1950. Its armament was four 0.50 in M3 Browning machine guns mounted in the fuselage with the muzzles exiting just behind the radome, two 165 US Gallon drop tanks, as carried by the F-80 and T-33, could be carried beneath the wingtips. Alternatively, these could be replaced by 1,000 lb bombs, the F-94A was in operational service for only a brief time as it was originally built, and was not received well by its aircrews. Primarily, this was due to the unreliability of its J33 engine, the aircraft was judged as unstable and hard to maneuver at high altitude by its pilots. The pilot and radar operator found that the cockpit was too narrow for them to be able to get in and out of the aircraft quickly during alerts, the clearance for the ejection seats was too small, resulting in several tragic accidents during emergency ejections. The subsequent F-94B, which entered service in January 1951, was virtually identical to the F-94A
