1.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
2.
International waters
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International waters have no sovereignty, ergo is Terra nullius as no state controls it. All states have the freedom of, fishing, navigation, overflight, laying cables and pipelines, oceans, seas, and waters outside of national jurisdiction are also referred to as the high seas or, in Latin, mare liberum. International waters can be contrasted with internal waters, territorial waters, several international treaties have established freedom of navigation on semi-enclosed seas. The Copenhagen Convention of 1857 opened access to the Baltic by abolishing the Sound Dues and making the Danish Straits an international waterway free to all commercial, several conventions have opened the Bosphorus and Dardanelles to shipping. The latest, the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits, Other international treaties have opened up rivers, which are not traditionally international waterways. The Danube River is a waterway so that landlocked Austria, Hungary, Moldova, Serbia. The Southern Ocean, Australia claims an economic zone around its Antarctic territorial claim. Since this claim is recognised by four other countries, the EEZ claim is also disputed. Area around Okinotorishima, Japan claim Okinotorishima is an islet and thus they should have an EEZ around it, South China Sea, See Territorial disputes in the South China Sea. Some countries consider the South China Sea as international waters, in addition to formal disputes, the government of Somalia exercises little control de facto over Somali territorial waters. Consequently, much piracy, illegal dumping of waste and fishing without permit has occurred, although water is often seen as a source of conflict, recent research suggests that water management can be a source for cooperation between countries. Such cooperation will benefit participating countries by being the catalyst for larger socio-economic development, the Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development profiles agreements regarding the Marine Environment, Marine Living Resources and Freshwater Resources. 1972 London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes,1973 London International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,1973 MARPOL1982 United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea. 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses - not ratified, transboundary Groundwater Treaty, Bellagio Draft - proposed, but not signed. Other global conventions and treaties with implications for International Waters,1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
3.
Territorial waters
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Adjustment of these boundaries is called, in international law, maritime delimitation. Normally, the baseline from which the sea is measured is the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal state. Straight baselines can alternatively be defined connecting fringing islands along a coast, across the mouths of rivers, or with certain restrictions across the mouths of bays. An indentation shall not, however, be regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as, or larger than, the baseline across the bay must also be no more than 24 nautical miles in length. Waters landward of the baseline are defined as waters, over which the state has complete sovereignty. Lakes and rivers are considered internal waters, however, archipelagic states may designate certain sea lanes through these waters. A states territorial sea extends up to 12 nautical miles from its baseline, if this would overlap with another states territorial sea, the border is taken as the median point between the states baselines, unless the states in question agree otherwise. A state can also choose to claim a territorial sea. Conflicts still occur whenever a coastal nation claims an entire gulf as its territorial waters while other nations recognize the more restrictive definitions of the UN convention. In the U. S. federal system, individual states exercise ownership up to 3 nautical miles from shore and this will typically be 12 nautical miles wide, but could be more, or less, if it would otherwise overlap another states contiguous zone. However, unlike the sea, there is no standard rule for resolving such conflicts. The United States invoked a contiguous zone out to 24 nmi on 24 September 1999, an exclusive economic zone extends from the outer limit of the territorial sea to a maximum of 200 nautical miles from the territorial sea baseline, thus it includes the contiguous zone. A coastal nation has control of all resources within its exclusive economic zone, including fishing, mining, oil exploration. Indeed, the economic zone is still popularly, though erroneously. Article 76 gives the definition of continental shelf of coastal countries. For the physical geography definition, see the continental shelf page, coastal states have the right of exploration and exploitation of its natural resources, however other states could lay cables and pipelines if they are authorised by the coastal state. The foot of the slope is determined as the point of maximum change in the gradient at its base. The portion of the continental shelf beyond the 200 nautical mile limit is known as the extended continental shelf
4.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
5.
HMS Andromeda (1897)
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HMS Andromeda was one of eight Diadem-class protected cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the 1890s. Upon completion in 1899, the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet where she helped to escort a royal yacht during its cruise through the Mediterranean Sea. After a refit, she was assigned to the China Station in 1904, Andromeda was converted into a training ship in 1913 and remained in that role under various names until 1956. That year she was sold for scrap and broken up in Belgium, the Diadem class was designed to protect British merchant shipping from fast cruisers like the Russian Rurik and were smaller versions of the Powerful class. The ships had a length between perpendiculars of 435 feet, a beam of 69 feet and a draught of 25 feet 6 inches and they displaced 11,000 long tons.5 knots using steam provided by 30 Belleville boilers. They carried a maximum of 1,900 long tons of coal and their complement numbered 677 officers and ratings. The main armament of the Diadem-class ships consisted of 16 quick-firing QF 6-inch guns, four of these were on the forecastle and in the stern, all protected by gun shields. The remaining dozen guns were in armoured casemates on each broadside, the ships carried 200 rounds per gun. Protection against torpedo boats was provided by a dozen QF 12-pounder 3 in, 12-cwt guns, for which 300 rounds per gun was provided, in addition, the ships carried a pair of Ordnance QF 12-pounder 8-cwt landing guns for use ashore. The ships were armed with a pair of submerged 18-inch torpedo tubes. The sloped armoured deck ranged in thickness from 2.5 to 4 inches on the flat and slopes, the casemates were protected by 6 inches of Harvey armour while the gun shields had 2 to 4.5 inches of armour. The conning towers were protected by 12-inch walls and their roofs were 2 inches thick, the tubes protecting the ammunition hoists were also 2 inches thick. Andromeda was the ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy and was laid down on 2 December 1895 by Pembroke Dockyard. The ship was launched on 30 April 1897 by Lady Scourfield and she was fitted out at Pembroke Dock until 5 September 1898 and sailed later that month to Portsmouth Dockyard for completion. Upon completion on 5 September 1899, she was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of Captain John Burr, Andromeda returned home later that year and began a lengthy refit. She was assigned to the China Station in 1904 and returned three years later. The ship was reduced to reserve at Chatham Dockyard upon her return, Andromeda was assigned to the 9th Cruiser Squadron of the new reserve Third Fleet in 1912. The following year the ship was converted to a training ship
6.
Chatham, Kent
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Chatham is one of the Medway towns located within the Medway unitary authority, in North Kent, in South East England. Chatham Dockyard closed in 1984, but major naval buildings remain as the focus for a flourishing tourist industry, Chatham also has military connections, several Army barracks were located here, together with 19th-century forts which provided a defensive shield for the dockyard. Brompton Barracks, located in the town, remains the headquarters of the Corps of Royal Engineers, the town has important road links and the railway and bus stations are the main interchanges for the area. It is the headquarters of Medway unitary authority, as well as its principal shopping centre. The name Chatham was first recorded as Cetham in 880, the Domesday Book records the place as Ceteham. Most books explain this name as a British root ceto plus Old English ham, however, the river-valley situation of Chatham is more consistent with cet being an Old English survival of the element catu that was common in Roman-era names and meant basin or valley. Chatham stands on the A2 road along the line of the ancient Celtic route, which was paved by the Romans, among finds have been the remains of a Roman cemetery. It was established as a Royal Dockyard by Queen Elizabeth I in 1568, initially a refitting base, it became a shipbuilding yard, from then until the late 19th century, further expansion of the yard took place. In its time, many thousands of men were employed at the dockyard, after World War I many submarines were also built in Chatham Dockyard. In addition to the dockyard itself, defensive fortifications were built to protect it from attack, upnor Castle had been built in 1567, but had proved ineffectual, the Dutch Raid on the Medway in 1667 showed that more was required. The threat of a attack from the south during the 19th century led to the construction of even more forts. The second phase of fort-building included Fort Pitt, the 1859 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom ordered, inter alia, a third outer ring of forts, these included Fort Luton, Fort Bridgewood, and Fort Borstal. These fortifications all required military personnel to man them and Army barracks to house those men and these included Kitchener Barracks, the Royal Marine Barracks, Brompton Artillery Barracks and Melville Barracks. In response to the manpower needs, the village of Chatham and other nearby villages. Trams, and later buses, linked those places to bring in the workforce, the area between the High Street and Luton village illustrates part of that growth, with its many streets of Victorian terraces. The importance of Chatham dockyard gradually declined as Britains naval resources were reduced or moved to other locations, the dockyard buildings were preserved as the historic site Chatham Historic Dockyard, which was under consideration as a World Heritage Site the site is being used for other purposes. Part of the St Marys Island section is now used as a marina, under the most recent change, in 1998, and with the addition of the Borough of Gillingham, the Borough of Medway became a unitary authority area, administratively separate from Kent. It remains part of the county of Kent for ceremonial purposes, Medway Council has recently relocated its main administration building to Gun Wharf, the site of the earliest part of the Dockyard, a former Lloyds office building
7.
Thames Estuary
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The Thames Estuary is the estuary in which the River Thames meets the waters of the North Sea, in the south-east of Great Britain. It is not easy to define the limits of the estuary, the eastern boundary of the estuary suggested in a Hydrological Survey of 1882-9 is a line drawn from North Foreland, Margate, Kent via the Kentish Knock lighthouse to Harwich in Essex. It is to this line that the typical estuarine sandbanks extend, the estuary downstream of the Tideway has a tidal movement of 4 metres, moving at a speed of 8 miles per hour. The estuary is one of the largest of 170 such inlets on the coast of Great Britain, the traditional Thames sailing barge worked in this area, designed to be suitable for the shallow waters in the smaller ports. More recently one of the largest wind farms in the UK has been developed in the estuary, located 8.5 km north of Herne Bay, the farm contains 30 wind turbines generating a total of 82. 4MW of electricity. The much larger London Array of up to 1GW capacity is also planned and this area has had several proposed sites for the building of a new airport to supplement, or even to replace Heathrow/Gatwick. In the 1960s Maplin Sands was a contender, in 2002 it was to be at Cliffe, the Thames Estuary is the focal part of the 21st-century toponym, the Thames Gateway, designated as one of the principal development areas in Southern England. The appellation Greater Thames Estuary applies to the coast and the lands bordering the estuary itself. These are characterised by the presence of mudflats, low-lying open beaches and salt marshes, namely the North Kent Marshes and the Essex Marshes. There are many smaller estuaries in Essex, including the Rivers Colne, Blackwater and Crouch Small coastal villages depend on an economy of fishing, boat-building, a similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and invertebrates living in the river. Joseph Conrad lived in Stanford-le-Hope close to the Essex marshes and his The Mirror of the Sea contains a memorable description of the area as seen from the Thames. Accent The form of speech of many of the people of the area, principally the accents of those from Kent, the term is a term for a milder variety of the London Accent. The term London Accent is generally avoided as it can have many meanings
8.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
9.
Voice of America
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Voice of America is a United States government-funded multimedia news source and the official external broadcasting institution of the United States. VOA provides programming for broadcast on radio, television, and the Internet outside of the U. S. in English and some foreign languages. The VOA charter—signed into law in 1976 by President Gerald Ford—requires VOA to serve as a reliable and authoritative source of news and be accurate. The Voice of America headquarters is located at 330 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, the VOA is fully funded by the U. S. government, the Congress appropriates funds for it annually under the same budget for embassies and consulates. In 2016 the network reportedly had an annual budget of $218.5 million,1000 people of personnel. VOA radio and television broadcasts are distributed by satellite, cable and on FM, AM and they are streamed on individual language service websites, social media sites and mobile platforms. VOA has affiliate and contract agreements with radio and television stations, some scholars and commentators consider Voice of America to be a form of propaganda, although this label is disputed by others. The Voice of America website has five English language broadcasts as of 2014, additionally, the VOA website has versions in 42 foreign languages, The number of languages varies according to the priorities of the United States Government and the world situation. Before World War II, all American shortwave stations were in private hands, experimental programming began in the 1930s, but there were then fewer than 12 transmitters in operation. Any program solely intended for, and directed to an audience in the continental United States does not meet the requirements for this service. Washington observers felt this policy was to enforce the State Departments Good Neighbor Policy, in 1940, the Office of the Coordinator of Interamerican Affairs, a semi-independent agency of the U. S. State Department headed by Nelson Rockefeller, began operations. Shortwave signals to Latin America were regarded as vital to counter Nazi propaganda, initially, the Office of Coordination of Information sent releases to each station, but this was seen as an inefficient means of transmitting news. It was introduced by The Battle Hymn of the Republic and included the pledge, Today, the news may be good or bad for us – We will always tell you the truth. It was Sherwood who actually coined the term The Voice of America to describe the network that began its transmissions on February 1. The Office of War Information, when organized in the middle of 1942, the OWI also set up the American Broadcasting Station in Europe. Asian transmissions started with one transmitter in California in 1941, services were expanded by adding transmitters in Hawaii and, after recapture, by the end of the war, VOA had 39 transmitters and provided service in 40 languages. Programming was broadcast from production centers in New York and San Francisco, programming consisted of music, news, commentary, and relays of U. S. domestic programming, in addition to specialized VOA programming. About half of VOAs services, including the Arabic service, were discontinued in 1945, in late 1945, VOA was transferred to the Department of State
10.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
11.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
12.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
13.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
14.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
15.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
16.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
17.
Yugoslavia
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Yugoslavia was a country in Southeast Europe during most of the 20th century. The Serbian royal House of Karađorđević became the Yugoslav royal dynasty, Yugoslavia gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. The country was named after the South Slavic peoples and constituted their first union, following centuries in which the territories had been part of the Ottoman Empire, renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, it was invaded by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941. In 1943, a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the Partisan resistance, in 1944, the king recognised it as the legitimate government, but in November 1945 the monarchy was abolished. Yugoslavia was renamed the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946 and it acquired the territories of Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar from Italy. Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito ruled the country as president until his death in 1980, in 1963, the country was renamed again as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The constituent six socialist republics that made up the country were the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia, and SR Slovenia. Serbia contained two Socialist Autonomous Provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo, which after 1974 were largely equal to the members of the federation. After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, Yugoslavia broke up along its republics borders, at first into five countries, eventually, Serbia and Montenegro accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession. Serbia and Montenegro themselves broke up in 2006 and became independent states, the concept of Yugoslavia, as a single state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the Illyrian Movement of the 19th century. The name was created by the combination of the Slavic words jug, Yugoslavia was the result of the Corfu Declaration, as a project of the Serbian Parliament in exile and the Serbian royal Karađorđević dynasty, who became the Yugoslav royal dynasty. The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and it was commonly referred to at the time as the Versailles state. Later, the government renamed the country leading to the first official use of Yugoslavia in 1929, on 6 January 1929 King Alexander I suspended the constitution, banned national political parties, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions and he imposed a new constitution and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I, Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavias historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas, the banovinas were named after rivers. Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance, the effect of Alexanders dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity. During his reign the flags of Yugoslav nations were banned, Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul
18.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
19.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
20.
Border blaster
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A border blaster is a broadcast station that, though not licensed as an external service, is, in practice, used to target another country. These are also referred to as X stations for their call letters. On November 9,1972 in Washington, D. C. the United States, since then, in the FM band power levels and frequency assignments have been set by mutual agreement between the two countries. AM radio border blasters still exist, though they are ignored due to the decline of AM radio in the U. S. In 1973 the border blaster XERB became famous when George Lucas featured the station as the source for the soundtrack of his motion picture American Graffiti. In contrast to radio stations which broadcast illegally, border blasters are generally licensed by the government upon whose soil they are located. A similar situation developed in Europe, beginning with Radio Luxembourg after World War II, the British government identified these stations as pirates because the Sunday broadcast was reserved for British listeners. The broadcasts were considered illegal on British soil as these stations were breaking the monopoly of the non-commercial BBC, listening to the broadcasts was technically a violation of UK radio-license laws of the day. In Mexico and the US, while the government of the US did not particularly like them. W. Lee ODaniel used a blaster in his successful campaign for governor of Texas. The US, unlike the UK, has never required a license to listen to broadcast radio or television, the only restriction placed upon border-blasters was a law which prohibited studios in the US from linking by telephone to border-blaster transmitters in Mexico. This law, part of the Brinkley Act, was introduced in the wake of John R. Brinkleys fraudulent medical advice program on XERA. The Brinkley Act remains on the books in the US, but licenses under that act are now routinely granted as long as the station follows applicable US and Mexican regulations. The British government created a similar measure after World War II and these restrictions were mostly lifted following the privatisation and demonopolisation of the UK telephone system. Signals of many US and Canada radio stations encroach into neighboring territory, such stations are usually not deemed border blasters, as their programming is not primarily targeted at listeners and viewers across the border. US and Canadian stations adhere to maximum power levels. An exception to that rule is KRPI located in Ferndale. It is owned by BBC Broadcasting Inc. a Washington state company with studios in Richmond, the station airs a mixture of music, news and talk focused on the South Asian communities in Metro Vancouver
21.
Radio Luxembourg
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Radio Luxembourg was a multilingual commercial broadcaster in Luxembourg. It is known in most non-English languages as RTL, the English language service of Radio Luxembourg began in 1933 as one of the earliest commercial radio stations broadcasting to Ireland and Britain. It was an important forerunner of pirate radio and modern commercial radio in the United Kingdom, Radio Luxembourgs parent company, RTL Group, continued broadcasts to the UK until July 2010 as the owners of the British TV channel Five. In 1922, the British government awarded a broadcasting licence to a single British Broadcasting Company, whose shares were owned by British. Although in theory the BBC could have sold sponsored airtime, it attempted to gain its revenue by selling its own brand of licensed radio receivers manufactured by the companies of the BBC. This arrangement lasted until 1927, when the licence of the original BBC was allowed to expire. The assets of the commercial company were then sold to a new non-commercial British Broadcasting Corporation. The IBC began leasing time on transmitters in continental Europe and then reselling it as sponsored English-language programming aimed at audiences in Britain, in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg during 1924, François Anen built a 100-watt transmitter to broadcast military music concerts and plays to listeners in Luxembourg. Because the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is centrally located in western Europe, it was a location for transmitters aimed at reaching audiences in many nations. On 19 December 1929 the government of Luxembourg passed a law awarding a monopoly licence to operate a radio broadcasting franchise from the Grand Duchy. On 29 December this licence was awarded to the Society, which in turn created the Luxembourg Broadcasting Company to be identified on the air as Radio Luxembourg, in May 1932 Radio Luxembourg began high powered test transmissions aimed directly at Britain and Ireland. The reaction of the British government was hostile, as the band used for these tests radiated a signal far superior to anything previously received from outside the country. The British government accused Radio Luxembourg of pirating the various wavelengths it was testing, the station had planned to commence regular broadcasts on 4 June 1933, but the complaints caused Radio Luxembourg to keep shifting its wavelength. Radio Luxembourg began broadcasting in both the French and English languages on a new 200 kW transmitter on 230 kHz in the long-wave band, the English service was leased to Radio Publicity Ltd in the United Kingdom. 11% of Britons listened to it during the week, preferring Luxembourgs light music and variety programmes to the BBC. Up to half of Britons did so before 10,15 am on weekdays when the BBC did not broadcast, the BBC and successive British governments continued to oppose the competition, citing Radio Luxembourgs use of an unauthorized frequency. As the station could not use General Post Office telephone lines to broadcast from London, many English-language programmes were recorded there, despite the opposition, by 1938 many British companies advertised on Radio Luxembourg and fellow European broadcaster Radio Normandy. The stations thus exposed millions of Britons and British companies to commercial broadcasting,12,15 pm – Do-Do Broadcasts – sponsored medication programme for asthma suffers
22.
Associated Newspapers
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DMG Media, formerly Associated Newspapers, is a national newspaper and website publisher in the UK. It is a subsidiary of DMGT, the group was established in 1905 and is currently based at Northcliffe House in Kensington. Part of DMGT, DMG Medias portfolio of national newspapers, websites and mobile and it publishes two major paid-for national newspaper titles as well as a free nationally available newspaper. DMG Media is also responsible for overseeing and developing the Group’s online consumer businesses, which also include Teletext Holidays, DMG Media publishes the following titles, Daily Mail - The Daily Mail is the leading mid-market daily newspaper in the UK. Established in 1896, it is edited by Fleet Streets longest-serving editor, Mail on Sunday - The Mail on Sunday is the UKs second largest national Sunday newspaper. Edited by Geordie Greig, it is known for its investigative, exposé journalism and award-winning lifestyle magazines You, MailOnline - MailOnline is the worlds largest newspaper website with more than 54 million monthly unique visitors globally. It is also Americas third biggest online newspaper with US traffic of 20 million monthly unique visitors, Mail Plus - Mail Plus is the rapidly growing app available via subscription on Apple and Android tablets. It features all the content of the printed edition plus a host of features, games and puzzles. Metro - leading urban brand Metro is the UKs third largest newspaper, Mail Today - a 48-page compact size newspaper launched in India on 16 November 2007 that is printed in Delhi, Gurgaon and Noida with a print run of 110,000 copies. Indian foreign media ownership laws restrict holdings to 26 percent, 7DAYS -7DAYS is a free tabloid newspaper based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. 7DAYS was established in 2003 and is currently the only English language newspaper in the country without any government ownership and it relaunched its website in September 2014. Wowcher - Wowcher launched in 2009 by Nick Brummitt and sold to DMGT in March 2011 and has grown tenfold to become the UKs second largest online vouchering website. The brand is focused on affluent, urban, young women, Jobsite - Jobsite. co. uk is the UK’s leading recruitment site for Engineers, IT/Tech, Finance, Sales and Admin roles. Jobsite reaches over 65% of the UK population - 26% of candidates use Jobsite exclusively and this is Money - www. thisismoney. co. uk provides consumer financial advice. Elite Daily - an American website targeted at millennials, Zoopla Property Group - in which DMG Media has a majority share, owns and operates some of the UKs leading online property brands including Zoopla. co. uk and Primelocation. com. Each of its brands has a market position to attract a unique audience, meaning increased exposure. Evening Standard - Previously owned by Associated, after facing financial difficulties the paper was purchased by Russian businessman Alexander Lebedev, on 21 January 2009, for the price of £1. London Lite - free sheet that was called the Standard Lite
23.
Daily Mail
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The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. A survey in 2014 found the age of its reader was 58. It had a daily circulation of 1,510,824 copies in November 2016. Its website has more than 100 million unique visitors per month, the Daily Mail has been accused of racism, and printing sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research. The Mail was originally a broadsheet but switched to a format on 3 May 1971. On this date it absorbed the Daily Sketch, which had been published as a tabloid by the same company. The publisher of the Mail, the Daily Mail and General Trust, is currently a FTSE250 company, the paper has a circulation of around two million, which is the fourth largest circulation of any English-language daily newspaper in the world. Circulation figures according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations in March 2014 show gross daily sales of 1,708,006 for the Daily Mail. According to a December 2004 survey, 53% of Daily Mail readers voted for the Conservative Party, compared to 21% for Labour, the main concern of Viscount Rothermere, the current chairman and main shareholder, is that the circulation be maintained. The Mail has been edited by Paul Dacre since 1992, the Daily Mail, devised by Alfred Harmsworth and his brother Harold, was first published on 4 May 1896. It cost a halfpenny at a time when other London dailies cost one penny, and was more populist in tone and more concise in its coverage than its rivals. The planned issue was 100,000 copies but the print run on the first day was 397,215, Lord Salisbury, 19th-century Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, dismissed the Daily Mail as a newspaper produced by office boys for office boys. By 1902, at the end of the Boer Wars, the circulation was over a million, from the beginning, the Mail also set out to entertain its readers with human interest stories, serials, features and competitions. In 1900 the Daily Mail began printing simultaneously in both Manchester and London, the first national newspaper to do so, the same production method was adopted in 1909 by the Daily Sketch, in 1927 by the Daily Express and eventually by virtually all the other national newspapers. Printing of the Scottish Daily Mail was switched from Edinburgh to the Deansgate plant in Manchester in 1968 and, for a while, in 1987, printing at Deansgate ended and the northern editions were thereafter printed at other Associated Newspapers plants. In 1906 the paper offered £1,000 for the first flight across the English Channel, punch magazine thought the idea preposterous and offered £10,000 for the first flight to Mars, but by 1910 both the Mails prizes had been won. Before the outbreak of World War I, the paper was accused of warmongering when it reported that Germany was planning to crush the British Empire
24.
North Sea
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The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and it is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres. The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery, the North Sea was the centre of the Vikings rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets, as Germanys only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features, in the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean, in the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres. Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, the North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea, the largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas, for the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres. The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to a north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres wide and has a depth of 725 metres. The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris and this feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with uniform depth in fathoms. These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, the Devils Hole lies 200 miles east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres long,1 and 2 kilometres wide and up to 230 metres deep. Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows, On the Southwest
25.
Radio Caroline
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The Radio Caroline name was used to broadcast from international waters, using five different ships of three different owners, from 1964 to 1990, and via satellite from 1998 to 2013. Radio Caroline currently broadcasts 24 hours a day via the internet and by occasional restricted service licence, Radio Caroline broadcasts music from the 1960s to contemporary, with an emphasis on album-oriented rock. The company also licenses other stations around the world to use the Radio Caroline name, Radio Caroline was begun by Irish musician manager and businessman Ronan ORahilly. ORahilly failed to obtain airplay on Radio Luxembourg for Georgie Fames records because it was committed to sponsored programmes promoting major record labels, EMI, Decca, Pye and Philips. At the same time, Allan Crawfords Project Atlanta was equipping the MV Mi Amigo at Greenore, ORahilly named the station after Caroline Kennedy, daughter of U. S. President John F. Kennedy. On a fund-raising trip to the US, ORahilly reportedly saw a Life Magazine photograph of Kennedy, the Fredericia was renamed MV Caroline and anchored off Felixstowe, where it began test transmissions on Friday,27 March 1964. On Saturday,28 March, it began broadcasting at noon on 197.3 metres with the opening conducted by Simon Dee. The first programme, which was pre-recorded, was hosted by Chris Moore, Radio Carolines first musical theme was Jimmy McGriffs Round Midnight, a jazz standard co-composed by Thelonious Monk. In March 1964, The Fortunes recorded Caroline, which became the stations theme, Round Midnight was confined to close down on Radio Caroline North after The World Tomorrow. The stations slogan was Your all-day music station, and it initially broadcast from 6am-6pm, Radio Caroline announced a wavelength of 199 metres, rhyming with the name, but was actually broadcasting on 197.3 metres. Stations in the UK announced the wavelength in metres, and radios at that time were tuned using an analogue dial, the absence of precise digital readouts allowed for some leeway between the precise transmission frequency and the channel announced on the air. The Dutch offshore station Radio Veronica was on 192 metres and Radio Atlanta broadcast on 201, Radio Carolines transmission output was almost 20 kW, achieved by linking two 10 kW Continental Electronics transmitters. Broadcasting hours were 6am to 6pm to avoid competition from Radio Luxembourg, after its close-down, the station returned at 8pm and continued until after midnight. This was to avoid competition with television programmes. Most of Radio Carolines pop music programmes were targeted at housewives, without serious competition, Radio Caroline gained a regular daytime audience of some 10 million. On 2 July 1964, Radio Atlanta and Radio Carolines companies, Project Atlanta, announced the stations were to merge, with Crawford and ORahilly as joint managing directors. Radio Atlanta closed at 8pm that day and it was renamed Radio Caroline South and MV Mi Amigo remained off Frinton-on-Sea while MV Caroline broadcast as Radio Caroline North. MV Caroline sailed from Felixstowe to the Isle of Man, broadcasting as she went, the only broadcast staff on board were Tom Lodge and Jerry Leighton
26.
Wonderful Radio London
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The station, like other offshore radio operators, was dubbed a pirate radio station. Its offices were in the West End of London at 17 Curzon Street, Radio London was the idea of Don Pierson, who lived in Eastland, Texas, United States. Pierson said he was struck that these two stations were the first and only all-day commercial radio broadcasters serving the UK. An entrepreneur, he compared the number of stations serving the population of his native Northwest Texas with the two stations serving the entire UK. His idea that would be worth a lot of money while bringing enjoyment to many people, Radio London broadcast from the MV Galaxy, a former Second World War United States Navy minesweeper, originally named USS Density. It was fitted out for radio broadcasting in Miami, then sailed across the Atlantic to the Azores and this operation was overseen by one of the other investors, Tom Danaher. Owing to a disagreement with the other investors, Pierson left the Radio London consortium. His participation ended several weeks before the station went on air, John, Tommy Vance, Richard Warner, Willy Walker, Alan West, Tony Windsor and John Yorke. In August 1966, The Beatles started their last US concert tour, Radio Londons Kenny Everett, Carolines Jerry Leighton and Swinging Radio Englands Ron OQuinn were invited. In 1967, Radio London got an eight-day UK exclusive on the Sgt, peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, playing it first on 12 May 1967 – the album was in the shops on 1 June 1967 – but Everett had left the station on 21 March that year. Birch became managing director, responsible for the management of Radio London and its sales company. Birch was largely responsible for the success, tailoring the American-style format to a British audience. The cost of the station was covered by local and national advertising, the Armstrongs Worldwide Church of God sponsored the station with £50,000 a year. The World Tomorrow aired at 7pm, outside prime hours, British authorities would not register a British sales company called Radio London because the name was too similar to an existing company, Commercial Radio, so it was registered as Radlon Ltd. It was owned by Philip Birch and was the name on the air for advertising sales, the investors were in Texas and used different names for interlocking companies outside the UK and USA to disguise, primarily for tax reasons, their interests. He also founded Air Services, selling advertising for stations throughout the UK. He continued as CEO of Piccadilly Radio and chairman of Air Services until retirement in January 1984, the station was to have been Radio KLIF London, using recorded programmes from the Dallas AM radio station, KLIF1190. When it was decided that the sound should be live and geared towards a British audience and culture, Philip Birch was appointed CEO in charge of the radio station and advertising sales
27.
Radio 270
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Radio 270 was a pirate radio station serving Yorkshire and the North East of England from 1966 to 1967. In 1965 a group of Yorkshire businessmen formed a consortium to establish a radio station to broadcast to the North East coast from a location off Scarborough. Don Robinson, aged 28, who was a promoter, began the venture with Bill Pashby, Roland Hill. These recruited Wilf Proudfoot, owner of a chain of supermarkets, the venture was incorporated within a public company named Ellambar Investments Ltd. In late 1965, Proudfoot addressed a meeting at a Scarborough hotel in which he invited the public to subscribe for shares in the business. He indicated that the venture was a high one and that nobody should expect a commercial return on the money they put in. Around sixty people did subscribe with the largest single shareholding being held by Proudfoot himself, Leonard Dale became Chairman of the company while Proudfoot became its managing director. Don Robinson and Bill Pashby both initially occupied prominent roles in what became known as Radio 270. Robinson prepared the first programme plan for the station adopted a mixture of light music. It was intended to provide an offering which would compete directly with the BBCs Light Programme. Pashby was the stations first Maritime Director and it was he picked out a suitable vessel for use as a broadcasting platform. However, the side of the operation fell increasingly under the control of Wilf Proudfoot. The stations management was run from an office in the Scalby Road, the stations office manager was Maggie Lucas, a long-standing associate of Proudfoot who had acted as his secretary when he had been the Member of Parliament for Cleveland from 1959 to 1964. Proudfoot became uncomfortable with the programming and he engaged the services of Noel Miller as Programme Director. Miller had previous experience of radio in Australia and he adopted a simple style of programming based on a Top 40 format. A planned opening date of 1 April 1966 had to be abandoned when the vessel, Oceaan 7. However, the station opened in June, broadcasting on 1115 kilohertz,269 metres. This wavelength was used by existing radio stations in southern and eastern Europe
28.
Filey
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Filey is a small town and civil parish in North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the East Riding of Yorkshire, it is part of the borough of Scarborough between Scarborough and Bridlington on the North Sea coast, although it was a fishing village, it has a large beach and became a popular tourist resort. According to the 2011 UK census, Filey parish had a population of 6,981, Filey is at the eastern end of the Cleveland Way, a long-distance footpath, it starts at Helmsley and skirts the North York Moors. It was the second National Trail to be opened, the town is at the northern end of the Yorkshire Wolds Way National Trail which starts at Hessle and crosses the Yorkshire Wolds. Filey is the point for Great Yorkshire Bike Ride. The 70-mile ride begins at Wetherby Racecourse, Filey has a railway station on the Yorkshire Coast Line. A second station at Filey Holiday Camp railway station to the south of the served the former Butlins holiday camp. The camp has been re-developed into a 600-home holiday housing development and it is one of the largest coastal developments of this kind in the UK and the first homes were completed in 2007. In July 2007 Filey was hit by floods which caused major problems. The 12th century parish church dedicated to St Oswald, on Church Hill in the north of the town, is a Grade I listed building. It is the oldest building in Filey and Nicholas Pevsner wrote This is easily the finest church in the NE corner of the East Riding, Filey was a small village until the 18th century when visitors from Scarborough arrived seeking the peace and quiet that Filey then offered. In 1835 a Birmingham solicitor called John Wilkes Unett bought 7 acres of land and built the Crescent, later known as the Royal Crescent, which was opened in the 1850s. English composer Frederick Delius stayed as a boy on the Crescent with his family at Miss Hurds boarding house in 1876 and 1877, in 1931 the spire of a church was damaged by the Dogger Bank earthquake. For more than 40 years Butlins Filey Holiday Camp was a factor in Fileys economy. Building began in 1939 and continued during the Second World War when it became an air force known as RAF Hunmanby Moor. In 1945 it became a holiday resort with its own railway station. It closed in 1984, causing a decrease in the holiday makers visiting Filey, Filey was historically split between the North Riding of Yorkshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire, with the boundary running along Filey Beck. When County Councils were formed by the Local Government Act 1888, Coast & Country Housing Limited plan to build 300 houses in Filey
29.
Radio 390
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Radio 390 was a pirate radio station on Red Sands Fort, a former Maunsell Fort on the Red Sands sandbar. Previously the fort had been used by Radio Invicta and KING Radio, neither was well-financed or successful, and KING approached Ted Allbeury, who suggested a format based on womens magazines to appeal to housewives. Radio 390 was named after the wavelength, so listeners would know where to tune. The actual wavelength was 388 metres, but 390 was easier to remember, like its neighbour, Radio City, Radio 390 took advantage of the forts layout by erecting a 250-foot vertical mast on an inner tower, guyed to three of the outer towers. For advertisers, the station claimed 35 kilowatts, the stations easy listening format was innovative and highly popular with listeners, but criticised by Britain Radio as stone age radio - a series of segmented dirges. An episode of Patrick McGoohans Danger Man called The Not-So-Jolly Roger was filmed on Red Sands Fort in early 1966 when Radio 390 was broadcasting, the episode was broadcast on 4 July of the same year. On 25 November 1966, after a court case lasting two days, Radio 390s management was found guilty of illegal broadcasting, fined £100 and ordered to close the station. Shortly after 11pm this was done, an appeal heard by the High Court in December was turned down. On 31 December the station returned, basing its decision on evidence that the fort was outside territorial waters, a magistrates court heard the evidence on 22 February 1967, but rejected it next day, fining the company £200 and its directors £40 each. On 10 March the Post Office brought an action, seeking an injunction to prevent it from broadcasting. This was granted in May, but Radio 390 appealed, the appeal was heard on 28 July, but rejected on the grounds that the Marine Offences Act, would, in any case, have forced the station to close on or before 14 August,18 days later. Consequently, the station closed for the last time just after 5pm, on 6 August a group raided the fort and stole equipment, but were shortly arrested. Pirate radio in the United Kingdom A History of Red Sands Army Fort
30.
Radio North Sea International
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RNI broadcast for fewer than five years in the early 1970s and, courting both disaster and success, made a modest financial profit. In 1968 Erwin Meister and Edwin Bollier were among a group intending to broadcast as Radio Gloria from the former Radio London ship, on 2 July 1968, the German government banned off-shore broadcasting. Meister and Bollier bought their own vessel, the Bjarkoy, and they renamed their ship Mebo, then Mebo I, and, after transmissions ended, Angela. Before fitting was completed, the Mebo was found to be too small for broadcasting, however, she was used while the Mebo II was operating off England. Originally Silvretta, and built in Slikkerveer, Netherlands in 1948, in 1969 Mebo Telecommunications bought Silvretta, fitted her as a floating radio station, and renamed her Mebo II. One of five RCA-built prototype transmitters, and the one still in service. On 23 January 1970, Mebo II began test broadcasts from the Dutch coast, in English, when regular broadcasting began on 11 February 1970 it was more popular in the United Kingdom than the Netherlands or Germany. On 23 March 1970 Mebo II sailed to the East coast of England, arriving at 09,00 on 24 March 1970 and anchoring in international waters, the Labour government in Britain began jamming Mebo IIs MW signal at 2030 hours on 15 April 1970. RNI responded with political messages for the general election on 18 June 1970. On 13 May 1970, RNI responded to complaints about interference by changing its MW channel to 1230 kHz and this improved reception but was adjacent to the pop music service of BBC Radio One on 1214 kHz. Jamming followed five days later, causing interference to BBC Radio as well as RNI, especially in Kent, on 13 June 1970, five days before election day, Radio North Sea International changed to Radio Caroline International and launched a campaign in support of the Conservative party. The name change and political campaign were supported by Radio Carolines founder Ronan ORahilly, Ronan ORahilly headed the campaign on land, using a double-decker bus and posters depicting Harold Wilson as Chinas Chairman Mao. They believed the Conservatives would end jamming, the Conservatives won and there is evidence that the Caroline and RNI campaigns made a difference to the result. Two days after the election, the station reverted to RNI, because jamming continued, Mebo II returned to the Dutch coast on 23 July 1970. The British government jammed Mebo IIs broadcasts with tones, usually an 800 Hz heterodyne supplemented with a pulsed beep, harris also claimed Edwin Bollier vowed on the British government because he felt RNI had been singled out for jamming. Harriss theories are controversial and there has never been evidence to support them, on 12 August 1970, Kees Manders, a nightclub owner involved with Radio Veronica, became commercial director of RNI. But RNIs managing director, Larry Tremaine, said nothing had been agreed, Bollier and Meister had invited Manders to start a Dutch service from the Mebo II, and offered him a directorship in RNI, but withdrew when Manders leaked the story. A few weeks later, on Saturday,29 August 1970, accompanying the tug was a launch, the Viking, aboard which were Kees Manders with a woman and a child
31.
Radio City (pirate radio station)
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Radio City was a British pirate radio station broadcasting from Shivering Sands Army Fort, one of the abandoned Second World War Maunsell Sea Forts in the Thames Estuary. In 1964, following the launch of Radio Caroline, Screaming Lord Sutch said he would start his own station, on 27 May Radio Sutch began broadcasting on 194 metres,1542 kHz, from the south tower of Shivering Sands. It was a low-powered, low-budget operation, the transmitter, from a Handley Page Halifax bomber, was powered with a cascade of car batteries, a scaffold pole with a skull-and-crossbones flag as an antenna. By September 1964 Sutch had become tired of it and sold it to his manager Reginald Calvert for a reported £5,000, Calvert bought new equipment and expanded the station into other towers. One of the seven towers had been destroyed when a ship collided with it. The remaining five were connected by catwalks in a star shape. Calverts team repaired the catwalks and refurbished the facilities and living quarters, new studios were built, a more powerful transmitter installed, and the station experimented with new antenna configurations and frequencies. Initially antenna wires were strung around the periphery of the towers and this was unsuccessful due to poor insulation. Later a vertical mast was erected on the tower, supported by guy wires on three of the surrounding towers, and the station adopted the nickname your tower of power. The studio equipment was standard albeit low-budget, comprising a pair of Garrard turntables, an AKG D12 microphone, domestic tape decks, a US navy transmitter General Electric TCJ-7 replaced the bomber transmitter, instead of the makeshift scaffolding pole antenna, a real antenna mast was used. Most stations played jingles and commercials from cartridges but City used reel-to-reel, some material seems to have been stolen from The Goon Show and Round the Horne. At Christmas 1966 the show featured a parody of Alice in Wonderland, another novelty was The Anti-City Show, which invited listeners to send letters and reel-to-reel tapes of complaint about the station. It became a forum for complaints about anything that annoyed, occasionally, Youve Got Your Troubles by The Fortunes was broadcast as a signal to land-based associates of a problem, such as a supply shortage. Interference with official communications was a commonly cited reason for pirates to be banned, in September 1965, merger talks began between City and Radio Caroline South. A transmitter was delivered to the fort, intended to be used by Caroline when it left its ship, the merger collapsed, and the transmitter was never paid for. Calvert then talked to Radio London about a merger, in a venture called UKGM, in the early morning of 20 June 1966, a business associate of Calvert, retired Major Oliver Smedley, sent men to take possession of Shivering Sands. That evening, Calvert visited Smedleys home and in a scuffle was shot by Smedley, Smedley was charged with murder but cleared on grounds of self-defence. The killing spurred the Government to shut offshore stations, passing the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act, however prior to this legislation, it was established that the fort, within British waters, was covered by existing legislation
32.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
33.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
34.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
35.
REM Island
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REM Island was a platform built in the Republic of Ireland and towed off the Dutch coast in 1964 as the pirate broadcasting home of Radio and TV Noordzee. Both stations were dismantled by armed forces of the Netherlands and it was six miles off Noordwijk. Radio and TV Noordzee was founded in 1963 with land-based offices, the artificial island was built in the harbor of Cork, Ireland. It was towed to its location and anchored in cement on the seabed, on August 12,1964 a test broadcast was performed and on August 15 regular broadcasting started. The radio service broadcast on 1400 kHz, while on television it used Channel E11, REM stands for Reclame Exploitatie Maatschappij. The company intended to broadcast commercial radio and TV, Dutch law at the time did not authorize such broadcasts but the island was outside territorial waters. Other stations, such as Radio Veronica, used a ship, Dutch authorities were unhappy but they could not prevent the broadcasts. On December 12,1964, the government passed the REM law, the sea bed under REM Island, to which the structure was attached, was declared Dutch territory. Five days later, Royal Marines boarded the platform and ended broadcasting, a year after the raid, Radio Noordzee resumed transmissions legally under the name TROS. After that REM Island was used by the government to measure sea temperature, after a failed attempt to sell the island in 2004, the government dismantled it with a goodbye radio event by amateur radio enthusiasts, with the callsign PB6REM on the platform on June 8,2006. Since March 2011 the platform sits in Amsterdam harbour where it serves as a restaurant
36.
Netherlands Marine Corps
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The Korps Mariniers is the marine corps and amphibious infantry component of the Royal Netherlands Navy. The marines are trained to operate anywhere in the world in all environments, under any condition and circumstance, the Korps Mariniers can be deployed to any location in the world within 48 hours. Their motto is Qua Patet Orbis, the corps was founded on 10 December 1665 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War by the Prime Minister of the Dutch Republic, Johan de Witt, and Admiral Michiel de Ruyter as the Regiment de Marine. Its leader was Willem Joseph van Ghent, the Dutch had successfully used ordinary soldiers in ships at sea in the First Anglo-Dutch War. It was the fifth European Marine unit formed, being preceded by the Spains Infantería de Armada, the Portuguese Marine Corps, Frances Troupes de marine, like Britain, the Netherlands has had several periods when its Marines were disbanded. The Netherlands itself was under French occupation or control from 1810 until 1813, a new Marine unit was raised on 20 March 1801 during the time of the Batavian Republic and on 14 August 1806 the Korps Koninklijke Grenadiers van de Marine was raised under King Louis Bonaparte. The modern Korps Mariniers dates from 1814, receiving its current name in 1817, the Korps battle honour Chatham is one of the few ever won on British soil by a foreign unit. The July 2nd attack on Landguard fort near Harwich, performed by 1.500 Mariniers after landing at Woodrich was beaten off by the forts garrison, the Mariniers also fought in the Franco-Dutch War/Third Anglo-Dutch War. They returned to their ships in time to stop an English invasion by defeating a combined English. Led by Gerolf van Isselmuyden, they served in the battle of Seneffe against the French in 1674. Dutch support of American independence led to the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, in 1704, Netherlands Marines were part of a combined English-Dutch force under Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt that captured Gibraltar and defended it successfully shortly afterwards. They would combine with the British again for the bombardment of Algiers in 1816, the Korps Mariniers served in some of the operations of the Netherlands in the Dutch East Indies colony. The Netherlands took an approach to conquering the entire colony. The battle honors from the Aceh War and Bali date from this time, the Germans ended the stalemate by bombing Rotterdam. The threat of an attack by marines caused its German captain to scuttle the Antilla in Aruba in 1940 and he ordered his men to salute them out of respect for their bravery and determination and labeled them Zwarte duivels. Some Mariniers later joined the Princess Irene Brigade to fight against the Germans and they distinguished themselves in combat near the Dutch city of Tilburg in the autumn of 1944. It was part of the A Division, which was commanded by a Korps Mariniers officer. The Dutch kept Western New Guinea after the Indonesian National Revolution, the same year it was invaded and incorporated into Indonesia
37.
Council of Europe
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The Council of Europe is an international organisation focused on protecting human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and promoting European culture. Founded in 1949, it has 47 member states, covers approximately 820 million people, No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe. Unlike the EU, the Council of Europe cannot make binding laws, the best known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights. The Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of, the Secretary General heads the secretariat of the organisation. Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines, the headquarters of the Council of Europe are in Strasbourg, France. English and French are its two official languages, the Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress also use German, Italian, Russian, and Turkish for some of their work. In a speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, Sir Winston Churchill called for a kind of United States of Europe and he had spoken of a Council of Europe as early as 1943 in a radio broadcast. There were two schools of thought competing, some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, both approaches were finally combined through the creation of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly under the Statute of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London and those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe. Both organizations function as concentric circles around the foundations for European co-operation and harmony. The European Union could be seen as the circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. The Council of Europe and the European Union, different roles, Council of Europe conventions/treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe. The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, the Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court. It is to court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights. The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website, Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas. Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention Promotion of European youth exchanges and co-operation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia. The institutions of the Council of Europe are, The Secretary General, mr Thorbjørn Jagland, the former Prime Minister of Norway was elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe in September 2009. In June 2014, he was re-elected, and his term in office commenced on 1 October 2014
38.
Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967
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Broadcasting Act 1967 c.41, shortened to Marine Broadcasting Offences Act or Marine offences Act, became law in the United Kingdom at midnight on Monday 14 August 1967. It was subsequently amended by the Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006 and the Broadcasting Act 1990 and its purpose was to extend the powers of the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1949, beyond the territorial land area and territorial waters of the UK to cover airspace and external bodies of water. The Act represented the UKs ratification of the 1965 European Agreement for the Prevention of Broadcasts Transmitted from Stations outside National Territories. At the time that the Bill was introduced in Parliament in 1966, there were radio stations and these stations were at sea but there were press reports of stations broadcasting from aircraft and from a ship. It prohibited carrying by water or air goods or persons to or from it which made tendering illegal, station operators thought they could continue if they were staffed, supplied and funded by non-British citizens, but this largely proved impractical. In the 1920s the GPO had been circumvented by broadcasting from transmitters in countries close to British listeners, World War II terminated these broadcasts except for Radio Luxembourg. In the 1950s a pressure group campaigned with the help of Winston Churchill to pass the Television Act 1954 that broke the BBC television monopoly by creating ITV, some members wanted commercial competition to radio but were thwarted by a succession of governments. By the 1960s several companies formed in the hope that radio licences would be issued, Radio monopolies in adjoining nations had been broken by transmitters on ships in international waters. The first attempt to broadcast offshore to Britain was by CNBC, CNBC ended transmissions but press reports followed that GBLN, The Voice of Slough, would transmit from a ship with sponsored programming already booked and advertised by Herbert W. Armstrong. GBLN was followed by reports that GBOK was attempting to get on air from another ship, many in these early ventures were known to each other. Some of the television group members had registered broadcasting companies and were working to create offshore radio. When that was put off the air by Swedish law it became available to British entrepreneurs, before Radio Atlanta got on the air, Radio Caroline began broadcasting in March 1964. By 1966 other stations had come on the air transmitting to Scotland, northern and southern England, although these stations maintained sales and management offices in Britain, the transmitters were not under British law. In many instances the ships were registered in other countries, parliamentary debates listed several reasons why unlicensed broadcasting should be stopped. Opponents referred to radio stations. Allegations of piracy included misappropriation of World War II military installations, wavelengths allocated to others, other claimed said the vessels were a danger to shipping and that signals could interfere with aircraft and police, fire and ambulance services. In 1966, a dispute among offshore radio operators brought the issue of unlicensed radio stations to the fore, reginald Calvert, operator of Radio City, had refused to pay Radio Carolines operator Oliver Smedley for a substandard transmitter. Smedley hired some riggers to occupy the Radio City facility, and in an altercation at Smedleys house, the UK silenced these stations by bringing the sandbars within UK waters
39.
Laser 558
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Laser 558 was an offshore pirate radio station launched in May 1984 using disc jockeys from the USA. It broadcast from the Panama registered ship MV Communicator in international waters in the North Sea, within months the station had a large audience due to its strong signal and continuous music mixing current records with oldies. However, insufficient advertising starved the station off the air in late 1985, in 1986 an attempt was made to return as Laser Hot Hits, but the same problems arose. A London car salesman and DJ named John Kenning convinced Philip Smyth, Kenning recruited Paul Rusling, who introduced the project to Roy Lindau, who had been involved in Radio Caroline. Lindau was an executive for Major Market Radio, an airtime brokerage owned by Gene Autry. He joined Laser in mid-1983 and became president of its sales company and he left in late 1984 after disagreements over control. There were reports that the giant, Philip Morris, pulled out following pressure from European authorities. The team planned two stations on one ship, the music programmed via satellite from the New York offices of Music Media International and this was scaled down to a single station called Laser after early disagreements on policy. The station was built on a hydrographic survey vessel, the Gardline Seeker. The ship was registered via a Panama based company, Deka Overseas Inc, the plan was to use an antenna held aloft by a helium balloon - an inflatable dirigible tethered to the deck. The early days were overshadowed by problems with the balloon aerial, due to weather in the North Sea, several balloons were lost. The short-lived transmissions on 729 kHz could be heard in several countries, a change to two masts and a frequency at the bottom of the AM band were effected for the stations launch in May 1984 as Laser 558. The near non-stop music, never more than a minute away from music, was in stark contrast to the 50 per cent speech imposed on UK commercial radio, and the similar proportion of talk on BBC Radio 1. The lack of advertising on Laser, plus the American DJs, resulted in a huge audience - BBC research indicated four million in the UK, by using only American DJs and claiming supply tenders from Spain, Laser claimed to be legal. Surveillance by the UK showed Laser was supplied from Kent, and UK stations campaigned to have Laser and Caroline removed, Laser played most of its music from tape cartridges as the American management wanted control over material broadcast. The former research lab at the stern of the ship was converted into two studios plus a newsroom, which contained a Kaypro 4 computer and telex link with the office in New York. This link was achieved initially by a COMSAT installation on the upper deck, later the ship used a private marine VHF channel to a base in Kent. The broadcast transmitters were a pair of CSI25 kilowatt AM transmitters, built in Boca Raton, usually only one was in use at half power, due to the limitations of tuning components in the antenna
40.
Swinging Radio England
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While the station was dubbed a pirate radio station, its operation took place within the law and its offices were in the West End of London. Its representation was by a company formed earlier in the year to represent in Europe the ABC radio, the station shared the studio and transmitter holds with a 50 kW AM sister station named Britain Radio billed as the Hallmark of Quality and broadcasting easy music. Swinging Radio England was the brainchild of Don Pierson who lived in Eastland, Texas, like Wonderful Radio London, its jingles were made by PAMS in Dallas, as part of The Jet Set series 27 originally made for WABC, New York. Its rapid fire bannerline news at 15 minutes past the hour was borrowed from WFUN in Miami, the on-air staff were known as boss jocks, although the offshore version only slightly resembled the style of KHJ in California which originated the name. Don Pierson delegated transmitter and antenna work to the LTV-Continental Electronics company in Dallas, Texas, as a turn-key operation, Pierson had obtained advice from consulting radio engineer Bill Carr of Fort Worth, Texas, who had worked on the antenna construction of Wonderful Radio London. When Pierson began to run out of getting the twin stations on the air due to difficulty in getting financial underwriters. The project was divided into three, the ship, the stations and advertising, as a result, it was not until the beginning of 1966 that a final contract was completed with CEMCO. CEMCO relied on experience of work for agencies of the United States government. When Don Pierson planned the station in 1965, his engineer Bill Carr suggested 665 kHz and 795 kHz or 815 kHz, but by the end of November that year, Don Pierson had still been unable to finance either the purchase of a ship or the two offshore stations. By the time financial arrangements were completed, New Year 1966 had arrived and this was divided into a ship purchase and a package purchase for both stations and the antenna to be designed, manufactured and installed by Continental Electronics. Both studios were going to be automated using ideas that Pierson had planned for Wonderful Radio London. At that time, some stations in the USA were using this method to program both easy listening and top forty formats because they required fewer staff which in turn kept expense to a minimum. As a result, most of the automation for both stations was moved to the Britain Radio studio to more space for the new board. On board ship at dock in Miami, CEMCO installed a second mast attached to the original to support a third outstretched triangular boom. At the end of that boom was a heavy insulator that hung down to provide attachment for a large swinging cable that stretched down to the transmitters below deck and this cable shunt-fed signals to the top of the mast from which radiating antennas were then attached. When engineering on the mast was completed, Pierson doubted it could withstand the Atlantic crossing, just as predicted it came crashing to the deck two hours after the ship left port. Carpenters had been hired at the last minute to construct sleeping arrangements for additional staff made necessary by the change from automation to live presentation. The Collins Radio board had been delivered at the last minute and was being wired at sea by Rick Crandall, when the ship arrived in Europe it was incapable of transmitting programs due to delays caused by the unavailability of CEMCO staff
41.
Radio Veronica
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Radio Veronica was an offshore radio station that began broadcasting in 1960, and broadcast from offshore for over fourteen years. Broadcasts began on 21 April 1960, the station announced itself as VRON but changed to Radio Veronica, after the poem Het Zwarte Schaap Veronica — The Black Sheep Veronica — by the childrens poet Annie M. G. Schmidt. After the stations closure, some of its staff applied for a broadcasting licence, the original Radio Veronica became the most popular station in the Netherlands. It broadcast from a former lightship Borkum Riff anchored off the Dutch coastline, the ship was fitted with a horizontal antenna between the fore and aft masts, fed by a one-kilowatt transmitter. Most of its programmes were recorded in a studio on the Zeedijk in Hilversum, at the end of the 1960s the studios and offices moved to bigger premises on the Utrechtseweg in Hilversum. Initially advertisers were reluctant to buy airtime, but those that did reported increases in sales, for a short time the station also ran an English language service under the call letters CNBC. Although short-lived, CNBC was presented by broadcasters who were able to give invaluable technical advice to Veronicas Dutch staff. The station faced its first serious competition in 1964 when Radio Noordzee and TV Noordzee began broadcasting from the REM Island, the Dutch government passed a law banning broadcasts from such structures and raided the REM Island, but left Veronica alone because of its popularity. The Norderney took over Veronicas broadcasts in November that year and the Borkum Riff was sold for scrap, during 1965 the station was influenced by English-language pirates like Radio London and adopted a faster format with jingles. The arrival of a powerful rival was to cause repercussions for Veronica. The jamming stopped when the returned to the Netherlands, taking up position just one mile from the Norderney. The German programmes were replaced by all English programmes. The Mebo II was equipped with a 100 kW AM transmitter as well as FM, although power did not guarantee RNI an audience, Radio Veronicas management were sufficiently worried about loss of advertising revenue that they planned to put RNI off the air. On 24 September 1970 RNI closed, claiming it was trying to stop the Dutch government from passing legislation that might force Veronica, so loved by the peoples of the Netherlands. In fact Veronica had paid RNI1 million guilders to go off the air for two months, and to enforce this agreement Veronica replaced the Mebo IIs crew with their own staff. RNIs management became unhappy with this arrangement, and once the two months were up one of RNIs Swiss directors, Erwin Bollier, attempted to refund the money, Veronica refused, claiming the right to renew the contract. On 5 January 1971 Bollier boarded the Mebo II, dismissed the Veronica-appointed captain and it was claimed that Veronicas staff had sabotaged RNIs equipment, but by February 1971 RNI was back on the air, with a Dutch as well as an English service. In March Veronica sued RNI for breach of contract, the court found in favour of RNI and the case tarnished Veronicas reputation
42.
MV Ross Revenge
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MV Ross Revenge is a radio ship, the home of Radio Caroline, as well as having supported Radio Monique and various religious broadcasters. She was constructed in Bremerhaven in 1960, and initially served as a commercial trawler, following her decommissioning, she was purchased by Radio Caroline and outfitted as a radio ship, complete with 300-foot antenna mast and 50 kW transmitter. Her broadcasts began on 20 August 1983, her final pirate broadcast took place in November 1990 and she ran aground on the Goodwin Sands in November 1991, bringing the era of offshore pirate radio in Europe to an end. She was, however, salvaged, and is now maintained by the Caroline Support Group, freyr was built in Bremerhaven, Germany by Seebeck for the Icelandic government. She was registered in Reykjavik and carried the registration RE1, in August 1963 she was sold to Ross Trawlers and renamed Ross Revenge, registration GY718. In this capacity, the ship was involved in the Cod Wars of the 1970s, Ross Revenge holds the world record for the biggest catch. In 1976 she landed a catch of 3,000 kits of Icelandic cod at Grimsby, while moored at the Cairnryan breakers yard, Ross Revenge was found to be suitable for use in the Radio Caroline project. As a result, Seamore purchased Ross Revenge for £28,500, the ship was subsequently registered in Panama to Grothan Steemship Lines, Incorporated. It is worth noting that both Seamore and Grothan were influenced heavily by Ronan ORahilly, in April 1981, Ross Revenge was towed from the Cairnryan breakers yard, and arrived in Solares five days later. Come Autumn, work began on converting her into a radio ship. Her transmitter mast, at 300 ft above sea level, was the tallest mast ever fitted to a ship, early in 1982, new investors were found for Radio Caroline. Of these, the investor, James Ryan, was later arrested for fraud. Chains he had placed on Ross Revenge would later be removed prior to her drydocking, on 23 September, she was registered as a pleasure craft in Panama with registry number 9625-POXT, and her callsign was HP-4344. In May 1983, Caroline Communications acquired full ownership of Ross Revenge, whereafter she was drydocked. Insurance problems regarding the lifeboats would prevent Ross Revenge from setting sail until 4 August, at 15,00 on 4 August, MV Ross Revenge set sail under the command of Captain Martin Eve. Problems with the engines forced the ship to be towed to its anchorage, on 8 August, Ross Revenge dropped anchor in the Kentish Knock. The next day, a test transmission was made on 963 kHz, on 20 January 1984, Ross Revenge lost her anchor and drifted south onto a sand bank 2 miles within British waters, and broadcasts were stopped. Broadcasts resumed two days later, at which time she had returned to her anchorage, on 3 March, a force twelve storm necessitated the dragging of the emergency anchor
