1.
Cooperative
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Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
2.
Dublin, Ohio
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Dublin is a city in Franklin, Delaware, and Union counties in the U. S. state of Ohio. The population was 41,751 at the 2010 census, Dublin is a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. Each year in late May or early June, the city hosts the Memorial Tournament, consequently, numerous golf aficionados choose to make Dublin their home. There are also several golf courses in Dublin. The Riviera Golf Club was home to the American-Italian Golf Association, tartan Fields Golf Club hosted the LPGAs Wendys Championship for Children from 2002 through 2006. Dublin also has a golf course financed by the Muirfield association. Other annual events include the July 4 music event, a St. Patricks Day parade, and the Dublin Irish Festival, which is one of the largest Irish-American festivals. Although its earliest settlements date back to 1802, the village that became Dublin did not begin to take shape until the arrival of the Sells family from Huntingdon, Pennsylvania. Brothers Peter and Benjamin Sells purchased 400 acres of land on the west bank of the Scioto River as a gift for their brother John. In 1808, John Sells brought his family to the region, and by 1810 he had begun to survey lots for the new village with his partner, by 1833, Dublin contained several mills and only one store. In 1970, Dublin was still a town with only 681 residents. However, the construction of Interstate 270 facilitated a population boom, spearheaded by the acquisition of corporate headquarters such as Ashland Inc. In addition, the growth of the Muirfield Village Golf Club, Dublin was officially declared a city in 1987, after reaching a population of 5,000 residents. As part of this boom Dublin significantly expanded its area, annexing parts of Washington, Perry, Concord, Dublin is located at 40°6′33″N 83°8′25″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.80 square miles. The Scioto River passes through Dublin, in this area the river and its tributaries cut deep gorges through the limestone bedrock, and the riverbed is stony. Some of these tributaries feature waterfalls, located on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau, Dublin has relatively flat topography. Nevertheless, there are numerous ravines surrounding the tributaries of the Scioto River, elevations range from 780 feet above sea level where the Scioto River leaves the city at Hayden Run Road, while the high point is 1000 feet at Glacier Ridge Metro Park
3.
WorldCat
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WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 72,000 libraries in 170 countries and territories that participate in the Online Computer Library Center global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc, the subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCats database. OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour and that same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat, the first catalog records were added in 1971. It contains more than 330 million records, representing over 2 billion physical and digital assets in 485 languages and it is the worlds largest bibliographic database. OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscribtion OCLC services, in 2006, it became possible to search WorldCat directly at its website. In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million identities, predominantly authors, WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently, WorldCat shows that an item is owned by a particular library. WorldCat does not indicate whether or not an item is borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair. Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether or not a library owns multiple copies of a particular title, copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Library and Archives Canada Research Libraries UK Online Computer Library Center Grossman, Wendy M. Why you cant find a book in your search engine. Official website OCLC - Web scale discovery and delivery of library resources OCLC Bibliographic Formats and Standards WorldCat Identities
4.
Dewey Decimal Classification
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The Dewey Decimal Classification, or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011 and it is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. It is currently maintained by the Online Computer Library Center, a cooperative that serves libraries. OCLC licenses access to a version for catalogers called WebDewey. The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which allow new books to be added to a library in their location based on subject. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic, the classifications notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Using Arabic numerals for symbols, it is flexible to the degree that numbers can be expanded in linear fashion to cover aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries, the major competing classification system to the Dewey Decimal system is the Library of Congress Classification system created by the U. S. Melvil Dewey was an American librarian and self-declared reformer and he was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his classification system in 1873 while working at Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and he used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, in March 1876, he applied for, and received copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title, Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav contributed criticisms, one of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics
5.
Asset
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In financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value, simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash. The balance sheet of a firm records the value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business, one can classify assets into two major asset classes, tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets, current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment. Intangible assets are resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs, an asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board, employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Frameworks definition of an asset, similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. The accounting equation is the structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owners equity, Assets = Liabilities + Capital Liabilities = Assets − Capital Equity = Assets − Liabilities Assets are listed on the balance sheet. On a companys balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles, Assets can be divided into e. g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools and these monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc. of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle and these assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets, Cash and cash equivalents – it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, deposit accounts, short-term investments – include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences. Receivables – usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts, inventory – trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value. This is known as the lower of cost or market rule, prepaid expenses – these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed
6.
Equity (finance)
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In accounting, equity is the difference between the value of the assets and the value of the liabilities of something owed. Equity can be negative if liabilities exceeds assets, shareholders equity represents the equity of a company as divided among shareholders of common or preferred stock. Negative shareholders equity is often referred to as a shareholders deficit, alternatively, equity can also refer to the capital stock of a corporation. The value of the stock depends on the future economic prospects. For a company in liquidation proceedings, the equity is that which remains after all liabilities have been paid, when starting a business, the owners fund the business to finance various operations. Throughout the businesss existence, the equity of the business will be the difference between its assets and debt liabilities, this is the accounting equation, when a business liquidates during bankruptcy, the proceeds from the assets are used to reimburse creditors. The creditors are ranked by priority, with secured creditors being paid first, other creditors being paid next, owners equity is this remaining or residual claim against assets, which is paid only after all other creditors are paid. In such cases where even creditors could not get money to pay their bills. In financial accounting, owners equity consists of the net assets of an entity, net assets is the difference between the total assets and total liabilities. Equity appears on the sheet, one of the four primary financial statements. The assets of an entity can be tangible and intangible items. Intangible assets include such as brand names, copyrights or goodwill. Tangible assets include land, equipment, and cash, issue of new equity in which the firm obtains new capital increases the total shareholders equity. Share repurchases, in which a firm returns money to investors, reducing on the side its financial assets. For practical purposes, share repurchasing is similar to a dividend payment, rather than giving money to all shareholders immediately in the form of a dividend payment, a share repurchase reduces the number of shares outstanding. Dividends paid out to preferred stock owners are considered an expense to be subtracted from net income, sometimes assets bought and held in other countries get translated back into the reporting currency at different exchange rates, resulting in a changed value. When the owners are shareholders, the interest can be called shareholders equity, the remains the same. If all shareholders are in one and the class, they share equally in ownership equity from all perspectives
7.
Online public access catalog
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An online public access catalog is an online database of materials held by a library or group of libraries. Users search a library catalog principally to locate books and other material available at a library, in simple language it is an electronic version of the card catalogue. OPAC is the gateway to librarys collection, although a handful of experimental systems existed as early as the 1960s, the first large-scale online catalogs were developed at Ohio State University in 1975 and the Dallas Public Library in 1978. These and other early online catalog systems tended to reflect the card catalogs that they were intended to replace. Throughout the 1980s, the number and sophistication of online catalogs grew, the first commercial systems appeared, and would by the end of the decade largely replace systems built by libraries themselves. At the same time, libraries began to develop applications to automate the purchase, cataloging and these applications, collectively known as an integrated library system or library management system, included an online catalog as the public interface to the systems inventory. Most library catalogs are closely tied to their underlying ILS system, the 1990s saw a relative stagnation in the development of online catalogs. At the same time, organizations outside of libraries began developing more sophisticated information retrieval systems, prior to the widespread use of the Internet, the online catalog was often the first information retrieval system library users ever encountered. Now accustomed to web search engines, newer generations of library users have grown increasingly dissatisfied with the complex mechanisms of older online catalog systems. This has, in turn, led to criticisms of these systems within the library community itself. These new features rely heavily on existing metadata which is poor or inconsistent. These newer systems are almost always independent of the integrated library system. The costs associated with new systems, however, have slowed their adoption. An example of a next generation OPAC system is included in the Libramatic software package, although library catalogs typically reflect the holdings of a single library, they can also contain the holdings of a group or consortium of libraries. These systems, known as union catalogs, are designed to aid the borrowing of books. Examples of this type of catalogue include COPAC, SUNCAT, NLA Trove, City of Cape Town library OPAC, there are a number of systems that share much in common with library catalogs, but have traditionally been distinguished from them. Libraries utilize these systems to search for items not traditionally covered by a library catalog and these include bibliographic databases—such as Medline, ERIC, PsycINFO, and many others—which index journal articles and other research data. There are also a number of applications aimed at managing documents, photographs, particularly in academic libraries, these systems assist with efforts to preserve documents created by faculty and students
8.
The Ohio State University
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The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State or OSU, is a large, primarily residential, public university in Columbus, Ohio. Founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and ninth university in Ohio with the Morrill Act of 1862, Hayes, and in 1878 the Ohio General Assembly passed a law changing the name to The Ohio State University. It has since grown into the third-largest university campus in the United States, along with its main campus in Columbus, Ohio State also operates a regional campus system with regional campuses in Lima, Mansfield, Marion, Newark, and Wooster. Ohio State athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Ohio State Buckeyes, athletes from Ohio State have won 100 Olympic medals. The university is a member of the Big Ten Conference for the majority of sports, the Ohio State mens ice hockey program competes in the Big Ten Conference, while its womens hockey program competes in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. In addition, the OSU mens volleyball team is a member of the Midwestern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association, OSU is one of only 14 universities that plays Division I FBS football and Division I ice hockey. As of August 2015, the university had awarded a total of 714,512 degrees, alumni and former students have gone on to prominent careers in government, business, science, medicine, education, sports, and entertainment. Championed by the Republican stalwart Governor Rutherford B, Hayes, the Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university under the Morrill Act of 1862 as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College. The school was originally within a community on the northern edge of Columbus. The university opened its doors to 24 students on September 17,1873, in 1878, the first class of six men graduated. The first woman graduated the following year, also in 1878, in light of its expanded focus, the Ohio legislature changed the name to the now-familiar The Ohio State University, with The as part of its official name. Ohio State began accepting students in the 1880s, and in 1891. It would later acquire colleges of medicine, dentistry, optometry, veterinary medicine, commerce, in 1916, Ohio State was elected into membership in the Association of American Universities. Michael V. Drake, former chancellor of the University of California, Irvine, in an attack against the campus on November 28,2016, an unrelated fluorine leak was called in for Watts Hall, resulting in the evacuation of the building to an outside courtyard. As firetrucks began to depart, Abdul Razak Ali Artan drove into the crowd, then emerged, the attack was stopped in under two minutes by OSU Police Officer Alan Horujko, who witnessed the attack after responding to the reported gas leak, and who shot and killed Artan. The universitys Buckeye Alert system was triggered and the campus was placed on lockdown, Ten were transported to local hospitals and one suspect was killed according to multiple sources. Local law enforcement and the FBI launched an investigation, according to authorities, Artan was inspired by terrorist propaganda from the Islamic State and radical Muslim cleric Anwar al-Awlaki. Ohio States 1, 764-acre main campus is about 2.5 miles north of the citys downtown, the historical center of campus is the Oval, quad of about 11 acres
9.
Frederick G. Kilgour
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He was its president and executive director from 1967 to 1980. In 1940, he married Eleanor Margaret Beach, who had graduated from Mount Holyoke College and taken a job at the Harvard College Library and this organization of 150 persons in outposts around the world microfilmed newspapers and other printed information items and sent them back to Washington, DC. An example of the kind of intelligence gathered was the Japanese “News for Sailors” reports that listed new minefields and these reports were sent from Washington, D. C. directly to Pearl Harbor and U. S. submarines in the Western Pacific. Kilgour received the Legion of Merit for his work in 1945. He worked at the United States Department of State as deputy director of the Office of Intelligence Collection and Dissemination from 1946-48, in 1948, he was named Librarian of the Yale Medical Library. At Yale he was also a lecturer in the history of science and technology, while running the Yale University Medical Library, Kilgour began publishing studies and articles on library use and effectiveness. He asked his staff to collect data, such as use of books. He viewed the library “not merely as a depository of knowledge, ” and he joined the Ohio College Association in 1967 to develop OCLC and led the creation of a library network that today links 72,000 institutions in 170 countries. It first amassed the catalogs of 54 academic libraries in Ohio, launching in 1971, Kilgour was president of OCLC from 1967 to 1980, presiding over its rapid growth from an intrastate network to an international network. In addition to creating the WorldCat database, he developed an online interlibrary loan system that last year libraries used to arrange nearly 10 million loans, today, OCLC has a staff of 1,200 and offices in seven countries. Its mission remains the same, to access to the world’s information. In 1981 Kilgour stepped down from management but continued to serve on the OCLC Board of Trustees until 1995 and he was a distinguished research professor emeritus at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hills School of Information and Library Science. He taught there from 1990, retiring in 2004 and he died in 2006 was 92 years old and had lived since 1990 in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Based in Dublin, Ohio, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, under Kilgour’s leadership, the nonprofit corporation introduced a shared cataloging system in 1971 for 54 Ohio academic libraries. WorldCat contains holding records from most public and private libraries worldwide, WorldCat is available through many libraries and university computer networks. In 1971, after four years of development, OCLC introduced its online shared cataloging system, which would achieve dramatic cost savings for libraries. For example, in the first year of use, the Alden Library at Ohio University was able to increase the number of books it cataloged by a third. Word of this new idea spread on campuses across the country, the shared cataloging system and database that Kilgour devised made it unnecessary for more than one library to originally catalog an item
10.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
11.
Alden Library
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Ohio University is a large, primarily residential, public research university in Athens, Ohio, United States. One of Americas oldest universities, the second oldest in Ohio, it was chartered in 1787 and approved in 1804, as of 2014, the Athens campus had 23,300 students, the other five campuses had approximately 10,000, and eLearning 5,900. The Heritage College of Medicine maintains its separate select admissions criteria, Ohio University offers more than 250 areas of undergraduate study. On the graduate level, the university grants masters degrees in many of its academic divisions. Ohio University is fully accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching classifies Ohio as a Research University under the Basic Classification category. Ohios athletic teams are called the Bobcats and compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the Division I level as members of the Mid-American Conference. Ohio football has participated in ten games through the 2016 season. George Washington stated the settlement of southeastern Ohio was not accidental, but the result of the deliberation of wise, prudent. The Confederation Congress, which operated under the Articles of Confederation, executive roles transacted from committees of Congress or appointed persons. The Ordinance of 1787 made Ohio University the first ever to be chartered through acts of Congress and this epithet is engraved on the universitys main college gateway. The university was appropriated and envisioned by Manasseh Cutler, credited as the founder along with Rufus Putnam. Cutler had served as a chaplain in Washingtons Continental Army, the institutions first name was American University. President Thomas Jeffersons policy initiatives included an expansion of the new nation. In 1802 approval was granted by the government for the establishment of the American Western University. Ohio University was recognized by the new state on February 18,1804 and this approval came eleven months after Ohio was admitted to the Union. The first three students enrolled in 1809, the university graduated two students with bachelors degrees in 1815. The university was not gifted by the stalwart Republicans with lands and monies for the agricultural, the 20th century brought unprecedented growth in student enrollment, academic offerings, and research facilities. Between 1955 and 1970, the university realized a tripling of enrollment in the post-World War II expansion of college education
12.
Ohio University
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Ohio University is a large, primarily residential, public research university in Athens, Ohio, United States. One of Americas oldest universities, the second oldest in Ohio, it was chartered in 1787 and approved in 1804, as of 2014, the Athens campus had 23,300 students, the other five campuses had approximately 10,000, and eLearning 5,900. The Heritage College of Medicine maintains its separate select admissions criteria, Ohio University offers more than 250 areas of undergraduate study. On the graduate level, the university grants masters degrees in many of its academic divisions. Ohio University is fully accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching classifies Ohio as a Research University under the Basic Classification category. Ohios athletic teams are called the Bobcats and compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the Division I level as members of the Mid-American Conference. Ohio football has participated in ten games through the 2016 season. George Washington stated the settlement of southeastern Ohio was not accidental, but the result of the deliberation of wise, prudent. The Confederation Congress, which operated under the Articles of Confederation, executive roles transacted from committees of Congress or appointed persons. The Ordinance of 1787 made Ohio University the first ever to be chartered through acts of Congress and this epithet is engraved on the universitys main college gateway. The university was appropriated and envisioned by Manasseh Cutler, credited as the founder along with Rufus Putnam. Cutler had served as a chaplain in Washingtons Continental Army, the institutions first name was American University. President Thomas Jeffersons policy initiatives included an expansion of the new nation. In 1802 approval was granted by the government for the establishment of the American Western University. Ohio University was recognized by the new state on February 18,1804 and this approval came eleven months after Ohio was admitted to the Union. The first three students enrolled in 1809, the university graduated two students with bachelors degrees in 1815. The university was not gifted by the stalwart Republicans with lands and monies for the agricultural, the 20th century brought unprecedented growth in student enrollment, academic offerings, and research facilities. Between 1955 and 1970, the university realized a tripling of enrollment in the post-World War II expansion of college education
13.
Bibliographic
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Bibliography, as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects, in this sense, it is also known as bibliology. Carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books, carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books and the systematic, description of books as physical objects. These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes, innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell, G. Thomas Tanselle. Bowers refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries, ” in a discipline, by an author, printer. He refers to descriptive bibliography as the description of a book as a material or physical artifact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all features of a book that yield evidence establishing a books history. Descriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description, titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Gregs groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles, D. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by W. W. Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, mcKenzies perspective contextualizes textual objects or artifacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy. Bibliography, generally, concerns the conditions of books how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books, now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites. An enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from works cited lists at the end of books and articles, to complete, a notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gows, A. E. Housman, A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers. As separate works, they may be in volumes such as those shown on the right. A library catalog, while not referred to as a bibliography, is bibliographic in nature, Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources. Enumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, an entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator, publication date and place of publication. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective, one noted example would be Tanselles bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a paper or academic term paper
14.
Wiki
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A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
15.
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
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Bethlehem is a city in Lehigh and Northampton counties in the Lehigh Valley region of the eastern portion of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 74,982, making it the seventh largest city in Pennsylvania, after Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, Reading. Of this,55,639 were in Northampton County, and 19,343 were in Lehigh County, Bethlehem lies in the center of the Lehigh Valley, a region of 731 square miles that is home to more than 800,000 people. Smaller than Allentown but larger than Easton, Bethlehem is the Lehigh Valleys second most populous city, in turn, this metropolitan area comprises Pennsylvanias third-largest metropolitan area and the states largest and most populous contribution to the greater New York City metropolitan area. There are four sections of the city, central Bethlehem, the south side, the east side. Each of these sections blossomed at different times in the citys development, ZIP codes that use the address Bethlehem totaled 116,000 in population in the year 2000. These ZIP codes include Bethlehem Township and Hanover Township, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Bethlehem heading east to Easton, Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg, New Jersey across the Delaware River. The Norfolk Southern Railways Reading Line runs through Bethlehem heading west to Allentown, in July 2006, Money magazine placed Bethlehem as number 88 on its Top 100 Best Places to Live. The areas along the Delaware River and its tributaries in eastern Pennsylvania were long inhabited by peoples of various cultures. By the time of European contact, these areas were the historic territory of the Algonquian-speaking Lenape Nation and they traded with the Dutch and then English colonists in the mid-Atlantic area. They came to set up missionary communities among the Native Americans and they named the settlement after the Biblical town Bethlehem of Judea, the birthplace of Jesus. Count Zinzendorf said, Brothers, how more fittingly could we call our new home than to name it in honor of the spot where the event we now commemorate took place and we will call this place Bethlehem. And so was Bethlehem named after the birthplace of the Man of Peace, originally it was a typical Moravian Settlement Congregation, where the Church owned all the property. Until the 1850s, only members of the Moravian Church were permitted to land plots in Bethlehem. The historic Brethrens House, Sisters House, Widows House and Gemeinhaus with the Old Chapel are remnants of this period of communal living, the Moravians ministered to regional Lenape Native Americans through their mission in the area, as well as further east in the New York colony. In the historic Bethlehem Gods Acre cemetery, converted Lenape lie buried alongside the Moravians, in 1762, Bethlehem built the first water-works in America to pump water for public use. While George Washington and his troops stayed in Valley Forge, Washington stored his personal effects at the farm of James Burnside in Bethlehem – as of 1998 a historical museum, the prosperous village was incorporated into a free borough in the County of Northampton in 1845. After the Unity Synod of 1848, Bethlehem became the headquarters of the Northern Province of the Moravian Church in North America
16.
Catalog card
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A library catalog or library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations. The card catalog was a sight to library users for generations. Some still refer to the catalog as a card catalog. Some libraries with OPAC access still have card catalogs on site, many libraries that retain their physical card catalog will post a sign advising the last year that the card catalog was updated. Some libraries have eliminated their card catalog in favour of the OPAC for the purpose of saving space for other use, the largest library catalog in the world is the WorldCat. org union catalog managed by the non-profit library cooperative OCLC, based in Dublin, Ohio. In January 2016, WorldCat. org had over 360,000,000 catalog records, charles Ammi Cutter made the first explicit statement regarding the objectives of a bibliographic system in his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalog in 1876. 1960/61 Cutters objectives were revised by Lubetzky and the Conference on Cataloging Principles in Paris, a catalog also serves as an inventory or bookkeeping of the librarys contents. If an item is not found in the catalog, the user may continue her search at another library, Library thieves, who may be staff or regular visitors of the library, risk discovery if an item listed in the catalog is missing from the shelves. To reduce this risk, a thief may also steal the catalog card describing the item, a catalog card is an individual entry in a library catalog containing bibliographic information, including author’s name, book title, and even approximate location. The first cards used may have been French playing cards, which, in November of 1789, the French began collecting all books from religious houses and decided to use these books to build a system of public libraries, including creating an inventory of all books. The backs of the cards contained the bibliographic information for each book. English inventor Francis Ronalds began using a catalog of cards to manage his growing book collection around 1815, in the mid-1800s, Natale Battezzati, an Italian publisher, developed a card system for booksellers in which cards represented authors, titles and subjects. Very shortly afterward, Melvil Dewey and other American librarians began to champion the card catalog because of its great expandability, in some libraries books were catalogued based on the size of the book while other libraries organized based only on the author’s name. This made finding a book difficult, Dewey and others devised a new system. Books were organized by subject then those would be organized based on the author’s name. Each book was assigned a “call number” which identified the subject, the decimal points divided different sections of the call number. The call number on the card matched a number written on the spine of each book and he published his findings in the Annual Report of the Library for 1863 and were adopted by many American libraries. Work on the began in 1862 and within the first year 35,762 catalog cards had been created
17.
Digital collection
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A museum is distinguished by a collection of often unique objects that forms the core of its activities for exhibitions, education, research, etc. A museum normally has a policy for new acquisitions, so only objects in certain categories. The process by which an object is included in the collection is called accessioning. Museum collections, and archives in general, are catalogued in a collection catalogue, traditionally in a card index. Transferring collection catalogues onto computer-based media is an undertaking for most museums. All new acquisitions are normally catalogued on a computer in modern museums, there are collections of art, of scientific specimens, of historic objects, of living zoological specimens and much more. Because there are so many things to collect, most museums have an area of specialization. For example, a museum may only collect objects relevant to a particular county or even a single person. Art museums may focus on a period, such as modern art, very large museums will often have many subcollections, each with its own criteria for collecting. A natural history museum, for example, will have mammals in a collection from insects. Because museums cannot collect everything, each new addition must be carefully considered as to its appropriateness for a given museums defined area of interest. Accessioning is the formal, legal process of accepting an object into a museum collection, because accessioning an object carries an obligation to care for that object in perpetuity, it is a serious decision. While in the past many museums accepted objects with little deliberation and these are typically set out as part of a museums Collections Management Policy or CMP. Several issues must be considered in the decision to accept an object, common issues include, Is the object relevant to the museums mission and its scope of collecting, as defined by its governing body. Was the object lawfully acquired and if foreign in origin, imported in compliance with international law, does the owner of an object have legal title to the object and therefore the right to transfer it. Are there any other parties with an interest in the object, is the object encumbered by any legal obligations or constraints. Would the object pose any threats or dangers to other objects or staff, does the museum have the resources to properly care for the object Is the object encumbered by any donor restrictions. Answering these questions often required investigating an objects provenance, the history of an object from the time it was made, many museums will not accession objects that have been acquired illegally or where other parties have an interest in the object
18.
National Education Association
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The National Education Association is the largest labor union in the United States. It represents public school teachers and other personnel, faculty and staffers at colleges and universities, retired educators. The NEA has just under 3 million members and is headquartered in Washington, the NEA had a budget of more than $341 million for the 2012–2013 fiscal year. Lily Eskelsen García is the NEAs current president, the NEA, originally on the conservative side of U. S. politics, by the 1970s emerged as a factor in modern liberalism. While the NEA has a position of non-partisan, it typically supports the Democratic Party. Conservatives, libertarians, and parents rights groups have criticized the NEAs liberal positions, State affiliates of the NEA regularly lobby state legislators for funding, seek to influence education policy, and file legal actions. At the national level, the NEA lobbies the United States Congress, from 1989 through the 2014 election cycle, the NEA spent over $92 million on political campaign contributions, 97% of which went to Democrats. The NEA has a membership of just under 3 million people, the NEA is incorporated as a professional association in a few states and as a labor union in most. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code and it is not a member of the AFL–CIO, but is part of Education International, the global federation of teachers unions. NEA members set the policies through the Representative Assembly. The executive officers of the NEA are Lily Eskelsen García, Rebecca Pringle and these three posts are elected by the Representative Assembly. The Board of Directors and Executive Committee are responsible for the general policies, the Board of Directors consists of one director from each state affiliate, six directors for the retired members, and three directors for the student members. The board also includes representatives of ethnic minorities, administrators, classroom teachers in higher education. The NEA was founded in Philadelphia in 1857 as the National Teachers Association, zalmon Richards was elected the NTAs first president and presided over the organizations first annual meeting in 1858. The union was chartered by Congress in 1906, NEA officially merged with the American Teachers Association, the historically black teachers association founded as the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, in 1966. However, five NEA state affiliates have merged with their AFT counterparts, mergers occurred in Florida, Minnesota, Montana, New York and North Dakota. North Dakota United formed in 2013, before the 1960s, only a small portion of public school teachers were unionized. That began to change in 1959, when Wisconsin became the first state to pass a collective bargaining law for public employees, over the next 20 years, most other states adopted similar laws
19.
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
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Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is a private foundation founded by Bill and Melinda Gates. It was launched in 2000 and is said to be the largest transparently operated private foundation in the world, the primary aims of the foundation are, globally, to enhance healthcare and reduce extreme poverty, and in America, to expand educational opportunities and access to information technology. The foundation, based in Seattle, Washington, is controlled by its three trustees, Bill Gates, Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett, other principal officers include Co-Chair William H. Gates, Sr. and Chief Executive Officer Susan Desmond-Hellmann. It had an endowment of US$44.3 billion as of 31 December 2014, in 2007, its founders were ranked as the second most generous philanthropists in America, and Warren Buffett the first. As of May 16,2013, Bill Gates had donated US$28 billion to the foundation, in 1997, the foundation was formed as the William H. Gates Foundation. During the foundations following years, funding grew to US$2 billion, on June 15,2006, Gates announced his plans to transition out of a day-to-day role with Microsoft, effective July 31,2008, to allow him to devote more time to working with the foundation. In 2005, Bill and Melinda Gates, along with the musician Bono, were named by Time as Persons of the Year 2005 for their charitable work, in the case of Bill and Melinda Gates, the work referenced was that of this foundation. In April 2010, Gates was invited to visit and speak at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he asked the students to take on the problems of the world in their futures. He also explained the nature and philosophy of his philanthropic endeavors, the foundation also launched a podcast series. This is called No Ceilings, The Full Participation Project.5 billion, Buffett gave the foundation two years to abide by the third requirement. The Gates Foundation received 5% of the shares in July 2006, in July 2013, Buffet announced another donation of his companys Class B stock, this time worth $2 billion, to the Gates Foundation. To maintain its status as a foundation, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation must donate funds equal to at least 5 percent of its assets each year. This move has been applauded by those who are working in the area of capacity building. Its terms have been called the most stringent among similar OA policies, as of January 1,2015 their Open Access policy is effective for all new agreements. The following table lists the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundations committed funding as recorded in their International Aid Transparency Initiative publications, the Gates Foundation announced in October 2013 that it would join the IATI. The IATI publications only include a subset of Gates Foundation grants, the following table lists the top receiving organizations to which the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has committed funding, between 2009 and 2015. The table again only includes grants recorded in the Gates Foundations IATI publications, the foundation explains on its website that its trustees divided the organization into two entities, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Trust. The foundation section, based in Seattle, US, focuses on improving health and alleviating extreme poverty, the foundation posts its audited financial statements and 990-PF forms on the Financials section of its website as they become available
20.
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
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Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is a private foundation founded by Bill and Melinda Gates. It was launched in 2000 and is said to be the largest transparently operated private foundation in the world, the primary aims of the foundation are, globally, to enhance healthcare and reduce extreme poverty, and in America, to expand educational opportunities and access to information technology. The foundation, based in Seattle, Washington, is controlled by its three trustees, Bill Gates, Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett, other principal officers include Co-Chair William H. Gates, Sr. and Chief Executive Officer Susan Desmond-Hellmann. It had an endowment of US$44.3 billion as of 31 December 2014, in 2007, its founders were ranked as the second most generous philanthropists in America, and Warren Buffett the first. As of May 16,2013, Bill Gates had donated US$28 billion to the foundation, in 1997, the foundation was formed as the William H. Gates Foundation. During the foundations following years, funding grew to US$2 billion, on June 15,2006, Gates announced his plans to transition out of a day-to-day role with Microsoft, effective July 31,2008, to allow him to devote more time to working with the foundation. In 2005, Bill and Melinda Gates, along with the musician Bono, were named by Time as Persons of the Year 2005 for their charitable work, in the case of Bill and Melinda Gates, the work referenced was that of this foundation. In April 2010, Gates was invited to visit and speak at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he asked the students to take on the problems of the world in their futures. He also explained the nature and philosophy of his philanthropic endeavors, the foundation also launched a podcast series. This is called No Ceilings, The Full Participation Project.5 billion, Buffett gave the foundation two years to abide by the third requirement. The Gates Foundation received 5% of the shares in July 2006, in July 2013, Buffet announced another donation of his companys Class B stock, this time worth $2 billion, to the Gates Foundation. To maintain its status as a foundation, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation must donate funds equal to at least 5 percent of its assets each year. This move has been applauded by those who are working in the area of capacity building. Its terms have been called the most stringent among similar OA policies, as of January 1,2015 their Open Access policy is effective for all new agreements. The following table lists the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundations committed funding as recorded in their International Aid Transparency Initiative publications, the Gates Foundation announced in October 2013 that it would join the IATI. The IATI publications only include a subset of Gates Foundation grants, the following table lists the top receiving organizations to which the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has committed funding, between 2009 and 2015. The table again only includes grants recorded in the Gates Foundations IATI publications, the foundation explains on its website that its trustees divided the organization into two entities, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Trust. The foundation section, based in Seattle, US, focuses on improving health and alleviating extreme poverty, the foundation posts its audited financial statements and 990-PF forms on the Financials section of its website as they become available
21.
Institute for Museum and Library Services
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The Institute of Museum and Library Services is an independent agency of the United States federal government established in 1996. It is the source of federal support for libraries and museums within the United States, having the mission to create strong libraries and museums that connect people with information. Their vision is a society where communities and individuals thrive with broad public access to knowledge, cultural heritage. In fiscal year 2015, IMLS had a budget of $228 million, in addition to its other responsibilities, the IMLS annually awards the National Medal for Museum and Library Service, the nations highest award given for community service by libraries and museums. IMLS is located at 955 L’Enfant Plaza North, SW, Suite 4000, Washington, IMLS was established by the Museum and Library Services Act on September 30,1996, which includes the Library Services and Technology Act and the Museum Services Act. This act was reauthorized in 2003 and again in 2010, the law combined the Institute of Museum Services, which had been in existence since 1976, and the Library Programs Office, which had been part of the Department of Education since 1956. Lawmakers at that time saw “great potential in an Institute that is focused on the roles that libraries. Further, MLSA authorizes IMLS to carry out and publish analyses of the impact of museum, on September 25,2003, the president signed the Museum and Library Services Act of 2003. The act is reauthorized every 5 years, with the first reauthorization taking place in 2009, reauthorization updates the Museum Services Act and the Library Services and Technologies Act, and doubles the minimum allotment under the Grants to State Library Agencies program. Following a proposal by President George W, the consolidation took effect in early 2008. When Congress passed the Library Services and Technology Act in 1996, it moved library responsibilities out of the Department of Education, the act stipulated that the agency maintain a rotating directorship starting with the former director of the Institute of Museum Services for a four-year term. In the fifth year, the directorship would pass to a representative from the field of library, diane Frankel Prior to leading the agency through its transition to include federal library as well as museum programs, Frankel served as director of the Institute of Museum Services. Robert S. Martin Preceding his position at IMLS, Martin was a professor and interim director of the School of Library and he also served as Director and Librarian of the Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Susan H. Hildreth Began her career as a librarian at the Edison Township Library in New Jersey. She has also been the city librarian in Seattle and state librarian of California, in addition, Hildreth was deputy director of San Francisco Public Library. She was also director of the New Mexico Museum of Natural History. STEM – Libraries and museums are improving learning in science, technology, engineering and math, preservation, Conservation, and Care of Content and Collections – Libraries and museums care for collections that connect us to history, art, science and the natural world. National Digital Platform – The national digital platform is a way of thinking about and approaching the digital capability and capacity of libraries, community – Libraries and museums build the civic strength of their communities and providing opportunities for public engagement
22.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
23.
World Wide Web Consortium
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The World Wide Web Consortium is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. As of 1 April 2017, the World Wide Web Consortium has 461 members, the W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web. The World Wide Web Consortium was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research in October,1994, the organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web pages are displayed, the consortium tries to get all those vendors to implement a set of core principles and components which are chosen by the consortium. It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C, however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs. Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into independent modules which can mature at their own pace, subsequent editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are denoted by the first integer in the title. Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by a following an decimal point. The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C process document, after enough content has been gathered from editor drafts and discussion, it may be published as a working draft for review by the community. A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly available, commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no promises are made with regard to action on any particular element commented upon. At this stage, the document may have significant differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations as the standard matures, a candidate recommendation is a version of a standard that is more mature than the WD. At this point, the responsible for the standard is satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to aid from the development community as to how implementable the standard is. The standard document may change further, but at this point, significant features are mostly decided, the design of those features can still change due to feedback from implementors. A proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed the two levels. The users of the standard provide input, at this stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final approval
24.
Internet Engineering Task Force
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The Internet Engineering Task Force develops and promotes voluntary Internet standards, in particular the standards that comprise the Internet protocol suite. It is a standards organization, with no formal membership or membership requirements. All participants and managers are volunteers, though their work is funded by their employers or sponsors. Each working group has a chairperson, along with a charter that describes its focus, and what. It is open to all who want to participate, and holds discussions on a mailing list or at IETF meetings. Rough consensus is the basis for decision making. There are no formal voting procedures, because the majority of the IETFs work is done via mailing lists, meeting attendance is not required for contributors. Each working group is intended to work on its topic. In some cases, the WG will instead have its charter updated to take on new tasks as appropriate, the working groups are organized into areas by subject matter. Current areas are Applications, General, Internet, Operations and Management, Real-time Applications and Infrastructure, Routing, Security, each area is overseen by an area director, with most areas having two co-ADs. The ADs are responsible for appointing working group chairs, the area directors, together with the IETF Chair, form the Internet Engineering Steering Group, which is responsible for the overall operation of the IETF. The IETF is overseen by the Internet Architecture Board, which oversees its external relationships, the IAB is also jointly responsible for the IETF Administrative Oversight Committee, which oversees the IETF Administrative Support Activity, which provides logistical, etc. support for the IETF. The IAB also manages the Internet Research Task Force, with which the IETF has a number of cross-group relations. A Nominating Committee of ten randomly chosen volunteers who participate regularly at meetings is vested with the power to appoint, reappoint, and remove members of the IESG, IAB, IASA, and the IAOC. To date, no one has been removed by a NomCom, although people have resigned their positions. Because the IETF itself does not have members, nor is it an organization per se, IETF activities are funded by meeting fees, meeting sponsors and by the Internet Society via its organizational membership and the proceeds of the Public Interest Registry. In December 2005 the IETF Trust was established to manage the copyrighted materials produced by the IETF, the first IETF meeting was attended by 21 U. S. -government-funded researchers on 16 January 1986. It was a continuation of the work of the earlier GADS Task Force, representatives from non-governmental entities were invited to attend starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986
25.
Yahoo!
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Yahoo Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Sunnyvale, California. Yahoo was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994 and was incorporated on March 2,1995, Yahoo was one of the pioneers of the early internet era in the 1990s. Marissa Mayer, a former Google executive, Google Employee number 20 and it is globally known for its Web portal, search engine Yahoo. Search, and related services, including Yahoo, answers, advertising, online mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports, and its social media website. It is one of the most popular sites in the United States, according to news sources, roughly 700 million people visit Yahoo websites every month. Yahoo itself claims it attracts more than half a billion consumers every month in more than 30 languages, in January 1994 Yang and Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University, when they created a website named Jerry and Davids guide to the World Wide Web. The site was a directory of websites, organized in a hierarchy. In March 1994, Jerry and Davids Guide to the World Wide Web was renamed Yahoo, the yahoo. com domain was created on January 18,1995. The word yahoo is a backronym for Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle or Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle, the term hierarchical described how the Yahoo database was arranged in layers of subcategories. However, Filo and Yang insist they mainly selected the name because they liked the definition of a yahoo, rude, unsophisticated. This meaning derives from the Yahoo race of beings from Gullivers Travels. Yahoo grew rapidly throughout the 1990s, like many search engines and web directories, Yahoo added a web portal. By 1998, Yahoo was the most popular starting point for web users and it also made many high-profile acquisitions. Its stock price skyrocketed during the bubble, Yahoo stocks closing at an all-time high of $118.75 a share on January 3,2000. However, after the bubble burst, it reached a post-bubble low of $8.11 on September 26,2001. Yahoo began using Google for search in 2000, over the next four years, it developed its own search technologies, which it began using in 2004. In response to Googles Gmail, Yahoo began to offer unlimited email storage in 2007, the company struggled through 2008, with several large layoffs. In February 2008, Microsoft Corporation made a bid to acquire Yahoo for $44.6 billion
26.
Ask.com
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Ask. com is a question answering-focused e-business and web search engine founded in 1996 by Garrett Gruener and David Warthen in Berkeley, California. The original software was implemented by Gary Chevsky from his own design, Warthen, Chevsky, Justin Grant, and others built the early AskJeeves. com website around that core engine. In late 2010, facing competition from more popular search engines. Douglas Leeds was elevated from president to CEO in 2010, Ask. com has been criticized for its browser toolbar, which has been accused of behaving like malware due to its bundling with other software and the difficulty of its uninstallation. Three venture capital firms, Highland Capital Partners, Institutional Venture Partners, Ask. com is currently owned by InterActiveCorp under the NASDAQ symbol NASDAQ, IAC. Ask. coms corporate headquarters are located at 555 City Center, in the Oakland City Center development in downtown Oakland, Ask. com was originally known as Ask Jeeves, Jeeves being the name of a gentlemans gentleman, or valet, fetching answers to any question asked. The character was based on Bertie Woosters valet Jeeves, in the works of P. G. Wodehouse. In movies, the Jeeves character was played by Arthur Treacher, the original idea behind Ask Jeeves was to allow users to get answers to questions posed in everyday, natural language, as well as by traditional keyword searching. The current Ask. com still supports this, with support for math, dictionary, in 2005 the company announced plans to phase out Jeeves and on 27 February 2006, the character disappeared from Ask. com. He was stated to be going into retirement, however, the UK/Ireland edition of the website prominently brought the character back in 2009. IAC owns a variety of sites including country-specific sites for UK, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, on 5 June 2007, Ask. com relaunched with a 3D look. On 16 May 2006, Ask implemented a Binoculars Site Preview into its search results, on search results pages, the Binoculars let searchers have a sneak peek of the page they could visit with a mouse-over activating a pop-up screenshot. In December 2007, Ask released the AskEraser feature, allowing users to opt-out from tracking of search queries and IP and they also vowed to erase this data after 18 months if the AskEraser option is not set. HTTP cookies must be enabled for AskEraser to function, on 4 July 2008, InterActiveCorp announced the acquisition of Lexico Publishing Group, which owns Dictionary. com, Thesaurus. com, and Reference. com. On 26 July 2010, Ask. com released a closed-beta Q&A service, the service was released to the public on 29 July 2010. Ask. com launched its mobile Q&A app for the iPhone in late 2010, Ask. com now reaches 100 million global users per month through its website with more than 2 million downloads of its flagship mobile app. The company has released additional apps spun out of its Q&A experience, including Ask Around in 2011. In 2010, Ask. com abandoned the search industry, with the loss of 130 search engineering jobs, formerly the direct sales engine for Ask. com, Ask Sponsored Listings is no longer available, having merged with Sendori, an operating business of IAC, in 2011
27.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
28.
Identifier
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An identifier is a name that identifies either a unique object or a unique class of objects, where the object or class may be an idea, physical object, or physical substance. The abbreviation ID often refers to identity, identification, or an identifier, an identifier may be a word, number, letter, symbol, or any combination of those. The words, numbers, letters, or symbols may follow a system or they may simply be arbitrary. When an identifier follows a system, it is often referred to as a code or ID code. Identifiers that do not follow any encoding scheme are often said to be arbitrary IDs, ID codes inherently carry metadata along with them. In some cases, even arbitrary identifiers such as serial numbers leak too much information. Opaque identifiers—identifiers designed to avoid leaking even that amount of information—include really opaque pointers. The unique identifier is an identifier refers to only one instance—only one particular object in the universe. A part number is an identifier, but it is not a unique identifier—for that and this is an emic indistinction rather than an etic one. In metadata, an identifier is a language-independent label, sign or token that uniquely identifies an object within an identification scheme, the suffix identifier is also used as a representation term when naming a data element. In computer science, identifiers are tokens that name entities. Identifiers are used extensively in virtually all information processing systems, identifying entities makes it possible to refer to them, which is essential for any kind of symbolic processing. In computer languages, identifiers are tokens which name language entities, some of the kinds of entities an identifier might denote include variables, types, labels, subroutines, and packages. Which character sequences constitute identifiers depends on the grammar of the language. Later versions of these languages, along many other modern languages support almost all Unicode characters in an identifier. However, a restriction is not to permit whitespace characters and language operators. For example, forbidding + in identifiers means that a+b and a + b can be tokenized the same, while if it were allowed, a+b would be an identifier, not an addition. Some languages do allow spaces in identifiers, however, such as ALGOL68 and some ALGOL variants – for example, the following is a statement, real half pi
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ISBN
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Wikidata
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Wikidata is a collaboratively edited knowledge base operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is intended to provide a source of data which can be used by Wikimedia projects such as Wikipedia. This is similar to the way Wikimedia Commons provides storage for files and access to those files for all Wikimedia projects. Wikidata is powered by the software Wikibase, Wikidata is a document-oriented database, focused on items. Each item represents a topic and is identified by a number, prefixed with the letter Q—for example. This enables the basic information required to identify the topic the item covers to be translated without favouring any language, information is added to items by creating statements. Statements take the form of pairs, with each statement consisting of a property. The creation of the project was funded by donations from the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, at this time, only the first phase was available. Historically, a Wikipedia article would include a list of links, being links to articles on the same topic in other editions of Wikipedia. Initially, Wikidata was a repository of interlanguage links. No Wikipedia language editions were able to access Wikidata, so they needed to continue to maintain their own lists of interlanguage links, on 14 January 2013, the Hungarian Wikipedia became the first to enable the provision of interlanguage links via Wikidata. This functionality was extended to the Hebrew and Italian Wikipedias on 30 January, to the English Wikipedia on 13 February, on 23 September 2013, phase 1 went live on Wikimedia Commons. The first aspects of the second phase were deployed on 4 February 2013, the values were initially limited to two data types, with more data types to follow later. The first new type, string, was deployed on 6 March, the ability of the various language editions of Wikipedia to access data added to Wikidata as part of phase two was rolled out progressively between 27 March and 25 April 2013. On 16 September 2015, Wikidata began allowing so-called arbitrary access, for example, in the past the article about Berlin you could not access data about Germany, but with arbitrary access it could. On 27 April 2016 arbitrary access was activated on Wikimedia Commons, phase 3 will involve database querying and the creation of lists based on data stored on Wikidata. As of October 2016 two tools for querying Wikidata were available, AutoList and PetScan, additionally to a public SPARQL endpoint, there is concern that the project is being influenced by lobbying companies, PR professionals and search engine optimizers. As of December 2015, according to Wikimedia statistics, half of the information in Wikidata is unsourced, another 30% is labeled as having come from Wikipedia, but with no indication as to which article
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Infobox
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An infobox is a template used to collect and present a subset of information about its subject, such as a document. It is a document containing a set of attribute–value pairs. In this way, they are comparable to data tables in some aspects, when presented within the larger document it summarizes, an infobox is often presented in a sidebar format. An infobox may be used to improve the appearance of an article on Wikipedia, originally, infoboxes were used for page layout purposes. The guideline Wikipedia, Manual of Style/Infoboxes has details of infoboxes, an infobox may be transcluded into an article by specifying the value for some or all of its parameters. The parameter name used must be the same as that specified in the infobox template, the name is delimited from the value by an equals sign. The parameter name may be regarded as an attribute of the articles subject, on Wikipedia, an infobox is transcluded into an article by enclosing its name and attribute–value pairs within a double set of braces. The MediaWiki software on which Wikipedia operates then parses the document, for which the infobox and this is a template engine which produces a web document and a style sheet used for presentation of the document. Usually, infoboxes are formatted to appear in the corner of a Wikipedia article in the desktop view. Placement of an infobox within the text of an article is important for accessibility. A best practice is to them following disambiguation templates and maintenance templates. As of August 2009, English Wikipedia used about 3,000 infobox templates that collectively used more than 20,000 attributes, since then, many have been merged, to reduce redundancy. As of June 2013, there were at least 1,345,446 transclusions of the parent Infobox template, used by some, about 44. 2% of Wikipedia articles contained an infobox in 2008, and about 33% in 2010. Automated semantic knowledge extraction using machine learning algorithms is used to extract machine-processable information at a low complexity cost. However, the low coverage makes it difficult, though this can be partially overcome by complementing article data with that in categories in which the article is included. The French Wikipedia initiated the project Infobox Version 2 in May 2011, Knowledge obtained by machine learning can be used to improve an article, such as by using automated software suggestions to editors for adding infobox data. The iPopulator project created a system to add a value to an articles infobox parameter via an automated parsing of the text of that article, machine extraction creates a triple consisting of a subject, predicate or relation, and object. Each attribute-value pair of the infobox is used to create an RDF statement using an ontology and this is facilated by the narrower gap between Wikipedia and an ontology than exists between unstructured or free text and an ontology
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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NetLibrary
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EBSCO offers library resources to customers in academic, medical, K–12, public library, law, corporate, and government markets. In 2010, EBSCO introduced its EBSCO Discovery Service to institutions, EBSCO Information Services is a division of EBSCO Industries Inc. a family owned company since 1944. EBSCO is an acronym for Elton B. Stephens Co, according to Forbes Magazine, EBSCO is one of the largest privately held companies in Alabama and one of the top 200 in the United States, based on revenues and employee numbers. Sales surpassed $1 billion in 1997 and exceeded $2 billion in 2006, EBSCO Industries is a diverse company which includes over 40 businesses. EBSCO Publishing was established in 1984 as a print publication called Popular Magazine Review, in 1987 the company was purchased by EBSCO Industries and its name was changed to EBSCO Publishing. It employed around 750 people by 2007, in 2003 it acquired Whitston Publishing, another database provider. In 2010 EBSCO purchased NetLibrary and in 2011, EBSCO Publishing took over H. W. Wilson Company and it merged with EBSCO Information Services on July 1,2013. The merged business operates as EBSCO Information Services, as of 2016, the President and CEO is Tim Collins. Databases, EBSCO provides a range of library database services, many of the databases, such as MEDLINE and EconLit, are licensed from content vendors. Discovery, This product is used to create a unified, customized index of an institutions information resources, the system works by harvesting metadata from both internal and external sources, and then creating a preindexed service. EBooks, EBSCO provides ebooks and audiobooks across a range of subject matter. DynaMed is a reference tool for physicians and other health care professionals for use at the point-of-care. It provides DRM-protected audio and DRM-protected audiobooks through its subsidiary NetLibrary and it competes in this market with OverDrive’s Digital Library Reserve. In 2012, the Stephens were recognized for their philanthropic work, interview with Sam Brooks, Senior VP for Sales and Marketing with EBSCO Publishing, About H. W. Wilson
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OCLC PICA
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In 2007, OCLC acquired the shares of OCLC PICA it did not already hold to become the sole owner of OCLC PICA. By the end of 2007, OCLC PICA lost its identity and was integrated with OCLC under the OCLC brand. The acronym PICA stands for Project for Integrated Catalogue Automation, at the time, OCLC held 60% of the shares in OCLC PICA, while the Pica foundation held 40%. In 2005 OCLC PICA acquired Sisis Information Systems of Germany and the Fretwell-Downing Informatics Group of the UK, in 2007, OCLC acquired the remaining shares of OCLC PICA to become the sole shareholder of OCLC PICA. OCLC PICA / OCLC EMEA employed over 200 people, OCLC PICA software is used by the Netherlands union catalog, several German library consortia, the Australian national library, the French union catalog SUDOC and many other libraries. Sisis and Fretwell-Downing also have many customers in Germany, the UK. De, PICA OCLC PICA Corporate history from OCLC PICA
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Library automation system
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An ILS usually comprises a relational database, software to interact with that database, and two graphical user interfaces. Most ILSes separate software functions into discrete programs called modules, each of them integrated with a unified interface, examples of modules might include, acquisitions cataloging circulation serials the OPAC Each patron and item has a unique ID in the database that allows the ILS to track its activity. Larger libraries use an ILS to order and acquire, receive and invoice, catalog, circulate, track and shelve materials. Smaller libraries, such as those in private homes or non-profit organizations, often forgo the expense and maintenance required to run an ILS, prior to computerization, library tasks were performed manually and independently from one another. Early mechanization came in 1936, when the University of Texas began using a card system to manage library circulation. While the punch card system allowed for more efficient tracking of loans, library services were far from being integrated, the next big innovation came with the advent of MARC standards in the 1960s, which coincided with the growth of computer technologies – library automation was born. The 1970s can be characterized by improvements in storage, as well as in telecommunications. As a result of advances, ‘turnkey systems on microcomputers. These systems included hardware and software which allowed the connection of major circulation tasks, including circulation control. As the technology developed, other library tasks could be accomplished through ILS as well, including acquisition, cataloguing, reservation of titles, and monitoring of serials. With the evolution of the Internet throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s, ILSs began allowing users to actively engage with their libraries through OPACs. Users could log into their accounts to reserve or renew books. Inevitably, during time, the ILS market grew exponentially. By 2002, the ILS industry averaged sales of approximately US$500 million annually, by the mid to late 2000s, ILS vendors had increased not only the number of services offered but also their prices, leading to some dissatisfaction among many smaller libraries. At the same time, open source ILS was in its stages of testing. Some libraries began turning to open source ILSs as Koha. Common reasons noted were to avoid vendor lock in, avoid license fees, freedom from vendors also allowed libraries to prioritize needs according to urgency, as opposed to what their vendor can offer. This has been the case with the SCLENDS consortium, by October 2011, just 2 years after SCLENDS began operations,13 public library systems across 15 counties had already joined the consortium, in addition to the South Carolina State Library
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Leiden
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Leiden is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres from The Hague to its south, the recreational area of the Kaag Lakes lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the worlds most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born, other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen. The city has one of Europes most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave, many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto, ‘City of Discoveries’. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdoms oldest university, Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences together have around 35,000 students. Leiden is a university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city. Leiden was formed on a hill at the confluence of the rivers Oude. In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon, the name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- canal. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum and this particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the citys name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in closer to the town of Katwijk. The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill, was subject to the Bishop of Utrecht. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold, Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a war against her uncle, William I. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada, Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons, burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first and he rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship
