1.
High Court of Justice
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Her Majestys High Court of Justice in England is, together with the Court of Appeal and the Crown Court, one of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. Its name is abbreviated as EWHC for legal citation purposes and it has three main divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division. The jurisdictions overlap in some cases, and cases started in one division may be transferred by order to another where appropriate. Most High Court proceedings are heard by a judge, but certain kinds of proceedings, especially in the Queens Bench Division, are assigned to a Divisional Court. Exceptionally the court may sit with a jury, but in practice only in defamation cases or cases against the police. Litigants are normally represented by counsel, but may be represented by solicitors qualified to hold a right of audience, in principle the High Court is bound by its own previous decisions, but there are conflicting authorities as to what extent. In criminal matters appeals from the Queens Bench Divisional Court are made directly to the Supreme Court, the High Court is based at the Royal Courts of Justice on the Strand in the City of Westminster, London. It has district registries across England and Wales and almost all High Court proceedings may be issued, the High Court is headed by the Lord Chief Justice. The High Court is organised into three divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division, a list of hearings in the High Courts divisions is published daily. The Queens Bench Division – or Kings Bench Division when the monarch is male – has two roles and it hears a wide range of common law cases and also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Until 2005, the head of the QBD was the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Igor Judge was the first person to hold this office, appointed in October 2005. A single judge first decides whether the matter is fit to bring to the court, in addition, the Queens Bench Divisional Court hears appeals on points of law from the Magistrates Court and from the Crown Court. These are known as appeals by way of case stated, since the questions of law are considered solely on the basis of the facts found, other specialised courts of the Queens Bench Division include the Technology and Construction Court, Commercial Court, and the Admiralty Court. The specialised judges and procedures of these courts are tailored to their type of business, appeals from the High Court in civil matters are made to the Court of Appeal, in criminal matters appeal from the Divisional Court is made only to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Chancery Division deals with law, trusts law, probate law, insolvency. It has specialist courts which deal with patents and registered designs, all tax appeals are assigned to the Chancery Division. The head of the Chancery Division was known as the Vice-Chancellor until October 2005, the first Chancellor was Sir Andrew Morritt, who retired in 2013 to be succeeded by Sir Terence Etherton. In 2016, Sir Geoffrey Vos succeeded Sir Terence as Chancellor on the appointment as Master of the Rolls
2.
Royal Courts of Justice
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The Royal Courts of Justice, commonly called the Law Courts, is a court building in London which houses both the High Court and Court of Appeal of England and Wales. Designed by George Edmund Street, who died before it was completed, it is a grey stone edifice in the Victorian Gothic style built in the 1870s. It is one of the largest courts in Europe and it is located on the Strand within the City of Westminster, near the border with the City of London. It is surrounded by the four Inns of Court, Kings College London, the nearest London Underground stations are Chancery Lane and Temple. The courts within the building are open to the public, although there may be some restrictions depending upon the nature of the cases being heard and those in court who do not have legal representation may receive some assistance within the building. There is a citizens advice bureau based within the Main Hall which provides free, there is also a Personal Support Unit where litigants in person can receive emotional support and practical information about court proceedings. The search for a design for the Law Courts was by way of a competition, an approach to selecting a design. The competition ran from 1866-7 and the twelve architects competing for the contract each submitted designs for the site, in 1868 it was finally decided that George Edmund Street was the winner. Building was started in 1873 by Messrs Bull & Sons of Southampton, there was a serious strike of masons at an early stage which threatened to extend to the other trades and caused a temporary stoppage of the works. In consequence, foreign workmen were brought in – mostly Germans and this aroused bitter hostility on the part of the men on strike, and the newcomers had to be housed and fed within the building. However, these disputes were settled and the building took eight years to complete. Street died before the building was opened, overcome by the work, much of the preparatory legal work was completed by Edwin Wilkins Field including promotion of the Courts of Justice Building Act of 1865 and the Courts of Justice Concentration Act of 1865. A statue of Field stands in the building, parliament paid £1,453,000 for the 6-acre site upon which 450 houses had to be demolished. The building was paid for by cash accumulated in court from the estates of the intestate to the sum of £700,000. Oak work and fittings in the court cost a further £70,000 and with decoration, the dimensions of the building are,470 feet from east to west,460 feet from north to south,245 feet from the Strand level to the tip of the fleche. Entering through the gates on the Strand, one passes under two elaborately carved porches fitted with iron gates. The carving over the porch consists of heads of the most eminent judges. Also at the front, over the Judges entrance are a stone cat
3.
England and Wales
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The devolved National Assembly for Wales was created in 1999 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act 1998 and provides a degree of self-government in Wales. The powers of the Assembly were expanded by the Government of Wales Act 2006, which allows it to pass its own laws, there is no equivalent body for England, which is directly governed by the Parliament and the government of the United Kingdom. During the Roman occupation of Britain, the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit, at that time, most of the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages, and were all regarded as Britons, divided into numerous tribes. After the conquest, the Romans administered this region as a single unit and this aimed to replace Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 then consolidated the administration of all the Welsh territories and incorporated them fully into the legal system of the Kingdom of England. Prior to 1746 it was not clear whether a reference to England in legislation included Wales and this specified that in all prior and future laws, references to England would by default include Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in 1967, although the definition of England it created is preserved for acts passed prior to its repeal. Since the Acts repeal what was referred to as England is now England and Wales, while references to England, England and Wales are treated as a single unit, for most purposes, because the two form the constitutional successor to the former Kingdom of England. The continuance of Scots law was guaranteed under the 1706 Treaty of Union that led to the Acts of Union 1707, thus, most laws applicable to England also applied to Wales. However, Parliament now passes laws applicable to Wales and not to England, examples are the Welsh Language Acts 1967 and 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998. Measures and Acts of the National Assembly for Wales passed since the Government of Wales Act 2006 also apply in Wales, following the Government of Wales Act, effective since May 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can legislate on matters devolved to it. Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers and this was the first time in almost 500 years that Wales had its own powers to legislate. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, outside of the legal system the position is mixed. Some organisations combine as England and Wales, others are separate, some religious denominations organise on the basis of England and Wales, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, but also small denominations, e. g. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Prior to the disestablishment of the Church in Wales in 1920, the Electoral Commission maintains a register of political parties, organised according to where the party operates. The order of precedence in England and Wales is distinct from those of Northern Ireland and Scotland, the national parks of England and Wales have a distinctive legislative framework and history. Courts of England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Geography of Wales Geography of England British Isles
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
EC postcode area
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The EC postcode area, also known as the London EC postal area, is a group of postcode districts in central London, England. It includes almost all of the City of London and parts of the London Boroughs of Islington, Camden, Hackney, Tower Hamlets, the area covered is of very high density development. Deliveries for the EC postcode area are made from Mount Pleasant Mail Centre, the current postcode districts are relatively recent divisions of the EC1, EC2, EC3 and EC4 districts established in 1917. Where the districts are used for other than the sorting of mail, such as use as a geographic reference and on street signs. Postcode Address File List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom London postal district Royal Mails Postcode Address File A quick introduction to Royal Mails Postcode Address File
6.
Recorder of London
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The Recorder of London is an ancient legal office in the City of London. The Recorder of London is appointed by the Crown on the recommendation of the City of London Corporation with the concurrence of the Lord Chancellor, the Recorder is the senior Circuit Judge at the Central Criminal Court, hearing trials of criminal offences. The Recorders deputy is the Common Serjeant of London, appointed by the Crown on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor, the current Recorder of London is Nicholas Hilliard QC. The first Recorder of London was appointed in 1298, originally it seems likely that the Recorder would have recorded pleas in the court of the Lord Mayor and the Aldermen and delivered their judgments. A charter granted by Henry VI in 1444 appointed the Recorder ex office a conservator of the peace, the Recorder increasingly exercised judicial functions in the following years, eventually becoming the principal judge in the City of London. The Recorder of London became a judge at the Central Criminal Court when it was created by Parliament in 1834. The Central Criminal Court became a Crown Court under the Courts Act 1971, in addition to hearing criminal trials at the Central Criminal Court, the Recorder of London is responsible for managing the court lists and allocation of cases to the courts judges. He also provides advice to the Lord Mayor and the Court of Aldermen. On the occasion of a State visit, the Recorder usually presents an Address of Welcome on behalf of the City, the Recorder can act as the deputy of the Common Serjeant in the election of the Sheriff and their presentation to the Queens Remembrancer at the Quit Rent ceremony. The current Recorder is Nicholas Hilliard, QC, who succeeded Brian Barker QC in January 2015, 282–284 The Bar and the Old Bailey, 1750–1850, p.45,151 The Office of Recorder of the City of London, Sir Lawrence Verney,30 October 2000
7.
Court
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Similarly, the rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defense before a court. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is known as the judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue, the practical authority given to the court is known as its jurisdiction – the courts power to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. It is also usual in the courts to have barristers, and attorneys or counsel, as assistants, though, often, courts consist of additional barristers, bailiffs, reporters. The term the court is used to refer to the presiding officer or officials. The judge or panel of judges may also be referred to as the bench. In the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the court by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself. In the United States, the authority of a court to take action is based on personal jurisdiction, subject-matter jurisdiction. The English word court is a cognate of the Latin word hortus, the verb to court, meaning to win favor, derives from the same source since people traveled to the sovereigns court to win his favor. The word jurisdiction comes from juris and dictio, jurisdiction is defined as the official authority to make legal decisions and judgements over an individual or materialistic item within a territory. Whether a given court has jurisdiction to preside over a case is a key question in any legal action. Three basic components of jurisdiction are jurisdiction over the person (personal jurisdiction, jurisdiction over the subject matter or thing. Other concepts of jurisdiction include general jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction, territorial jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, trial courts are courts that hold trials. Sometimes termed courts of first instance, trial courts have varying original jurisdiction, trial courts may conduct trials with juries as the finders of fact or trials in which judges act as both finders of fact and finders of law. Juries are less common in court systems outside the Anglo-American common law tradition, appellate courts are courts that hear appeals of lower courts and trial courts. Some courts, such as the Crown Court in England and Wales may have both trial and appellate jurisdictions, the two major legal traditions of the western world are the civil law courts and the common law courts. These two great legal traditions are similar, in that they are products of western culture although there are significant differences between the two traditions, civil law courts are profoundly based upon Roman Law, specifically a civil body of law entitled Corpus iuris civilis. Civil law is firmly ensconced in the French and German legal systems, Common law courts were established by English royal judges of the Kings Council after the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066
8.
Crown Court
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The Crown Court of England and Wales is, together with the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal, one of the constituent parts of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. It is the court of first instance in criminal cases, however, for some purposes the Crown Court is hierarchically subordinate to the High Court. The Crown Court sits in around 92 locations in England and Wales, the administration of the Crown Court is conducted through HM Courts and Tribunals Service. Previously conducted across six circuits, HM Courts and Tribunals Service is now divided into seven regions, Midlands, North East, North West, South East, South West, London and Wales. The Wales region was identified separately, having regard to the legislative powers of the Welsh Assembly Government. When the Crown Court sits in the City of London it is known as the Central Criminal Court, the average time from receipt by the Crown Court to completion was 177 days by the start of 2016. Rather than speaking of a location at which the Crown Court sits, it is practice to refer to any venue as a Crown Court. In 2015 the Crown Court heard 11,348 appeals against conviction, at the conclusion of the hearing the Crown Court has the power to confirm, reverse or vary any part of the decision under appeal. The average waiting time for appeals was 8.8 weeks in 2015, in 2015 the Crown Court dealt with 30,802 cases for sentencing from the magistrates courts. Committals may also arise from breaches of the terms of a Community Rehabilitation Order or a sentence of imprisonment. The court performance target is that cases committed for sentence should be heard within 10 weeks, when the Crown Court is dealing with a matter connected with a trial on indictment, appeal lies to the criminal division of the Court of Appeal and thence to the Supreme Court. In all other cases, appeal from the Crown Court lies by way of case stated to a Divisional Court of the High Court, the judges who normally sit in the Crown Court are High Court judges, Circuit judges and Recorders. Circuit judges also sit in the County Court, Recorders are barristers or solicitors in private practice, who sit part-time as judges. The most serious cases are allocated to High Court judges and Senior Circuit judges, the remainder are dealt with by Circuit judges and Recorders, although Recorders will normally handle less serious work than Circuit judges. The allocation is conducted according to directions given by the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Crown Court was established on 1 January 1972 by the Courts Act 1971, acting on the recommendations of the commission. The quarter sessions were local courts assembled four times a year to dispose of cases which were not serious enough to go before a High Court judge. The Crown Court and a county court may sit in the same building, since the establishment of Her Majestys Courts Service in April 2005 there is an increased sharing of facilities between the Crown Court, county courts and magistrates courts. At the front of the court, on a platform, is a large bench
9.
Newgate Prison
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Newgate Prison was a prison in London, at the corner of Newgate Street and Old Bailey just inside the City of London. It was originally located at the site of Newgate, a gate in the Roman London Wall, the gate/prison was rebuilt in the 12th century, and demolished in 1904. The prison was extended and rebuilt many times, and remained in use for over 700 years, in the early 12th century, Henry II instituted legal reforms that gave the Crown more control over the administration of justice. As part of his Assize of Clarendon of 1166, he required the construction of prisons, in 1188, Newgate was the first institution established to meet that purpose. The addition included new dungeons and adjacent buildings, which would remain unaltered for roughly two centuries, by the 15th century, however, Newgate was in need of repair. The building was collapsing and decaying, and many prisoners were dying from the quarters, overcrowding, rampant disease. Indeed, one year,22 prisoners died from gaol fever, the situation in Newgate was so dire that in 1419, city officials temporarily shut down the prison. Some Londoners bequeathed their estates to repair the prison, two decades later, the executors of Lord Mayor Dick Whittington were granted a license to renovate the prison in 1422. The gate and gaol were pulled down and rebuilt, there was a new central hall for meals, a new chapel, and the creation of additional chambers and basement cells with no light or ventilation. The prison housed male and female felons and debtors and separated the prisoners into wards by gender. By the mid-15th century, Newgate could accommodate roughly 300 prisoners, though the prisoners lived in separate quarters, they mixed freely with each other and visitors to the prison. There were three main wards—the Master’s side for those could afford to pay for their own food and accommodations, the Common side for those who were too poor, and a Press Yard for special prisoners. The king often used Newgate as a place for heretics, traitors. The prison was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, the work followed the designs of George Dance and was almost finished when it was stormed by a mob during the Gordon riots in June 1780. The building was gutted by fire, and the badly damaged. The cost of repairs was estimated at £30,000, dance’s new prison was finally completed in 1782. The new prison was constructed to a terrible design intended to discourage law-breaking. The building was laid out around a courtyard, and was divided into two sections, a Common area for poor prisoners and a State area for those able to afford more comfortable accommodation
10.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
11.
Motte-and-bailey castle
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The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, the Low Countries, by the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries. The term motte and bailey is a modern one, and is not medieval in origin. The word bailey comes from the Norman-French baille, or basse-cour, in medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles. One contemporary account of these comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height and this minimum height of 3 metres for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 metres high, a motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself. A keep and a wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege. The bailey was a courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade. The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte, the bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castles economic activity. The bailey was linked to the motte either by a bridge stretching between the two, or, more popularly in England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle, wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences. In practice, there was a number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey, at Warkworth Castle an inner, some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln
12.
Ludgate Hill
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Ludgate Hill is a hill in the City of London, near the old Ludgate, a gate to the City that was taken down, with its attached gaol, in 1780. It is the site of St. Pauls Cathedral, traditionally said to have been the site of a Roman temple of the goddess Diana and it is one of the three ancient hills of London, the others being Tower Hill and Cornhill. The highest point is just north of St. Pauls, at 17.6 metres above sea level, Ludgate Hill is also the name of a street which runs between St. Pauls Churchyard and Ludgate Circus, from where it becomes Fleet Street. It was formerly a much narrower street called Ludgate Street, many small alleys on Ludgate Hill were swept away in the late 1860s to build Ludgate Hill railway station between Water Lane and New Bridge Street, a station of the London, Chatham and Dover Railway. This also involved the regrading of the slope of Ludgate Hill at the junction, there is a blue plaque near the bottom of the hill with these words, In a house near this site was published in 1702 The Daily Courant first London daily newspaper. About halfway up Ludgate Hill is the church of St. Martin, Ludgate, paternoster Square, home of the London Stock Exchange since 2004, lies on the hill, immediately to the north of St. Pauls Cathedral. Ludgate is mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136, according to the pseudohistorical work the name comes from the mythic Welsh king Lud son of Heli whom he claims also gave his name to London. One proposed derivation, entirely prosaic, is that the name is a variation on Fleodgaet, at the bottom of Ludgate Hill, on the north side, is Limeburner Lane. This may sound like a quaint survival from medieval times, but it was constructed in the 1990s. This was the location of the Bell Savage Inn, first mentioned in 1452 where plays were performed, according to surveyor John Stow the name was derived from Isabella Savage, but Addison claimed it was La belle Sauvage, a woman in the wilderness. The clown Richard Tarlton used to perform here and it is mentioned in Thomas Hughes Tom Browns Schooldays and Charles Dickens The Pickwick Papers. In October 1684, a Rynoceros lately brought from the East Indies was put on show there, the inn was demolished in 1873. In 1851, part of it was rented out to John Cassell, at this time it was still called La Belle Sauvage Yard and the firm of Cassell used la Belle Sauvage in some of their imprints. Thomas Malory was imprisoned in the Ludgate prison in the 1460s and he later wrote Le Morte dArthur. The prison is mentioned in Daniel Defoes Roxana, The Fortunate Mistress, from 1731, the London Coffee House was next to St. Martins, Ludgate, at 24-26 Ludgate Hill. It was frequented by Joseph Priestley and Benjamin Franklin, when the juries at the Old Bailey failed to reach a verdict, they were housed here overnight. In 1806, a Roman hexagonal altar dedicated to Claudia Martina by her husband, the London Coffee House was closed in 1867, and is now occupied by a pub called Ye Olde London. Edmund Spensers Shepheardes Calender was printed by Hugh Singleton at the sign of the Gylden tunne in Creed Lane in 1579, John Evelyn lived in the Hawk and Pheasant on Ludgate Hill in 1658-59
13.
Holborn Viaduct
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Holborn Viaduct is a road bridge in London and the name of the street which crosses it. It links Holborn, via Holborn Circus, with Newgate Street, in the City of London financial district, passing over Farringdon Street, the viaduct spans the steep-sided Holborn Hill and the River Fleet valley at a length of 1,400 feet and 80 feet wide. City surveyor William Haywood was the architect and the engineer was Rowland Mason Ordish and it was opened by Queen Victoria at the same time as the inauguration of the other thoroughfares with a formal coach drive procession. The viaduct effected a more level approach on the crossing of this section of the Holborn/Fleet valley from east to west, across Farringdon Street. Holborn Viaduct railway station, opened in 1874, was at the end with a low-level through route towards Farringdon. In 1882 the viaduct became home to the worlds first coal-fired power station, the Edison Electric Light Station
14.
Greater London
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London, or Greater London, is a region of England which forms the administrative boundaries of London. It is organised into 33 local government districts, the 32 London boroughs, the Greater London Authority, based in Southwark, is responsible for strategic local government across the region and consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The county of Greater London was created on 1 April 1965 through the London Government Act 1963, administratively, Greater London was first established as a sui generis council area under the Greater London Council between 1963 and 1986. The area was re-established as a region in 1994, and the Greater London Authority formed in 2000, the region covers 1,572 km2 and had a population of 8,174,000 at the 2011 census. In 2012, it had the highest GVA per capita in the United Kingdom at £37,232, the Greater London Built-up Area—used in some national statistics—is a measure of the continuous urban area of London, and therefore includes areas outside of the administrative region. The term Greater London has been and still is used to different areas in governance, statistics, history. In terms of ceremonial counties, London is divided into the small City of London, outside the limited boundaries of the City, a variety of arrangements has governed the wider area since 1855, culminating in the creation of the Greater London administrative area in 1965. The Greater London Arterial Road Programme was devised between 1913 and 1916, one of the larger early forms was the Greater London Planning Region, devised in 1927, which occupied 1,856 square miles and included 9 million people. The LCC pressed for an alteration in its boundaries soon after the end of the First World War, noting that within the Metropolitan, a Royal Commission on London Government was set up to consider the issue. The LCC proposed a vast new area for Greater London, with a boundary somewhere between the Metropolitan Police District and the home counties, protests were made at the possibility of including Windsor, Slough and Eton in the authority. The Commission made its report in 1923, rejecting the LCCs scheme, two minority reports favoured change beyond the amalgamation of smaller urban districts, including both smaller borough councils and a central authority for strategic functions. The London Traffic Act 1924 was a result of the Commission, Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the Greater London Council sharing power with the City of London Corporation and the 32 London Borough councils. The GLC was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985 and its functions were devolved to the City Corporation and the London Boroughs, with some functions transferred to central government and joint boards. Greater London was used to form the London region of England in 1994, a referendum held in 1998 established a public will to recreate an upper tier of government to cover the region. The Greater London Authority, London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London were created in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act 1999, in 2000, the outer boundary of the Metropolitan Police District was re-aligned to the Greater London boundary. The 2000 and 2004 mayoral elections were won by Ken Livingstone, the 2008 and 2012 elections were won by Boris Johnson. The 2016 election was won by Sadiq Khan, Greater London continues to include the most closely associated parts of the Greater London Urban Area and their historic buffers. Thus it includes, in five boroughs, significant parts of the Metropolitan Green Belt which protects designated greenfield land in a way to the citys parks
15.
Trial
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In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or disputes. One form of tribunal is a court, the tribunal, which may occur before a judge, jury, or other designated trier of fact, aims to achieve a resolution to their dispute. Where the trial is held before a group of members of the community, where the trial is held solely before a judge, it is called a bench trial. Hearings before administrative bodies may have many of the features of a trial before a court, trials can also be divided by the type of dispute at issue. A criminal trial is designed to resolve accusations brought against an accused of a crime. In common law systems, most criminal defendants are entitled to a trial held before a jury, because the state is attempting to use its power to deprive the accused of life, liberty, or property, the rights of the accused afforded to criminal defendants are typically broad. The rules of criminal procedure provide rules for criminal trials, a civil trial is generally held to settle lawsuits or civil claims—non-criminal disputes. In some countries, the government can both sue and be sued in a civil capacity, the rules of civil procedure provide rules for civil trials. Although administrative hearings are not ordinarily considered trials, they retain many elements found in more formal trial settings, when the dispute goes to judicial setting, it is called an administrative trial, to revise the administrative hearing, depending on the jurisdiction. The types of disputes handled in these hearings is governed by administrative law, labor law is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees, in Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no distinction is made. However, there are two categories of labour law. First, collective labour law relates to the relationship between employee, employer and union. Second, individual labour law concerns employees rights at work and through the contract for work, the labour movement has been instrumental in the enacting of laws protecting labour rights in the 19th and 20th centuries. Labour rights have been integral to the social and economic development since the industrial revolution, there are two primary systems for conducting a trial, Adversarial, In common law systems, an adversarial or accusatory approach is used to adjudicate guilt or innocence. In several jurisdictions in more cases, there is a jury to determine the facts. This polarizes the issues, with each competitor acting in its own self-interest, to maintain fairness, there is a presumption of innocence, and the burden of proof lies on the prosecution
16.
Lord Mayor of London
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The Lord Mayor of London is the City of Londons mayor and leader of the City of London Corporation. This office differs from the Mayor of London, which is an elected position. However, the legal and commonly used title remains Lord Mayor of London, the Lord Mayor is elected at Common Hall each year on Michaelmas, and takes office on the Friday before the second Saturday in November, at The Silent Ceremony. One of the worlds oldest continuously elected civic offices, the Lord Mayors main role nowadays is to represent, support and promote the businesses and residents in the City of London. As leader of the Corporation of the City of London, the Lord Mayor serves as the key spokesman for the local authority, all Lord Mayors of London are apolitical. The Lord Mayor of London typically delivers dozens of speeches and addresses per year, many incumbents of the office make overseas visits while Lord Mayor of London. Currently serving is the 689th Lord Mayor Dr Andrew Parmley Of the 69 cities in the United Kingdom, the City of London is among the 30 that have Lord Mayors. The Lord Mayor is entitled to the style The Right Honourable, the same privilege extends only to the Lord Mayors of York, Cardiff and Belfast, the latter prefix applies only to Privy Counsellors. A woman who holds the office is known as a Lord Mayor. The wife of a male Lord Mayor is styled as Lady Mayoress, a female Lord Mayor or an unmarried male Lord Mayor may appoint a female consort, usually a fellow member of the corporation, to the role of Lady Mayoress. In speech, a Lord Mayor is referred to as My Lord Mayor, and it was once customary for Lord Mayors to be appointed knights upon taking office and baronets upon retirement, unless they already held such a title. This custom was followed with a few inconsistencies from the 16th until the 19th centuries, however, from 1964 onwards, the regular creation of hereditary titles such as baronetcies was phased out, so subsequent Lord Mayors were offered knighthoods. Furthermore, foreign Heads of State visiting the City of London on a UK State Visit, for example, in 2001, Sir David Howard was created a Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence of Jordan by King Abdullah II. Recently Lord Mayors have been appointed at the beginning of their term of office Knights or Dames of St John, as a mark of respect, by HM The Queen, Sovereign Head of the Order of St John. The office of Lord Mayor was instituted in 1189, the first holder of the office being Henry Fitz-Ailwin de Londonestone. The Mayor of the City of London has been elected by the City, rather than appointed by the Sovereign, the title Lord Mayor came to be used after 1354, when it was granted to Thomas Legge by King Edward III. Lord Mayors are elected for terms, by custom, they do not now serve more than one consecutive term. Almost 700 people have served as Lord Mayor, Dame Mary Donaldson, elected in 1983, and Dame Fiona Woolf, elected in 2013, are the only women to have held the office
17.
Middlesex
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Middlesex is a historic county in south-east England. It is now entirely within the wider urbanised area of London and its area is now also mostly within the ceremonial county of Greater London, with small sections in other neighbouring ceremonial counties. It was established in the Anglo-Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons, the largely low-lying county, dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south, was the second smallest county by area in 1831. The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert control over Middlesex. Westminster Abbey dominated most of the financial, judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county. As London grew into Middlesex, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county, in the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county, including the East End and West End of London. From 1855 the southeast was administered, with sections of Kent and Surrey, the City of London, and Middlesex, became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff, lost in 1199. In the interwar years suburban London expanded further, with improvement and expansion of public transport, after the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with high population growth continuing in the outer parts. Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket, Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns. The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the origin of its inhabitants. The word is formed from the Anglo-Saxon, i. e. Old English, middel, in an 8th-century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan. The Saxons derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known, the seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon, there were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county. Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Hounslow, Ossulstone and Spelthorne. The City of London has been self-governing since the century and became a county in its own right. Middlesex also included Westminster, which also had a degree of autonomy. Of the six hundreds, Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London, during the 17th century it was divided into four divisions, which, along with the Liberty of Westminster, largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred. The divisions were named Finsbury, Holborn, Kensington and Tower, the county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century
18.
Richard Whittington
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Sir Richard Whittington was an English merchant and a politician of the late medieval period. He is also the inspiration for the English folk tale Dick Whittington. He was four times Lord Mayor of London, a member of parliament, in his lifetime he financed a number of public projects, such as drainage systems in poor areas of medieval London, and a hospital ward for unmarried mothers. He bequeathed his fortune to form the Charity of Sir Richard Whittington which, nearly 600 years later, continues to assist people in need. He was born at Pauntley in Gloucestershire, England, although his family originated from Kinver in Staffordshire, England and his date of birth is variously given as in the 1350s and he died in London in 1423. However, he was a son and so would not inherit his fathers estate as the eldest son might expect to do. Consequently he was sent to the City of London to learn the trade of mercer and he became a successful trader, dealing in valuable imports such as silks and velvets, both luxury fabrics, much of which he sold to the Royal and noble court from about 1388. There is indirect evidence that he was also an exporter to Europe of much sought after English woollen cloth such as broadcloth. From 1392 to 1394 he sold goods to Richard II worth £3,500 and he also began money-lending in 1388, preferring this to outward shows of wealth such as buying property. By 1397 he was also lending large sums of money to the King, in 1384 Whittington had become a Councilman. In 1392 he was one of the delegation to the King at Nottingham at which the King seized the City of Londons lands because of alleged misgovernment. By 1393, he had become an alderman and was appointed Sheriff by the incumbent mayor, William Staundone, as well as becoming a member of the Mercers Company. When Adam Bamme, the mayor of London, died in June 1397, within days Whittington had negotiated with the King a deal in which the city bought back its liberties for £10,000. He was elected mayor by a grateful populace on 13 October 1397, the deposition of Richard II in 1399 did not affect Whittington and it is thought that he merely acquiesced in the coup led by Bolingbroke. Whittington had long supplied the new king, Henry IV, as a prominent member of the landowning elite and he also lent the new king substantial amounts of money. He was elected again in 1406—during 1407 he was simultaneously Mayor in both London and Calais—and in 1419. For example, Henry V employed him to supervise the expenditure to complete Westminster Abbey, despite being a moneylender himself he was sufficiently trusted and respected to sit as a judge in usury trials in 1421. Whittington also collected revenues and import duties, a long dispute with the Company of Brewers over standard prices and measures of ale was won by Whittington
19.
Great Fire of London
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The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday,2 September to Wednesday,5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall and it threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles IIs Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses,87 parish churches, St Pauls Cathedral and it is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the Citys 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small, a melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane, where the fire started, shows that the temperature reached 1250 °C. The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday,2 September, by the time that large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm that defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City, order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the focused on the French and Dutch, Englands enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War. The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming, evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire, by the 1660s, London was by far the largest city in Britain, estimated at half a million inhabitants. By inartificial, Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift, the result of organic growth, London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall. It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch, Holborn, and Southwark, the City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived. The City was then, as now, the heart of the capital. The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the suburbs, or in the exclusive Westminster district. The relationship was tense between the City and the Crown. The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War and they were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son, and when the Great Fire threatened the City, they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources. Even in such an emergency, the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite, by the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor, the fire was already out of control. The City was essentially medieval in its plan, an overcrowded warren of narrow, winding. It had experienced major fires before 1666, the most recent in 1632
20.
Bushel's Case
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Bushel’s Case 124 E. R.1006 is a famous English decision on the role of juries. It also confirmed that the Court of Common Pleas could issue a writ of habeas corpus in ordinary criminal cases, bushels Case arose from a previous case involving two Quakers charged with unlawful assembly, William Penn and William Mead. They had been arrested in August 1670 for violating the Conventicle Act, the jury found the two guilty of speaking in Gracechurch Street but refused to add to an unlawful assembly. The infuriated judge charged the jury that they not be dismissed until we have a verdict that the court will accept. The jury modified the verdict to guilty of speaking to an assembly in Gracechurch Street, whereupon the judge had them locked up overnight without food, Penn protested this and the judge ordered him bound and gagged. Finally, after a two-day fast, the jury returned a not guilty verdict, the judge fined the jury for contempt of court for returning a verdict contrary to their own findings of fact and removed them to prison until the fine was paid. Penn protested that this violated the Magna Carta and was removed from the court. Edward Bushel, a member of the jury, nonetheless refused to pay the fine, Bushel petitioned the Court of Common Pleas for a writ of habeas corpus. Jury nullification The Trial of William Penn and William Mead, at the Old Bailey, for a Tumultuous Assembly,22 Charles II. A. D.1670, Howells State Trials, Vol.6, Page 951, life in Crime, Can a Judge ever direct a jury to convict. Solicitors Journal 8 December 2006 Crosby, Kevin, Bushells Case and the Jurors Soul 33 Journal of Legal History 251
21.
Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service
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Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service is an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice. It was created on 1 April 2011 by the merger of Her Majestys Courts Service and it works from about 600 locations across the United Kingdom. The courts over which it has responsibility are the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the courts. The Chief Executive is responsible for the operations and administration of the agency. Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service is an agency, in contrast with the Scottish Court Service which is not subject to the control of a Minister in any way. However, it is unique in being such an agency and having constitutional accountability to judges as well as the Lord Chancellor, the framework document says that the agency is accountable to the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales and the Senior President of Tribunals. This provides a unique partnership between all three in relation to the governance, financing and operation of Her Majesty’s Courts and Tribunals Service. For example, where the Board cannot reach agreement, its Chair will refer the issue in question to the Lord Chancellor, any amendment of the framework document must be agreed between all parties, and laid before Parliament. Furthermore, the Lord Chief Justice is entitled to terminate the partnership if either concludes that it is no longer compatible with his position or the independence of the judiciary. Incumbent Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service website Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service Guidance website Judiciary of England and Wales website Crime and justice
22.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
23.
William Palmer (murderer)
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William Palmer, also known as the Rugeley Poisoner or the Prince of Poisoners, was an English doctor found guilty of murder in one of the most notorious cases of the 19th century. Charles Dickens called Palmer the greatest villain that ever stood in the Old Bailey, Palmer was convicted for the 1855 murder of his friend John Cook, and was executed in public by hanging the following year. Born in Rugeley, Staffordshire, William Palmer was the sixth of eight children to Sarah and his father worked as a sawyer, and died when William was 12, leaving Sarah with a legacy of some £70,000. As a seventeen-year-old, Palmer worked as an apprentice at a Liverpool chemist and he studied medicine in London, and qualified as a physician in August 1846. After returning to Staffordshire later that year he met plumber and glazier George Abley at the Lamb and Flag public house in Little Haywood, and challenged him to a drinking contest. Abley accepted, and an hour later was carried home, where he died in bed later that evening, nothing was ever proven, but locals noted that Palmer had an interest in Ableys attractive wife. He returned to his town of Rugeley to practice as a doctor. His new mother-in-law, also called Ann Thornton, had inherited a fortune of £8,000 after Colonel Brookes committed suicide in 1834 and she died on 18 January 1849, two weeks after coming to stay with Palmer, she was known to have lent him money. An elderly Dr Bamford recorded a verdict of apoplexy, Palmer was disappointed with the inheritance he and his wife gained from the death, having expected it to be much greater. Palmer became interested in racing and borrowed money from Leonard Bladen. Bladen lent him £600, but died in agony at Palmers house on 10 May 1850, bladens death certificate listed Palmer as present at the death, and stated the cause of death as injury of the hip joint,5 or 6 months, abscess in the pelvis. His first son, William Brookes Palmer, was born in either 1848 or 1850 and he outlived his father, dying on 29 April 1926. William and Ann had four children, who all died in infancy. She was about two and a half months old at the time of death and he was about a month old. Died on 19 December 1852, only 7 hours following his birth and he was three or four days old. By 1854 Palmer was heavily in debt, and he began forging his mothers signature to pay off creditors and he took out life insurance on his wife with the Prince of Wales Insurance Company, and paid out a premium of £750 for a policy of £13,000. The death of Ann Palmer followed on 29 September 1854, at only 27 years old and she was believed to have died of cholera, as a cholera pandemic was affecting Great Britain. Still heavily in debt, with two creditors threatening to speak to his mother, Palmer attempted to take out insurance on his brother, Walter
24.
Staffordshire
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Staffordshire is a landlocked county in the West Midlands of England. It adjoins Cheshire to the north west, Derbyshire and Leicestershire to the east, Warwickshire to the south east, West Midlands and Worcestershire to the south, and Shropshire to the west. The largest city in Staffordshire is Stoke-on-Trent, which is administered separately from the rest of the county as an independent unitary authority, Lichfield also has city status, although this is a considerably smaller cathedral city. Major towns include Stafford, Burton upon Trent, Cannock, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Leek, smaller towns include Stone, Uttoxeter, and Rugeley, and large villages Eccleshall, Wombourne, Kinver, Penkridge, Tutbury and Stretton. Cannock Chase AONB is within the county as well as parts of the National Forest, Wolverhampton, Walsall, West Bromwich, and Smethwick were historic Staffordshire towns until local government reorganisation created the West Midlands county in 1974. Historically, Staffordshire was divided into the five hundreds of Cuttlestone, Offlow, Pirehill, Seisdon, the historic boundaries of Staffordshire cover much of what is now the metropolitan county of West Midlands. The Act also saw the towns of Tamworth and Burton upon Trent united entirely in Staffordshire, in 1553 Queen Mary made Lichfield a county separate from the rest of Staffordshire. Handsworth and Perry Barr became part of the county borough of Birmingham in the early 20th century, Burton, in the east of the county, became a county borough in 1901, and was followed by Smethwick, another town in the Black Country in 1907. In 1910 the six towns of the Staffordshire Potteries, including Hanley, a major reorganisation in the Black Country in 1966, under the recommendation of the Local Government Commission for England led to the creation of an area of contiguous county boroughs. Meanwhile, the county borough of Dudley, historically a part of Worcestershire, expanded. County boroughs were abolished, with Stoke becoming a district in Staffordshire. On 1 April 1997, under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, in July 2009 the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold ever found in Britain was discovered in a field near Lichfield. The artefacts, known as The Staffordshire Hoard have tentatively dated to the 7th or 8th centuries. Some nationally and internationally known companies have their base in Staffordshire. They include the Britannia Building Society which is based in Leek, JCB is based in Rocester near Uttoxeter and bet365 based in Stoke-on-Trent. The theme park Alton Towers is in the Staffordshire Moorlands and several of the worlds largest pottery manufacturers are based in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire has a completely comprehensive system with eight independent schools. Most secondary schools are from 11–16 or 18, but two in Staffordshire Moorlands and South Staffordshire are from 13–18, there are two universities in the county, Keele University in Newcastle-under-Lyme and Staffordshire University, which has campuses in Stoke-on-Trent, Stafford, Lichfield and Shrewsbury. The modern county of Staffordshire currently has three football clubs – Stoke City and Port Vale, both from Stoke-on-Trent, and Burton Albion, who play in Burton upon Trent. They were among the 12 founder members of the Football League in 1888, in 1972, the club finally won a major trophy when they lifted the Football League Cup, but after relegation from the First Division in 1985 they would not experience top flight football for 23 years
25.
St Sepulchre-without-Newgate
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St Sepulchre-without-Newgate, also known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is an Anglican church in the City of London. It is located on Holborn Viaduct, almost opposite the Old Bailey, in medieval times it stood just outside the now-demolished old city wall, near the Newgate. It has been a living of St Johns College, Oxford, the original Saxon church on the site was dedicated to St Edmund the King and Martyr. In 1137 it was given to the Priory of St Bartholomew, the name eventually became contracted to St Sepulchre. The church is today the largest parish church in the City and it was completely rebuilt in the 15th century but was gutted by the Great Fire of London in 1666, which left only the outer walls, the tower and the porch standing -. Modified in the 18th century, the church underwent extensive restoration in 1878 and it narrowly avoided destruction in the Second World War, although the 18th-century watch-house in its churchyard was completely destroyed and had to be rebuilt. The interior of the church is a wide, roomy space with a ceiling installed in 1834. The Vicars old residence has recently been renovated into a living quarter. During the reign of Mary I in 1555, St Sepulchres vicar, St Sepulchre is named in the nursery rhyme Oranges and Lemons as the bells of Old Bailey. This handbell, known as the Execution Bell, now resides in a case to the south of the nave. On the day of the execution, the bells were tolled as the condemned were led to Tyburn, the church has been the official musicians church for many years and is associated with many famous musicians. Its north aisle is dedicated as the Musicians Chapel, with four windows commemorating John Ireland, the singer Dame Nellie Melba, Walter Carroll and the conductor Sir Henry Wood respectively. Wood, who at the age of fourteen, learned to play the organ at church and later became its organist. The south aisle of the holds the regimental chapel of the Royal Fusiliers. The west end of the aisle has various memorials connected with the City of London Rifles. The church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950, thomas Culpeper, buried here Sir Anthony St Leger and his first wife Eleanor, buried here. Smith is commemorated by a window designed by Francis Skeat. Sir Henry Wood, conductor Samuel Gurney erected the first drinking fountain for the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain and it was restored to the original location in 1913 and remains there
26.
Edward William Mountford
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Edward William Mountford was an English architect, noted for his Edwardian Baroque style, who designed the Old Bailey. He was born in Shipston-on-Stour, Warwickshire and was educated privately and he married twice, to Jessie Smith and, following her death, Dorothy Hounsham. He had a son from his first marriage, and a daughter from his second and he died in London on 7 February 1908. He was a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and President of the Architectural Association
27.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
28.
Lady Justice
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Lady Justice is an allegorical personification of the moral force in judicial systems. Her attributes are a blindfold, a balance, and a sword and she often appears as a pair with Prudentia, who holds a mirror and a snake. Lady Justice is also known as Iustitia or Justitia after Latin, Iustitia, the Roman goddess of Justice, the personification of justice balancing the scales dates back to the Goddess Maat, and later Isis, of ancient Egypt. The Hellenic deities Themis and Dike were later goddesses of justice, Themis was the embodiment of divine order, law, and custom, in her aspect as the personification of the divine rightness of law. There are three features of Lady Justice, a set of scales, a blindfold, and a sword. Lady Justice is most often depicted with a set of scales typically suspended from her hand, upon which she measures the strengths of a cases support. The depiction dates back to ancient Egypt, where the God Anubis was frequently depicted with a set of scales on which He weighed a deceaseds heart against the Feather of Truth, since the 16th century, Lady Justice has often been depicted wearing a blindfold. The blindfold represents impartiality, the ideal that justice should be applied without regard to wealth, the earliest Roman coins depicted Justitia with the sword in one hand and the scale in the other, but with her eyes uncovered. Justitia was only represented as blind since about the end of the 15th century. The first known representation of blind Justice is Hans Giengs 1543 statue on the Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen in Berne, instead of using the Janus approach, many sculptures simply leave out the blindfold altogether. Another variation is to depict a blindfolded Lady Justice as a human scale, an example of this can be seen at the Shelby County Courthouse in Memphis, Tennessee. The cover of a 2006 issue of Rolling Stone proclaimed TIME TO GO. focusing on the corruption that dominated Congress. The drawing showed a bunch of figures evoking reactionary politics emerging from the Capitol, one of the figures was Lady Justice lifting her blindfold, implying that the then-composition of Congress had politicized the criminal justice system. The last distinctive feature of Lady Justice is her sword, the sword represented authority in ancient times, and conveys the idea that justice can be swift and final. The Greco-Roman garment symbolizes the status of the attitude that embodies justice. Justice in sculpture Justice in painting Lady Justice and her symbols are used in heraldry, especially in the arms of legal government agencies. com
29.
F. W. Pomeroy
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Frederick William Pomeroy RA was a prolific British sculptor of architectural and monumental works. He was one of the so-called New Sculptors identified by Edmund Gosse in 1894 – a group distinguished by a turn towards naturalism. He was born in London, the son of an artist-craftsman and he trained with William Silver Frith at the South London Technical School of Art, where he was also taught by Jules Dalou. In 1880, he was able to enter the Royal Academy Schools, where he won a travelling scholarship and he was elected ARA in 1906, and RA in 1917. On returning to London Pomeroy carved Frederic Leightons marble group, Athlete wrestling with a python, in 1887 he joined the Art Workers Guild, and from 1888 he exhibited with the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. He became a sculptor in the New Sculpture movement, both in London and elsewhere in Britain. His work in London includes the figure of Justice above the Central Criminal Court, pomeroys largest outdoor works are the four enormous bronze figures on the upstream side of Vauxhall Bridge in London. Dating from 1907, they represent, Pottery, Engineering, Architecture and Agriculture, with her he had two sons. In May 1924 Pomeroy offered a prize for the most perfect pair of feet, with the result that the actress Daisy Burrell and the dancer Margery Prince tied for the first prize of £50
30.
The Blitz
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By September 1940—two months into the battle—faulty German intelligence suggested that the Royal Air Force was close to defeat at the hands of the Luftwaffe. The German air fleets were ordered to attack London, thereby drawing up the last remnants of RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation, Adolf Hitler and commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, sanctioned the change in emphasis on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, one year into the war, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 out of the following 57 days, on 15 September 1940, a large daylight attack against London was repulsed with significant German losses. Thereafter, the Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of nocturnal attacks, ports and industrial centres outside London were also attacked. The main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool was bombed, the North Sea port of Hull, a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, was subjected to raids in the Hull Blitz during the war. More than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged and more than 40,000 civilians were killed, by May 1941, the threat of an invasion of Britain had ended, and Hitlers attention turned to Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or significantly damage the war economy, the eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British production and the war industries continued to operate and expand. The German offensives greatest effect was forcing the dispersal of aircraft production, British wartime studies concluded that cities generally took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely but exceptions like Birmingham took three months. The German air offensive failed for several reasons, discussions in OKL revolved around tactics rather than strategy. Poor intelligence on British industry and economic efficiency was also a factor, in the 1920s and 1930s, air power theorists Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell espoused the idea that air forces could win wars, without a need for land and sea fighting. It was thought there was no defence against air attack, particularly at night, enemy industry, seats of government, factories and communications could be destroyed, taking away their means to resist. It was also thought the bombing of residential centres would cause a collapse of civilian will, democracies, where the populace was allowed to show overt disapproval of the state, were thought particularly vulnerable. This thinking was prevalent in both the RAF and the United States Army Air Corps, the policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry. In the Luftwaffe, there was a view of strategic bombing. OKL did not believe that air power alone could be decisive, contrary to popular belief, evidence suggests that the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official bombing policy in which civilians became the primary target until 1942. The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets and it could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. Wever outlined five points of air strategy, To destroy the air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories
31.
St Paul's Cathedral
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St Pauls Cathedral, London, is an Anglican cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of London and the mother church of the Diocese of London. It sits on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade 1 listed building and its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD604. The present church, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren and its construction, completed in Wrens lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the City after the Great Fire of London. The cathedral is one of the most famous and most recognisable sights of London and its dome, framed by the spires of Wrens City churches, dominated the skyline for 300 years. At 365 feet high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1967, the dome is among the highest in the world. St Pauls is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom after Liverpool Cathedral, St Pauls Cathedral occupies a significant place in the national identity. It is the subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke. St Pauls Cathedral is a church with hourly prayer and daily services. The entry fee is £18 for adults, the location of Londiniums original cathedral is unknown. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 5th century building on Tower Hill was excavated, the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Pauls Cathedral. Wren reported that he had no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire. Bede records that in AD604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberhts uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a dedicated to St Paul in London. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the site as the later medieval. On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his sons expelled Mellitus from London. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown and this building, or a successor, was destroyed by fire in 962, but rebuilt in the same year. King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016, the cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The fourth St Pauls, generally referred to as Old St Pauls, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire, a further fire in 1136 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240
32.
Stenography
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Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand, a more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography, from the Greek stenos and it has also been called brachygraphy, from Greek brachys and tachygraphy, from Greek tachys, depending on whether compression or speed of writing is the goal. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. Shorthand was used widely in the past, before the invention of recording. Shorthand was considered a part of secretarial training and police work. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation or discourse, for example, healthcare professionals may use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece and this shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older, the oldest datable reference is a contract from Middle Egypt, stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the semeiographer Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs, over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome, Marcus Tullius Tiro, a slave and later a freedman of Cicero, the Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations and of word ending abbreviations. The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4000 signs, but new signs were introduced, in order to have a less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire, the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were known and taught. After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten, when many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China, clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and these records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by the signature, personal seal, or thumbprint. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day, an interest in shorthand or short-writing developed towards the end of the 16th century in England. In 1588 Timothy Bright published his Characterie, An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced a system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word
33.
Provisional IRA Belfast Brigade
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The Belfast Brigade of the Provisional IRA was the largest of the organisations command areas, based in the city of Belfast. The Belfast Brigade was one of the first active units of the Provisional IRA, Billy McKee accused Billy McMillen, the IRAs Belfast commander, and the Dublin-based IRA leadership, of having failed to provide arms, planning or manpower to defend Catholic streets. On 22 September, McKee and a number of other IRA men, arrived armed at a meeting called by McMillen and they did not succeed, but announced that they would no longer be taking orders from the IRA leadership in Dublin. McKee sided with the Provisionals and sat on the first Provisional Army Council in September 1970, nine out of thirteen IRA units in Belfast sided with the Provisionals in 1969, roughly 120 activists and 500 supporters. McKee became the first Officer Commanding of the Provisional IRA Belfast Brigade, from the start, there was intermittent feuding between McKees men and his former comrades in the Official IRA, as they vied for control of nationalist areas. The Provisionals, however, rapidly gained the hand, due to their projection of themselves as the most reliable defenders of the Catholic community. McKee himself contributed greatly to this image by an action he undertook on 27 June 1970, rioting broke out in the Ardoyne area of north Belfast after an Orange Order parade, and three Protestants were killed in gun battles between the Provisional IRA and loyalists. In response, loyalists prepared to attack the vulnerable Catholic enclave of Short Strand in east Belfast, when McKee heard about this, he drove to Short Strand with some men and weapons and took up position at St Matthews Church. In the ensuing gun battle, McKee was wounded and one of his men was killed. This only became practicable, however, after the Catholic communitys relationship with the British Army deteriorated rapidly over the course of 1970 and this deterioration was due to the British Armys heavy-handed treatment of Catholics and nationalists in their efforts to combat republican paramilitaries. For example, on 5–7 July 1970, up to 3,000 troops sealed off the lower Falls area, five civilians were killed and over 60 injured in gun battles between the troops and the Official IRA. Over 300 people were arrested and the area was flooded with CS gas, after this point, the Belfast Brigades strategy shifted from defence to retaliation and in January 1971, they began seeking out and attacking British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary patrols. On 5 February 1971, the Belfast Provisionals killed their first soldier, Robert Curtis, who was killed by Billy Reid in a gun battle in the New Lodge area. By July 1971, ten soldiers had died at the hands of the IRA in the city On 15 April 1971, McKee, along with Proinsias MacAirt, was arrested by the British Army when found in possession of a hand gun. He was charged and convicted for possession of the weapon and imprisoned in Crumlin Road Gaol, in the early years of the Troubles, the Provisional IRA in Belfast expanded rapidly. In August 1969, the Brigade had just 50 active members, by the end of 1971, it had 1,200 members, giving it a large but loosely controlled structure. It was during this period that the IRA campaign got off the ground in the city, Joe Cahill authorised the beginning of the IRAs bombing operations as well as attacks on troops and the RUC. He based himself in a house in Andersonstown and toured the city, on 9 August 1971, the Army mounted Operation Demetrius, introducing internment in an effort to arrest the IRAs leaders
34.
Provisional Irish Republican Army
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It was the biggest and most active republican paramilitary group during the Troubles. It saw itself as the successor to the original IRA and called simply the Irish Republican Army. It was also referred to as such by others. The Provisional IRA emerged in December 1969, following a split in the republican movement, the IRA initially focused on defence, but it began an offensive campaign in 1971. The IRAs primary goal was to force the British to negotiate a withdrawal from Northern Ireland and it used guerrilla tactics against the British Army and RUC in both rural and urban areas. It also carried out a campaign in Northern Ireland and England against what it saw as political. The IRA called a ceasefire in July 1997, after Sinn Féin was re-admitted into the Northern Ireland peace talks. It supported the 1998 Good Friday Agreement and in 2005 it disarmed under international supervision, the campaign was supported by arms and funding from Libya and from some Irish American groups. As a result, the IRA launched a new strategy known as the Long War and this saw them conduct a war of attrition against the British and increased emphasis on political activity, via the political party Sinn Féin. The success of the 1981 Irish hunger strike in mobilising support and winning elections led to the Armalite and ballot box strategy, with more time, the British demand was quickly dropped after the May 1997 general election in the UK. The IRA ceasefire was reinstated in July 1997 and Sinn Féin was admitted into all-party talks. The IRAs armed campaign, primarily in Northern Ireland but also in England and mainland Europe, the dead included around 1,100 members of the British security forces, and about 640 civilians. The IRA itself lost 275–300 members and an estimated 10,000 imprisoned at times over the 30-year period. The organisation remains classified as a proscribed terrorist group in the UK, two small groups split from the Provisional IRA, the Continuity IRA in 1986, and the Real IRA in 1997. Both reject the Good Friday Agreement and continue to engage in paramilitary activity and this new IRA group is estimated by Police Service of Northern Ireland intelligence sources to have between 250 and 300 active militants and many more supporting associates. The Provisional IRA was organised hierarchically, at the top of the organisation was the IRA Army Council, headed by the IRA Chief of Staff. All levels of the organisation were entitled to send delegates to IRA General Army Conventions, the GAC was the IRAs supreme decision-making authority. Since 1969, there have only three, in 1970,1986, and 2005, owing to the difficulty in organising such a large gathering of an illegal organisation in secret
35.
Common Serjeant of London
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He presents the Sheriffs to the Queens Remembrancer at the annual Quit Rents ceremony, and is in attendance on most other major ceremonial occasions. The Common Serjeant is appointed by the Crown on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor, formerly, the Common Serjeant of London was a legal officer of the City Corporation of London. The Common Serjeant of London attended on the Lord Mayor of London and the Court of Aldermen on court days, and acted with them in council. He also attended the Court of Aldermen and Common Council, and had charge of the Orphans Estates The 81st incumbent is His Honour Judge Richard Marks, QC, who was appointed on 3 March 2015. Appointment of Common Serjeant of London Common Serjeant of London on the Ministry of Justice website Common Serjeant of London on the Probert Encyclopaedia
36.
Recorder (judge)
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Its jurisdiction did not extend to civil suits. It was merged into the Wayne County Circuit Court, the general court in Wayne County. It traces its roots to the Mayors Court in Detroit, formed in 1824 and this municipal court probably owed its name to the fact that from 1827 until 1857, the official name of the City of Detroit was The Mayor, Recorder and Alderman of Detroit. In its 173-year history, it is probable that the Ossian Sweet family murder trials—defended by Clarence Darrow, the trials are memorialized in two official Michigan Historical Markers, Frank Murphy Dr. Ossian Sweet / Home Additionally, there is a Michigan Legal Milestones. Plaque (erected by the State Bar of Michigan in the first floor of the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice in Detroit, Kevin Boyles chronicle, Arc of Justice, A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age was adapted into a play. Mr. Boyle was honored by the Detroit City Council for The Sweet Trials, *The Sweet Trials, Malice Aforethought is a play written by Arthur Beer, based on the trials of Ossian and Henry Sweet, and derived from Kevin Boyles Arc of Justice. The merger of the Recorders court and Wayne County Circuit Court was not without controversy and it was made pursuant to a 1997 state law which also consolidated the states probate courts into a family court, a far less controversial change. A lawsuit brought by Richard Kuhn opposed the merger, but did not prevail, prior to the merger, judges of Recorders Court were elected from Detroit, so unsurprisingly, most of them were African-American. Then Detroit Recorders Court was abolished — or rather, it was merged with Wayne County Circuit Court, the Recorders Court judges became Circuit Court judges, and have to run for re-election in Wayne County as a whole, which is predominantly white. At the time of its merger, and now as reconfigured as a part of the Wayne County Circuit Court, gershwin A. ISBN 0-8050-7933-5, ISBN 978-0-8050-7933-3
37.
Queen's Counsel
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A Queens Counsel, or Kings Counsel during the reign of a king, is an eminent lawyer who is appointed by the Queen to be one of Her Majestys Counsel learned in the law. The term is recognised as an honorific. Queens Counsel is a status, conferred by the Crown, that is recognised by courts, members have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court. As members wear silk gowns of a design, the award of Queens Counsel is known informally as taking silk. Appointments are made from within the profession on the basis of merit rather than a particular level of experience. However, successful applicants tend to be barristers, or advocates with 15 years of experience or more, the Attorney-General, Solicitor-General, and Kings Serjeants were Kings Counsel in Ordinary in the Kingdom of England. The first Queens Counsel Extraordinary was Sir Francis Bacon, who was given a patent giving him precedence at the Bar in 1597, the new rank of Kings Counsel contributed to the gradual obsolescence of the formerly more senior serjeant-at-law by superseding it. The Attorney-General and Solicitor-General had similarly succeeded the Kings Serjeants as leaders of the Bar in Tudor times, but the Kings Counsel emerged into eminence only in the early 1830s, prior to when they were relatively few in number. It became the means to recognise a barrister as a senior member of the profession. It became of greater importance to become a KC. The KCs inherited the prestige of the serjeants and their priority before the courts, the earliest English law list, published in 1775, lists 165 members of the Bar, of whom 14 were Kings Counsel, a proportion of about 8. 5%. As of 2010 roughly the same proportion existed, though the number of barristers had increased to about 12,250 in independent practice, in 1839 the number of Queens Counsel was seventy. In 1882, the number of Queens Counsel was 187, the list of Queens Counsel in the Law List of 1897 gave the names of 238, of whom hardly one-third appeared to be in actual practice. In 1959, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 181, in each of the five years up to 1970, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 208,209,221,236 and 262, respectively. In each of the years 1973 to 1978, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 329,345,370,372,384 and 404, in 1989, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 601. In each of the years 1991 to 2000, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 736,760,797,845,891,925,974,1006,1043, the title traditionally depends on the sex of the sovereign. The current Queen, Elizabeth II has had a long reign and it can be assumed that, should the Queen die and the title pass to a descendant, the title will again become KC, as the next three in line to the throne are male heirs. Queens Counsel and serjeants were prohibited, at least from the century, from drafting pleadings alone
38.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
39.
Bridge House Estates
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The Bridge House Estates is a charitable trust, established in 1282 by the City of London Corporation in London, England. It was originally established to maintain London Bridge and, subsequently, funded by bridge tolls and charitable donations, the trust acquired an extensive property portfolio which made it more than self-sufficient. As well as maintaining the bridges, the estates also makes other charitable grants through the City Bridge Trust, since it was established, the trust has maintained, and on several occasions replaced, London Bridge. The trust also built Blackfriars Bridge and Tower Bridge, and purchased Southwark Bridge from the private company that built it. Most recently it took ownership and maintenance of the new pedestrian-only Millennium Bridge. Until 1995, the trust was only permitted to use its income for expenditure on its bridges, however, with a surplus of income over expenditure, a cy-près scheme was adopted in that year to allow any surplus income to be used for other charitable purposes benefiting Greater London. These grants are made though the City Bridge Trust, the Trust took its name from Bridge House, which was the administrative and maintenance centre of Old London Bridge located on the south bank of the River Thames, near the site of St Olaves Church. The site, now covered by the London Bridge Hospital and the Cottons Centre, was constituted of at least two properties in Southwark, the first was that of Peter de Colechurch the warden of the bridge from 1163 and probably a monastic dwelling. The second property was the left by will of Henry Fitz Ailwyn, first named Mayor of London. Known as the Bridge Mark, the logo of Bridge House Estates was one of the earliest logos ever in continuous use and it has been the identifying emblem of the Bridge House Estates for many centuries. But it now uses the City of London arms as an emblem, the City Bridge Trust uses the mark as a logo It was thought likely that the mark as we know it today was designed by a famous 17th century surveyor, William Leybourn. It appears drawn on a plan of 1680 which it is thought he adapted from a similar mark drawn against plots owned by Bridge House Estates on a plan of St Georges Fields in Southwark. The City sword rest from the church of St Olave, Southwark has the Bridge Mark carved onto it to balance the Citys shield, the trust was established by Royal Charter in 1282, and the sole trustee is the City of London Corporation. The trustee does not own the property of the trust — it may only be used for the purposes for which the fund was created. The Bridge House Estates are run by a committee of the City of London Corporation the chairman of which holds the title of Chief Commoner. The chairmanship is held for one year as the responsibilities are so onerous. In addition to its Royal Charter of 1282, the Bridge House Estates operates with respect to legislative powers e. g. The Fund administered by the Bridge House Estates is solely responsible for the five City Bridges, there is no financial support from the Government or any other fund
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