1.
Kyoto
–
Kyoto is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a close to 1.5 million. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital, in Japanese, the city has been called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, after the Chinese word for capital city, after the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, and the seat of the Emperor was transferred there, Kyoto was known for a short time as Saikyō. Obsolete spellings for the name include Kioto, Miaco and Meaco. Another term commonly used to refer to the city in the period was Keishi. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Changan, became the seat of Japans imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. The city suffered destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well, nobles mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since, Hideyoshi also built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city, throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. The Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city, the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1,1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 is one taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932, stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, however, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1,1956, in 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions that bears the citys name. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands
2.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
3.
Ticker symbol
–
A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
4.
Tokyo Stock Exchange
–
The Tokyo Stock Exchange, which is called Tōshō or TSE/TYO for short, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. It is the fourth largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization of its listed companies. It had 2,292 listed companies with a market capitalization of US$4.09 trillion as of April 2015. In July 2012 a planned merger with the Osaka Securities Exchange was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission, the resulting entity, the Japan Exchange Group, was launched on January 1,2013. The TSE is incorporated as a kabushiki gaisha with nine directors, four auditors and its headquarters are located at 2-1 Nihonbashi-Kabutochō, Chūō, Tokyo, or Kabuto-chō, which is the largest financial district in Japan. Its operating hours are from 8,00 to 11,30 a. m. from April 24,2006, the afternoon trading session started at its usual time of 12,30 p. m. Stocks listed on the TSE are separated into the First Section for large companies, the Second Section for mid-sized companies, as of October 31,2010, there are 1,675 First Section companies,437 Second Section companies and 182 Mothers companies. Ninety-four domestic and 10 foreign securities companies participate in TSE trading, see, Members of the Tokyo Stock Exchange Other TSE-related institutions include, The exchanges press club, called the Kabuto Club, which meets on the third floor of the TSE building. Most Kabuto Club members are affiliated with the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Kyodo News, Jiji Press, or business television broadcasters such as Bloomberg LP, the Kabuto Club is generally busiest during April and May, when public companies release their annual accounts. On 15 June 2007, the TSE paid $303 million to acquire a 4. 99% stake in Singapore Exchange Ltd. The Tokyo Stock Exchange was established on May 15,1878, as the Tokyo Kabushiki Torihikijo under the direction of then-Finance Minister Okuma Shigenobu, trading began on June 1,1878. In 1943, the exchange was combined with ten other stock exchanges in major Japanese cities to form a single Japanese Stock Exchange, the combined exchange was shut down and reorganized shortly after the bombing of Nagasaki. The Tokyo Stock Exchange reopened under its current Japanese name on May 16,1949, a new facility, called TSE Arrows, opened on May 9,2000. In 2010, the TSE launched its Arrowhead trading facility, in 2001, the TSE restructured itself as a stock company, before this time, it was structured as an incorporated association with its members as shareholders. The interruption in trading was the worst in the history of the exchange, trading was suspended for four-and-a-half hours. Mizuho failed to catch the error, the Tokyo Stock Exchange initially blocked attempts to cancel the order, on 11 December, the TSE acknowledged that its system was at fault in the Mizuho trade. On 21 December, Takuo Tsurushima, chief executive of the TSE, and two other senior executives resigned over the Mizuho affair. On January 17,2006, the Nikkei 225 fell 2. 8%, its fastest drop in nine months, the Tokyo Stock Exchange closed early on January 18 due to the trade volume threatening to exceed the exchanges computer systems capacity of 4.5 million trades per day
5.
Frankfurt Stock Exchange
–
The Frankfurt Stock Exchange is the worlds 10th largest stock exchange by market capitalization. Located in Frankfurt, Germany, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is owned and operated by Deutsche Börse AG and it is located in the district of Innenstadt and within the central business district known as Bankenviertel. The trading indices are DAX, DAXplus, CDAX, DivDAX, LDAX, MDAX, SDAX, TecDAX, VDAX, through its Deutsche Börse Cash Market business section, Deutsche Börse AG now operates two trading venues at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. Xetra is the market for exchange trading in German equities. In 2015,90 per cent of all trading in shares at all German exchanges was transacted through the Xetra, with regard to DAX listings, Xetra has 60 per cent market share throughout Europe. Trading times on trading days are from 9.00 a. m. to 5.30 p. m, the prices on Xetra serve as the basis for calculating the DAX, the best-known German share index. Over 200 trading participants from 16 European countries, plus Hong Kong, Börse Frankfurt is the trading venue for mainly private investors with more than one million securities of German and international issuers. So named Specialists on the trading floor attend to the trading of the securities, trading at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is governed by clear rules, which apply equally for all trading participants. With a view to improving the continuity of prices and to avoid mistrades, several mechanisms are in place for the trading venues Xetra. These include volatility interruption, market order interruption, and liquidity interruption measures, the origins of the Frankfurt Stock Exchange go back to medieval trade fairs in the 11th century. By the 16th century Frankfurt developed into a wealthy and busy city with a based on trade. In 1585 a bourse was established to set up fixed currency exchange rates, during the following centuries Frankfurt developed into one of the worlds first stock exchanges - next to London and Paris. Bankers like Mayer Amschel Rothschild and Max Warburg had substantial influence on Frankfurts financial trade, in 1879 Frankfurt Stock Exchange moved into its new building at Börsenplatz. During the 1990s the Frankfurt Stock Exchange was also bourse for the Neuer Markt as part of the worldwide dot-com boom, in 1993 the Frankfurter Wertpapierbörse became Deutsche Börse AG, operating businesses for the exchange. Since then the profits from the presence of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt. In 2002 and 2004 Deutsche Börse was in advanced negotiations to take over London Stock Exchange, financial Market Integration in a Wider European Union International financial centres, rivals or partner
6.
Electronics
–
Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
7.
Health care
–
It includes the work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. Access to healthcare varies across countries, groups, and individuals, largely influenced by social, countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Healthcare systems are organizations established to meet the needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies between national and subnational entities, in some countries and jurisdictions, healthcare planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others, planning occurs more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. Healthcare can contribute to a significant part of a countrys economy. In 2011, the healthcare industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$3,322 per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries.1 years, a gain of 10 years since 1970. The USA ranges only on place 26 among the 34 OECD member countries, all OECD countries have achieved universal health coverage, except Mexico and the USA. Healthcare is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health, an example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions. The delivery of health care depends on groups of trained professionals and paraprofessionals coming together as interdisciplinary teams. Healthcare can be defined as public or private. Primary care refers to the work of professionals who act as a first point of consultation for all patients within the health care system. Depending on the nature of the condition, patients may then be referred for secondary or tertiary care. Primary care is used as the term for the health care services which play a role in the local community. It can be provided in different settings, such as Urgent care centres which provide services to patients same day with appointment or walk-in bases, consequently, a primary care practitioner must possess a wide breadth of knowledge in many areas. The International Classification of Primary Care is a tool for understanding and analyzing information on interventions in primary care by the reason for the patient visit. Common chronic illnesses usually treated in primary care may include, for example, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, COPD, depression and anxiety, back pain, Primary care also includes many basic maternal and child health care services, such as family planning services and vaccinations. Physicians in this model bill patients directly for services, either on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis. Examples of direct primary care practices include Foundation Health in Colorado, the World Health Organization attributes the provision of essential primary care as an integral component of an inclusive primary health care strategy
8.
Osaka
–
Osaka is a designated city in the Kansai region of Japan. Historically a merchant city, Osaka has also known as the nations kitchen. Some of the earliest signs of habitation in the Osaka area at the Morinomiya ruins comprise shell mounds, sea oysters. It is believed that what is today the Uehonmachi area consisted of a land with an inland sea in the east. During the Yayoi period, permanent habitation on the plains grew as rice farming became popular, by the Kofun period, Osaka developed into a hub port connecting the region to the western part of Japan. The large numbers of increasingly larger tomb mounds found in the plains of Osaka are seen as evidence of political-power concentration, in 645, Emperor Kōtoku built his Naniwa Nagara-Toyosaki Palace in what is now Osaka, making it the capital of Japan. The city now known as Osaka was at this time referred to as Naniwa, although the capital was moved to Asuka in 655, Naniwa remained a vital connection, by land and sea, between Yamato, Korea, and China. Naniwa was declared the capital again in 744 by order of Emperor Shōmu, and remained so until 745, in 1496, Jōdo Shinshū Buddhists established their headquarters in the heavily fortified Ishiyama Hongan-ji, located directly on the site of the old Naniwa Imperial Palace. Oda Nobunaga began a siege campaign on the temple in 1570 which ultimately resulted in the surrender of the monks. Toyotomi Hideyoshi constructed Osaka Castle in its place in 1583, Osaka was long considered Japans primary economic center, with a large percentage of the population belonging to the merchant class. Over the course of the Edo period, Osaka grew into one of Japans major cities and returned to its ancient role as a lively and its popular culture was closely related to ukiyo-e depictions of life in Edo. By 1780 Osaka had cultivated a vibrant arts culture, as typified by its famous Kabuki, in 1837 Ōshio Heihachirō, a low-ranking samurai, led a peasant insurrection in response to the citys unwillingness to support the many poor and suffering families in the area. Approximately one-quarter of the city was razed before shogunal officials put down the rebellion, Osaka was opened to foreign trade by the government of the Bakufu at the same time as Hyōgo on 1 January 1868, just before the advent of the Boshin War and the Meiji Restoration. Osaka residents were stereotyped in Edo literature from at least the 18th century, jippenisha Ikku in 1802 depicted Osakans as stingy almost beyond belief. Edo writers aspired to samurai culture, and saw themselves as poor but generous, chaste, Edo writers by contrast saw zeeroku as obsequious apprentices, stingy, greedy, gluttonous, and lewd. The modern municipality was established in 1889 by government ordinance, with an area of 15 square kilometres, overlapping todays Chūō. Later, the city went through three major expansions to reach its current size of 223 square kilometres, Osaka was the industrial center most clearly defined in the development of capitalism in Japan. It became known as the Manchester of the Orient, the rapid industrialization attracted many Korean immigrants, who set up a life apart for themselves
9.
President (corporate title)
–
The President is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university or other group. In many organizations, it is the legally recognized highest titled corporate officer, the president may also be the chairman. The relationship between the president and the Chief Executive Officer varies, depending on the structure of the specific organization, in a similar vein to the Chief Operating Officer, the title of corporate President as a separate position is also loosely defined. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations and such powers come from specific authorization in the bylaws, originally, the term president was used to designate someone who presided over a meeting, and was used in the same way that foreman or overseer is used now. It has now come to mean chief officer in terms of administrative or executive duties. In addition to the administrative or executive duties in organizations, the president has the duties of presiding over meetings, in committees or small boards, the president votes along with the other members. However, in assemblies or larger boards, the president should vote only when it can affect the result, at a meeting, the president only has one vote. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations, the amount of power given to the president depends on the type of organization, its structure, and the rules it has created for itself. If the president exceeds the given authority, engages in misconduct, or fails to perform the duties, such procedures may include censure, suspension, or removal from office. The rules of the organization would provide details on who can perform these disciplinary procedures. Usually, whoever appointed or elected the president has the power to discipline this officer, some organizations may have a position of President-Elect in addition to the position of President. Generally the membership of the organization elects a President-Elect and when the term of the President-Elect is complete, some organizations may have a position of Immediate Past President in addition to the position of President. In those organizations, when the term of the President is complete, the organization can have such a position only if the bylaws provide it. The duties of such a position would also have to be provided in the bylaws, riding Shotgun, The Role of the COO. National Association of Parliamentarians®, Education Committee, independence, MO, National Association of Parliamentarians®
10.
Automation
–
Some processes have been completely automated. The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor, however, it is used to save energy and materials and to improve quality, accuracy. The term automation, inspired by the word automatic, was not widely used before 1947. It was during this time industry was rapidly adopting feedback controllers. Automation has been achieved by means including mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers. Complicated systems, such as factories, airplanes and ships typically use all these combined techniques. Fundamentally, there are two types of control loop, open loop control, and closed loop control, in open loop control, the control action from the controller is independent of the process output. A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so heat is applied for a constant time. In closed loop control, the action from the controller is dependent on the process output. A closed loop controller therefore has a loop which ensures the controller exerts a control action to give a process output the same as the Reference input or set point. For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers, the theoretical basis of closed loop automation is control theory. The control action is the form of the output action. One of the simplest types of control is on-off control, an example is the thermostat used on household appliances which either opens or closes an electrical contact. Sequence control, in which a sequence of discrete operations is performed. An elevator control system is an example of sequence control, a proportional–integral–derivative controller is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. Sequential control may be either to a sequence or to a logical one that will perform different actions depending on various system states. An example of an adjustable but otherwise fixed sequence is a timer on a lawn sprinkler, States refer to the various conditions that can occur in a use or sequence scenario of the system. An example is an elevator, which uses logic based on the state to perform certain actions in response to its state
11.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
12.
Fiscal year
–
A fiscal year is the period used by governments for accounting and budget purposes, which vary between countries. It is also used for reporting by business and other organizations. Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, the calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxation, such as income tax. Many annual government fees—such as Council rates, licence fees, etc. —are also levied on a year basis. The fiscal year end is the date marks the end of the fiscal year. Some companies—such as Cisco Systems—end their fiscal year on the day of the week each year. Under such a system, some years will have 52 weeks. Many universities have a year which ends during the summer. In the northern hemisphere this is July to the next June, in the southern hemisphere this is calendar year, January to December. Some media/communication-based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year, the American football league NFL uses the term league year, which in effect forms the leagues fiscal year. In Afghanistan, the year was recently changed from 1 Hamal –29 Hoot to 1 Jadi –30 Qaus. The fiscal year runs with the Afghan calendar, thus resulting in difference of the Gregorian dates once in a four-year span, in Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a financial year and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June. Financial years are designated by the year of the second half of the period. For example, financial year 2017 is the 12-month period ending on 30 June 2017 and it is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises. Business enterprises may opt to use a year that ends at the end of a week. All entities within the one group must use the financial year. The Commonwealth adopted the near-ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901, the reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget. In Austria the fiscal year is the year,1 January to 31 December
13.
Japanese yen
–
The yen is the official currency of Japan. It is the third most traded currency in the exchange market after the United States dollar. It is also used as a reserve currency after the U. S. dollar, the euro. Before the Meiji Restoration, Japans feudal fiefs all issued their own money, hansatsu, in an array of incompatible denominations. The New Currency Act of 1871 did away with these and established the yen, the former han became prefectures and their mints private chartered banks, which initially retained the right to print money. To bring an end to this situation the Bank of Japan was founded in 1882, following World War II the yen lost much of its prewar value. To stabilize the Japanese economy the exchange rate of the yen was fixed at ¥360 per $1 as part of the Bretton Woods system, when that system was abandoned in 1971, the yen became undervalued and was allowed to float. The yen had appreciated to a peak of ¥271 per $1 in 1973, then underwent periods of depreciation and appreciation due to the 1973 oil crisis, arriving at a value of ¥227 per $1 by 1980. Since 1973, the Japanese government has maintained a policy of intervention. The Japanese government focuses on an export market, and tries to ensure a low yen value through a trade surplus. Since that time, however, the yen has greatly decreased in value, the Bank of Japan maintains a policy of zero to near-zero interest rates and the Japanese government has an extreme anti-inflation policy. Yen derives from the Japanese word 圓, which is cognate with the Chinese yuan, originally, the Chinese had traded silver in mass called sycees and when Spanish and Mexican silver coins arrived, the Chinese called them silver rounds for their circular shapes. The coins and the name appeared in Japan. While the Chinese eventually replaced 圓 with 元, the Japanese continued to use the same word, the spelling and pronunciation yen is standard in English. This is because mainly English speakers who visited Japan at the end of the Edo period to the early Meiji period spelled words this way, ゑん /wen/ in historical kana orthography. In the 16th century, Japanese /e/ and /we/ both had been pronounced and Portuguese missionaries had spelled them ye, some time thereafter, by the middle of the 18th century, /e/ and /we/ came to be pronounced as in modern Japanese, although some regions retain the pronunciation. In the early Meiji era, James Curtis Hepburn, following Medhurst, spelled all es as ye in his A Japanese and that was the first full-scale Japanese-English/English-Japanese dictionary, which had a strong influence on Westerners in Japan and probably prompted the spelling yen. Hepburn revised most of yes to e in the 3rd edition in order to mirror the contemporary pronunciation and this was probably already fixed and has remained so ever since
14.
Net income
–
In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
15.
Medical equipment
–
Medical equipment is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of medical conditions. There are several types, Diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines. Examples are ultrasound and MRI machines, PET and CT scanners, treatment equipment includes infusion pumps, medical lasers and LASIK surgical machines. Life support equipment is used to maintain a patients bodily function and this includes medical ventilators, incubators, anaesthetic machines, heart-lung machines, ECMO, and dialysis machines. Medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patients medical state, monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including ECG, EEG, and blood pressure. Medical laboratory equipment automates or helps analyze blood, urine, genes, Diagnostic Medical Equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e. g. Employed primarily by hospitals, BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facilitys medical equipment. BMET mainly act as an interface between doctor and equipment, Medical technology Medical devices Durable medical equipment Home medical equipment Surgical instruments Medical test Medical grade silicone Pharmacopoeia Instruments used in general medicine
16.
Medical thermometer
–
A medical thermometer is used for measuring human or animal body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue, under the armpit, the medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water thermoscope, constructed by Galileo Galilei circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature and could be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure. Italian physician Santorio Santorio is the first known individual to have put a scale on the thermoscope and wrote of it in 1625. His models were bulky, impractical and took an amount of time to take an accurate oral reading of the patients temperature. There are two men who switched out water for alcohol in the thermometer. The earliest is Ferdinando II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, a Polish-born German physicist, engineer, and glass blower, made contributions to thermometers as well. He created an alcohol thermometer in 1709 and later innovated the mercury thermometer in 1714, mercury, he found, responded more quickly to temperature changes than the previously used water. Fahrenheit also created the scale which is named after him. The scale is only mainly used for everyday applications in the United States, its territories and associated states as well as the Bahamas, Belize. By 1742 Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius created the Celsius temperature scale that was the reverse of the scale, in that 0 was the boiling point of water. It would later be reversed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in 1744, on 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, the Thermometer of Lyon built by the craftsman Pierre Casati that used this scale. The medical thermometer was used by Dutch chemist and physician Hermann Boerhaave, as well as his notable students Gerard van Swieten and it was also utilized around the same time by Scottish physician George Martine. De Haen made particular strides in medicine with the thermometer, by observing the correlation in a patients change in temperature and the physical symptoms of the illness, he concluded that a record of ones temperature could inform the doctor of a patients health. However, his proposals were not met with enthusiasm by his peers, thermometers remained cumbersome to transport and use. By the mid 19th century, the medical thermometer was still a foot long, with his findings, he was able to conclude a healthy humans temperature fell within the range of 36.3 to 37.5 °C. Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger invented the ear thermometer in 1964, born in Stuttgart, Germany, he immigrated to the U. S. in 1947 and became a naturalized citizen in 1955. He worked from 1947 to 1970 in the division at the Naval Medical Research Center in Bethesda
17.
Sphygmomanometer
–
It is always used in conjunction with a means to determine at what pressure blood flow is just starting, and at what pressure it is unimpeded. Manual sphygmomanometers are used in conjunction with a stethoscope, a sphygmomanometer consists of an inflatable cuff, a measuring unit, and a mechanism for inflation which may be a manually operated bulb and valve or a pump operated electrically. There are three types of sphygmomanometers, Manual sphygmomanometers require a stethoscope for auscultation and they are used by trained practitioners. It is possible to obtain a basic reading through palpation alone, mercury sphygmomanometers are considered the gold standard. They show blood pressure by affecting the height of a column of mercury, because of their accuracy, they are often used in clinical trials of drugs and in clinical evaluations of high-risk patients, including pregnant women. Aneroid sphygmomanometers are in use, they may require calibration checks. Aneroid sphygmomanometers are considered safer than mercury sphygmomanometers, although inexpensive ones are less accurate, a major cause of departure from calibration is mechanical jarring. Aneroids mounted on walls or stands are not susceptible to this particular problem, digital, using oscillometric measurements and electronic calculations rather than auscultation. They may use manual or automatic inflation and these are electronic, are easy to operate without training, and can be used in noisy environments, they are not as accurate as mercury instruments. They measure systolic and diastolic pressures by oscillometric detection, using a pressure sensor and electronic components. They do not measure systolic and diastolic pressures directly, but calculate them from the mean pressure, calibration is also a concern for these instruments. Most instruments also display pulse rate, people measuring blood pressure in patients with these conditions should use analog sphygmomanometers, because, when used by a trained person, they are more accurate than digital sphygmomanometers. Digital instruments may use a cuff placed, in order of accuracy and inverse order of portability and convenience, around the upper arm, some instruments are claimed also to measure arterial stiffness. Some of these monitors also detect irregular heartbeats, in humans, the cuff is normally placed smoothly and snugly around an upper arm, at roughly the same vertical height as the heart while the subject is seated with the arm supported. Other sites of placement depend on species, it may include the flipper or tail and it is essential that the correct size of cuff is selected for the patient. Too small a cuff results in too high a pressure, while too large a cuff results in too low a pressure. For clinical measurements it is usual to measure and record both arms in the consultation to determine if the pressure is significantly higher in one arm than the other. A difference of 10 mm Hg may be a sign of coarctation of the aorta, if the arms read differently, the higher reading arm would be used for later readings
18.
Nebulizer
–
In medicine, a nebuliser or nebulizer is a drug delivery device used to administer medication in the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs. Nebulizers are commonly used for the treatment of cystic fibrosis, asthma, COPD, analytical nebulizers are another form of nebulizer and are used primarily in laboratory settings for elemental analysis. Nebulizers use oxygen, compressed air or ultrasonic power to break up solutions and suspensions into small droplets that can be directly inhaled from the mouthpiece of the device. The definition of an aerosol is a mixture of gas and liquid particles, the European Respiratory Society acknowledge that although nebulizers are used in hospitals and at home they suggest much of this use may not be evidence-based. Recent evidence show that nebulizers are no more effective than metered-dose inhalers with spacers and those findings refer specifically to the treatment of asthma and not to the efficacy of nebulisers generally, as for COPD for example. For COPD, especially when assessing exacerbations or lung attacks, evidence shows no benefit from MDIs over nebulizers, European Respiratory Society highlighted a risk relating to droplet size reproducibility caused by selling nebulizer devices separately from nebulized solution. They found this practice could vary droplet size 10-fold or more by changing from an inefficient nebulizer system to an efficient one. In addition, another found that a MDI had a lower required dose for clinical result compared to a nebulizer. The lung deposition characteristics and efficacy of an aerosol depend largely on the particle or droplet size, generally, the smaller the particle the greater its chance of peripheral penetration and retention. However, for fine particles below 0.5 µm in diameter there is a chance of avoiding deposition altogether. In 1966 the Task Group on Lung Dynamics, concerned mainly with the hazards of inhalation of environmental toxins, the medical company also invented a new device named Respimat Soft Mist Inhaler in 1997. The device features no gas propellant and no need for battery/power to operate, the average droplet size in the mist was measured to a somewhat disappointing 5.8 micrometers, which could indicate some potential efficiency problems for the inhaled medicine to reach the lungs. Subsequent trials have proven this was not the case, due to the very low velocity of the mist, the Soft Mist Inhaler in fact has a higher efficiency compared to a conventional pMDI. Commercial nebulizers typically use a compressor to maintain their rate of airflow. The most commonly used nebulizers are jet nebulizers, which are also called atomizers, however jet nebulizers are commonly used for patients in hospitals who have difficulty using inhalers, such as in serious cases of respiratory disease, or severe asthma attacks. The main advantage of the jet nebulizer is related to its low operational cost, if the patient needs to inhale medicine on a daily basis the use of a pMDI can be rather expensive. Today several manufacturers have managed to lower the weight of the jet nebulizer down to 635 grams. Compared to all the competing inhalers and nebulizers, the noise, trade names for jet nebulizers include Maxin
19.
Turnstile
–
A turnstile, also called a baffle gate or turnstyle, is a form of gate which allows one person to pass at a time. It can also be made so as to enforce one-way traffic of people, and in addition, it can restrict passage only to people who insert a coin, a ticket, a pass, or similar. Turnstiles were originally used, like other forms of stile, to human beings to pass while keeping sheep or other livestock penned in. The use of turnstiles in most modern applications has been credited to Clarence Saunders, turnstiles are used at a wide variety of settings, including stadiums, amusement parks, mass transit stations, office lobbies, airports, ski resorts, and casinos. From a business/revenue standpoint, turnstiles give an accurate, verifiable count of attendance, from a security standpoint, they lead patrons to enter single-file, so security personnel have a clear view of each patron. This enables security to efficiently isolate potential trouble or to confiscate any prohibited materials, on the other hand, physical barriers become a serious safety issue when a speedy evacuation is needed, requiring emergency exits that bypass any turnstiles. Persons with disabilities may have difficulties using turnstiles, in these cases, generally a wide aisle gate or a manual gate may be provided. At some locations where luggage is expected, a line of turnstiles may be formed of wide aisle gates. Turnstiles often use ratchet mechanisms to allow the rotation of the stile in one direction allowing ingress, turnstiles are often used for counting the numbers of people passing through a gate, even when payment is not involved. They are used extensively in this manner in amusement parks, in order to track of how many people enter and exit the park. The first major use of turnstiles at a venue was at Hampden Park in Glasgow. A turnstile used in fairs, attractions, and arenas, sometimes also referred to as half-height turnstiles, this fixed arm style has traditionally been the most popular type of turnstile. There are many variations of this available, including one which is designed to be accompanied by a matching ticket box. Some styles are designed to allow entry only after a payment are inserted, a disadvantage to this type is people can jump the turnstile, as happens commonly on the Moscow Metro and other mass transport systems in Russia. Optical turnstiles are an alternative to the traditional arm-style turnstile and are used in locations where a physical barrier is deemed unnecessary or unaesthetic. Optical turnstiles generally use a beam to count patrons and recognize anyone attempting to enter a site without a valid entry pass. The drop arm optical turnstile is a combination of the security of a tripod or barrier turnstile, the lanes can have either single or double arms. When access is granted the arms drop into recesses in the cabinet, once the arms drop out of the way, the turnstile functions as a fully optical turnstile
20.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
–
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a professional association with its corporate office in New York City and its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey. It was formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, today, it is the worlds largest association of technical professionals with more than 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering, IEEE stands for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The association is chartered under this full legal name, IEEEs membership has long been composed of engineers and scientists. For this reason the organization no longer goes by the name, except on legal business documents. The IEEE is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence and it has about 430,000 members in about 160 countries, slightly less than half of whom reside in the United States. The major interests of the AIEE were wire communications and light, the IRE concerned mostly radio engineering, and was formed from two smaller organizations, the Society of Wireless and Telegraph Engineers and the Wireless Institute. After World War II, the two became increasingly competitive, and in 1961, the leadership of both the IRE and the AIEE resolved to consolidate the two organizations. The two organizations merged as the IEEE on January 1,1963. The IEEE is incorporated under the Not-for-Profit Corporation Law of the state of New York and it was formed in 1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. The IEEE serves as a publisher of scientific journals and organizer of conferences, workshops. IEEE develops and participates in activities such as accreditation of electrical engineering programs in institutes of higher learning. The IEEE logo is a design which illustrates the right hand grip rule embedded in Benjamin Franklins kite. IEEE has a dual complementary regional and technical structure – with organizational units based on geography and it manages a separate organizational unit which recommends policies and implements programs specifically intended to benefit the members, the profession and the public in the United States. The IEEE includes 39 technical Societies, organized around specialized technical fields, the IEEE Standards Association is in charge of the standardization activities of the IEEE. The IEEE History Center became an organization to the Engineering. The new ETHW is an effort by various engineering societies as a formal repository of topic articles, oral histories, first-hand histories, Landmarks + Milestones. The IEEE History Center is annexed to Stevens University Hoboken, NJ, in 2016, the IEEE acquired GlobalSpec, adding the provision of engineering data for a profit to its organizational portfolio
21.
Automated teller machine
–
According to the ATM Industry Association, there are now close to 3 million ATMs installed worldwide. Authentication is provided by the customer entering a personal identification number which must match the PIN stored in the chip on the card or in the financial institutions database. Using an ATM, customers can access their deposit or credit accounts in order to make a variety of transactions such as cash withdrawals, check balances. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that in which the account is denominated the money will be converted at an official exchange rate. Thus, ATMs often provide the best possible exchange rates for foreign travellers, the idea of out-of-hours cash distribution developed from bankers needs in Asia, Europe and North America. Little is known of the Japanese device other than it was called Computer Loan Machine, the device was operational in 1966. In the US patent record, Luther George Simjian has been credited with developing a prior art device, specifically his 132nd patent, which was first filed on 30 June 1960. The roll-out of this machine, called Bankograph, was delayed by a couple of years, an experimental Bankograph was installed in New York City in 1961 by the City Bank of New York, but removed after six months due to the lack of customer acceptance. The Bankograph was an automated envelope deposit machine and did not have cash dispensing features and it is widely accepted that the first ATM was put into use by Barclays Bank in its Enfield Town branch in north London, United Kingdom, on 27 June 1967. This machine was inaugurated by English comedy actor Reg Varney and this instance of the invention is credited to the engineering team led by John Shepherd-Barron of printing firm De La Rue, who was awarded an OBE in the 2005 New Year Honours. Shepherd-Barron stated, It struck me there must be a way I could get my own money, I hit upon the idea of a chocolate bar dispenser, but replacing chocolate with cash. The Barclays-De La Rue machine beat the Swedish saving banks and a company called Metiors machine by a nine days. The online version of the Swedish machine is listed to have been operational on 6 May 1968, the collaboration of a small start-up called Speytec and Midland Bank developed a fourth machine which was marketed after 1969 in Europe and the US by the Burroughs Corporation. The patent for this device was filed on September 1969 by John David Edwards, Leonard Perkins, John Henry Donald, Peter Lee Chappell, Sean Benjamin Newcombe & Malcom David Roe. Both the DACS and MD2 accepted only a token or voucher which was retained by the machine while the Speytec worked with a card with a magnetic stripe at the back. They used principles including Carbon-14 and low-coercivity magnetism in order to make more difficult. The idea of a PIN stored on the card was developed by a British engineer working on the MD2 named James Goodfellow in 1965, the essence of this system was that it enabled the verification of the customer with the debited account without human intervention. This patent is also the earliest instance of a complete currency dispenser system in the patent record and this patent was filed on 5 March 1968 in the US and granted on 1 December 1970
22.
Magnetic stripe card
–
A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the card. The magnetic stripe, sometimes called swipe card or magstripe, is read by swiping past a reading head. Magnetic stripe cards are used in credit cards, identity cards. They may also contain an RFID tag, a transponder device and/or a microchip mostly used for business premises access control or electronic payment, Magnetic recording on steel tape and wire was invented during World War II for recording audio. In the 1950s, magnetic recording of computer data on plastic tape coated with iron oxide was invented. In 1960 IBM used the magnetic tape idea to develop a way of securing magnetic stripes to plastic cards. They also provide the standards for financial cards, including the allocation of number ranges to different card issuing institutions. Magnetic storage was known from World War II and computer data storage in the 1950s, in 1969 Forrest Parry, an IBM engineer, had the idea of securing a piece of magnetic tape, the predominant storage medium at the time, to a plastic card base. He became frustrated because every adhesive he tried produced unacceptable results, the tape strip either warped or its characteristics were affected by the adhesive, rendering the tape strip unusable. After a frustrating day in the laboratory, trying to get the right adhesive, he came home with several pieces of magnetic tape, as he walked in the door at home, his wife Dorothea was ironing clothing. When he explained the source of his frustration, inability to get the tape to stick to the plastic in a way that would work and he tried it and it worked. The heat of the iron was just high enough to bond the tape to the card, the major development of the magnetic striped plastic card began in 1969 at the IBM Information Records Division headquartered in Dayton N. J. This engineering effort resulted in IBM IRD producing the first magnetic striped plastic credit and ID cards used by banks, insurance companies, hospitals and many others. Arthur E. Hahn Jr. was hired by IBM IRD in Dayton, other members of the group were David Morgan, Billy House, William Creeden, and E. J. Gillen. They were given a recently announced IBM360 Model 30 computer with 50k of RAM for control of the encoding/embossing of the Magnetic Stripe Cards. The IBM360 computer was for scientific/business applications so the IRD engineers first had to convert the 360 into a control computer. Due to the limited RAM the software was developed in 360 Assembler Language and this conversion enabled the 360 computer to monitor and control the entire production process the IRD engineers designed and built. The engineering design/build effort was carried out in a raised floor secured area of IBM IRD in Dayton and this tightly secured area with limited access was required because of the sensitivity of the data that would ultimately be used to encode and emboss the credit and ID cards
23.
Thomson Reuters
–
Thomson Reuters Corporation is a multinational mass media and information firm with operational headquarters at 3 Times Square in Manhattan, New York City. The firm was founded in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where its legal domicile offices are located at 333 Bay Street in Downtown Toronto, Thomson Reuters shares maintain a dual listing on the New York Stock Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange. Thomson Reuters was ranked as Canadas leading corporate brand in the 2010 Interbrand Best Canadian Brands ranking, Thomson Reuters operates in more than 100 countries, and has more than 60,000 employees around the world. The chief executive of the company is James C. Smith, who was the executive for the professional division, and the chairman is David Thomson. The company was founded by Roy Thomson in 1934 in Ontario as the publisher of The Timmins Daily Press, in 1953, Thomson acquired the Scotsman newspaper and moved to Scotland the following year. He consolidated his position in Scotland in 1957 when he won the franchise for Scottish Television. In 1959, he bought the Kemsley Group, a purchase that eventually gave him control of the Sunday Times and he separately acquired the Times in 1967. He moved into the business in 1965, when he acquired Britannia Airways and into oil. The company at time was known as the International Thomson Organisation Ltd. In 1989, ITOL merged with Thomson Newspapers, forming The Thomson Corporation, in 1996, The Thomson Corporation acquired West Publishing, a purveyor of legal research and solutions including Westlaw. The Company was founded by Paul Julius Reuter in 1851 in London as a business transmitting stock market quotations, in 1865, Reuters in London was the first organization to report the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. The company was involved in developing the use of radio in 1923 and it was acquired by the British National & Provincial Press in 1941 and first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1984. The Thomson Corporation acquired Reuters Group PLC to form Thomson Reuters on April 17,2008, Thomson Reuters operated under a dual-listed company structure and had two parent companies, both of which were publicly listed — Thomson Reuters Corporation and Thomson Reuters PLC. In 2009, it unified its dual listed company structure and stopped its listing on the London Stock Exchange and it is now listed only as Thomson Reuters Corporation on the New York Stock Exchange and Toronto Stock Exchange. On February 13,2013, Thomson Reuters announced it would cut 2,500 jobs to cut cost in its Legal, Financial and Risk division. On October 29,2013, Thomson Reuters announced it would cut another 3,000 jobs, mostly in its Legal, Financial, the Thomson-Reuters merger transaction was reviewed by the U. S. Department of Justice and by the European Commission. On February 19,2008, both the Department of Justice and the Commission cleared the transaction subject to minor divestments and these remedies were viewed as very minor given the scope of the transaction
24.
Sensor
–
A sensor is always used with other electronics, whether as simple as a light or as complex as a computer. Moreover, analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used, applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. A sensors sensitivity indicates how much the output changes when the input quantity being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the changes by 1 °C. Some sensors can also affect what they measure, for instance, Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured, making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a higher speed. Most sensors have a transfer function. The sensitivity is defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function. Converting the sensors electrical output to the measured units requires dividing the output by the slope. In addition, an offset is added or subtracted. For example -40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to -40 C input, for an analog sensor signal to be processed, or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter. The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property, the sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error and this is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function. If the output differs from the correct value by a constant. This is an error in the y-intercept of a transfer function. Nonlinearity is deviation of a transfer function from a straight line transfer function
25.
Power supply
–
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. The primary function of a supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to and, as a result. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices along with their loads, examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, all power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a power output that delivers energy to the load. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for such as external monitoring. Power supplies are categorized in ways, including by functional features. For example, a power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of a power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load current changes. Adjustable power supplies allow the voltage or current to be programmed by mechanical controls, or by means of a control input. An adjustable regulated power supply is one that is adjustable and regulated. Power supplies are packaged in different ways and classified accordingly, a bench power supply is a stand-alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and development. Open frame power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure, sometimes consisting of only a mounting base, rack mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard electronic equipment racks. An integrated power supply is one that shares a common printed circuit board with its load, power supplies can be broadly divided into linear and switching types. Linear power converters process the power directly, with all active power conversion components operating in their linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the power is converted to AC or to DC pulses before processing. A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load, depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or from an AC source such as the power mains. Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source, such power supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the output voltage to a varying DC voltage
26.
Programmable logic controller
–
They were first developed in the automobile industry to provide flexible, ruggedised and easily programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relays and timers. Since then they have widely adopted as high-reliability automation controllers suitable for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of a hard real-time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result. They can be designed for multiple arrangements of digital and analog inputs and outputs, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. It was from the industry in the USA that the PLC was born. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, when digital computers became available, being general-purpose programmable devices, they were soon applied to control sequential and combinatorial logic in industrial processes. However these early computers required specialist programmers and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, to meet these challenges the PLC was developed with several key attributes. In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic issued a request for proposals for a replacement for hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper written by engineer Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts, the first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates eighty-fourth project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product, Modicon, one of the people who worked on that project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the father of the PLC. The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, later acquired by German Company AEG, and then by French Schneider Electric, one of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Schneider Electrics facility in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after twenty years of uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its product range until the 984 made its appearance, the automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs. Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems and these PLCs were programmed in ladder logic, which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians, other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted dialects of BASIC. Another method is state logic, a very high-level programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition diagrams. As programming terminals evolved, it more common for ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons
27.
Relay
–
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, the first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers, they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations, a type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a device to perform switching. Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of power to move their contacts in one direction. Repeated pulses from the same input have no effect, magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted power should not be able to transition the contacts. Magnetic latching relays can have single or dual coils. On a single device, the relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the coil the contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands, american scientist Joseph Henry is often claimed to have invented a relay in 1835 in order to improve his version of the electrical telegraph, developed earlier in 1831. However, there is little in the way of documentation to suggest he had made the discovery prior to 1837. It is claimed that English inventor Edward Davy certainly invented the electric relay in his electric telegraph c.1835, a simple device, which is now called a relay, was included in the original 1840 telegraph patent of Samuel Morse. The mechanism described acted as an amplifier, repeating the telegraph signal. This overcame the problem of limited range of earlier telegraphy schemes, the word relay appears in the context of electromagnetic operations from 1860. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts, the armature is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function, the relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke
28.
Switch
–
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can make or break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores the conducting path in a circuit when it is operated, the most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. The mechanism actuating the transition between two states can be either a toggle or momentary type. A switch may be manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, for example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be operated by a motor drive mechanism. An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and it would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state without bouncing between on and off positions. Practical switches fall short of ideal, they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time. The ideal switch is used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of networks of switches. In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces, often metal, called contacts, connected to an external circuit, that touch to complete the circuit. The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from working, contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity, hardness, mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity. Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals and they may be designed to wipe against each other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors, such as plastic, are sometimes used. To prevent the formation of insulating oxides, a minimum wetting current may be specified for a given switch design, in electronics, switches are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts. A pair of contacts is said to be closed when current can flow from one to the other, when the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, they are said to be open, and no current can flow between them at normal voltages. The terms make for closure of contacts and break for opening of contacts are also widely used, the terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations
29.
Microelectromechanical systems
–
Microelectromechanical systems is the technology of microscopic devices, particularly those with moving parts. It merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems and nanotechnology, MEMS are also referred to as micromachines in Japan, or micro systems technology in Europe. They usually consist of a unit that processes data and several components that interact with the surroundings such as microsensors. MEMS technology is distinguished from molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics in that the latter must also consider surface chemistry, the potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed that could make them. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies and these include molding and plating, wet etching and dry etching, electro discharge machining, and other technologies capable of manufacturing small devices. An early example of a MEMS device is the resonistor – an electromechanical monolithic resonator, silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern industry. The economies of scale, ready availability of inexpensive high-quality materials, silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. Even though the industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex. Polymers on the hand can be produced in huge volumes. Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements, while metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes, commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver. The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide, alN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear forces. TiN, on the hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity. Moreover, the resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the material for applications in biogenic environments. One of the building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere between a few nanometres to about 100 micrometres. There are two types of processes, as follows. Physical vapor deposition consists of a process in which a material is removed from a target, chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition, in which a stream of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired
30.
Image sensor
–
An image sensor or imaging sensor is a sensor that detects and conveys the information that constitutes an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves into signals, the waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation. As technology changes, digital imaging tends to replace analog imaging, early analog sensors for visible light were video camera tubes. Currently, used types are semiconductor charge-coupled devices or active pixel sensors in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor or N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor technologies, analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve vacuum tubes of various kinds. Digital sensors include flat panel detectors, today, most digital cameras use a CMOS sensor, because CMOS sensors perform better than CCDs. An example is the fact that they incorporate an integrated circuit, CCD is still in use for cheap low entry cameras, but weak in burst mode. Both types of sensor accomplish the task of capturing light. Each cell of a CCD image sensor is an analog device, when light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor. This process is repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified. A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD. Some CMOS imaging sensors also use Back-side illumination to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode, CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors. They are also vulnerable to static electricity discharges. Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology and this can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very small gap. These hybrid sensors are still in the phase and can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers. There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of a sensor, including dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio. For sensors of comparable types, the ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. In order to avoid interpolated color information, techniques like color co-site sampling use a mechanism to shift the color sensor in pixel steps. 3CCD, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a dichroic prism, while in general digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate Petzval field curvature that occurs with a flat sensor
31.
Power steering
–
In automobiles, power steering helps drivers steer by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel. Power steering can also be engineered to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels, hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These systems have a mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone, electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system, other power steering systems have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage, they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no connection, are sometimes called drive by wire or steer by wire. In this context, wire refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle, this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the relative to each other to steer. The first power steering system on an automobile was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about him. The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where an electric motor was used to assist the driver in turning the front wheels. Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce-Arrow, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system, Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for automakers. Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for assistance on armored cars and tank-recovery vehicles for the British. Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under the name Hydraguide, the Chrysler system was based on some of Daviss expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier. Charles F. Hammond from Detroit filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian Intellectual Property Office in 1958. Most new vehicles now have power steering, owing to the trends toward front wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds
32.
Access control
–
Security, access control is the selective restriction of access to a place or other resource. The act of accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using, permission to access a resource is called authorization. Locks and login credentials are two mechanisms of access control. Geographical access control may be enforced by personnel, or with a such as a turnstile. There may be fences to avoid circumventing this access control, an alternative of access control in the strict sense is a system of checking authorized presence, see e. g. Ticket controller. A variant is exit control, e. g. of a shop or a country, the term access control refers to the practice of restricting entrance to a property, a building, or a room to authorized persons. Physical access control can be achieved by a human, through means such as locks and keys. Within these environments, physical key management may also be employed as a means of managing and monitoring access to mechanically keyed areas or access to certain small assets. Physical access control is a matter of who, where, an access control system determines who is allowed to enter or exit, where they are allowed to exit or enter, and when they are allowed to enter or exit. Historically, this was accomplished through keys and locks. When a door is locked, only someone with a key can enter through the door, mechanical locks and keys do not allow restriction of the key holder to specific times or dates. Mechanical locks and keys do not provide records of the key used on any specific door, when a mechanical key is lost or the key holder is no longer authorized to use the protected area, the locks must be re-keyed. Electronic access control uses computers to solve the limitations of mechanical locks, a wide range of credentials can be used to replace mechanical keys. The electronic access control system grants access based on the credential presented, when access is granted, the door is unlocked for a predetermined time and the transaction is recorded. When access is refused, the door locked and the attempted access is recorded. The system will monitor the door and alarm if the door is forced open or held open too long after being unlocked. When a credential is presented to a reader, the reader sends the information, usually a number, to a control panel. The control panel compares the number to an access control list, grants or denies the presented request
33.
Traffic light
–
The worlds first, manually operated gas-lit traffic signal was short lived. Installed in London in December 1868, it exploded less than a month later, Traffic control started to seem necessary in the late 1890s and Earnest Sirrine from Chicago patented the first automated traffic control system in 1910. It used the words STOP and PROCEED, although neither word lit up, Traffic lights alternate the right of way accorded to users by displaying lights of a standard colour following a universal colour code. In the typical sequence of phases, The green light allows traffic to proceed in the direction denoted, if it is safe to do so. The amber light warns that the signal is about to change to red, in a number of countries – among them the United Kingdom – a phase during which red and yellow are displayed together indicates that the signal is about to change to green. A flashing amber indication is a warning signal, in the United Kingdom, a flashing amber light is used only at pelican crossings, in place of the combined red–amber signal, and indicates that drivers may pass if no pedestrians are on the crossing. The red signal prohibits any traffic from proceeding, a flashing red indication is treated as a stop sign. In some countries traffic signals will go into a flashing mode if the Conflict Monitor detects a problem, the signal may display flashing yellow to the main road and flashing red to the side road, or flashing red in all directions. Flashing operation can also be used during times of day when traffic is light, before traffic lights traffic police controlled the flow of traffic, a well-documented example being that on London Bridge in 1722. Three men were given the task of directing traffic coming in, each officer would help direct traffic coming out of Southwark into London and he made sure all traffic stayed on the west end of the bridge. A second officer would direct traffic on the east end of the bridge to control the flow of people leaving London and going into Southwark. The main reason for the light was that there was an overflow of horse-drawn traffic over Westminster Bridge which forced thousands of pedestrians to walk next to the Houses of Parliament. The design combined three semaphore arms with red and green gas lamps for use, on a pillar. The gas lantern was manually turned by a police officer. The signal was 22 feet high, at night a red light would command Stop and a green light would mean use Caution. Although it was said to be successful at controlling traffic, its life was brief. It exploded on 2 January 1869, as a result of a leak in one of the gas lines underneath the pavement, injuring or killing the policeman who was operating it. In the first two decades of the 20th century semaphore traffic signals, like the one in London, were in use all over the United States with each state having its own design of the device, One good example was from Toledo, Ohio in 1908
34.
Closed-circuit television
–
Closed-circuit television, also known as video surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may point to point, point to multipoint. Videotelephony is seldom called CCTV but the use of video in distance education, Surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. In recent years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced as a new form of surveillance, video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals right to privacy even when in public. In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a control room. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event, a more advanced form of CCTV, utilizing digital video recorders, provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features. More recently, decentralized IP cameras, some equipped with sensors, support recording directly to network-attached storage devices. There are about 350 million surveillance cameras worldwide as of 2016, about 65% of these cameras are installed in Asia. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years, the first CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde, Nazi Germany in 1942, for observing the launch of V-2 rockets. The noted German engineer Walter Bruch, Wayne Cox, and Tashara Arnold were responsible for the technological design, in the U. S. the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949, called Vericon. Very little is known about Vericon except it was advertised as not requiring a government permit, marie Van Brittan Brown invented the home security system. The patent was granted in 1969, browns system had a set of 4 peep-holes and a camera that could slide up and down to look through each one. The system included a device that enabled a homeowner to use a set to view the person at the door. The earliest video surveillance systems involved constant monitoring because there was no way to record, the development of reel-to-reel media enabled the recording of surveillance footage. Due to these shortcomings, video surveillance was not widespread, VCR technology became available in the 1970s, making it easier to record and erase information, and use of video surveillance became more common. During the 1990s, digital multiplexing was developed, allowing cameras to record at once, as well as time lapse. This increased savings of time and money and the led to an increase in the use of CCTV, recently CCTV technology has been enhanced with a shift toward Internet-based products and systems, and other technological developments. In September 1968, Olean, New York was the first city in the United States to install video cameras along its main street in an effort to fight crime
35.
Ticket machine
–
A ticket machine, also known as a Ticket Vending Machine, is a vending machine that produces tickets. For instance, ticket machines dispense train tickets at railway stations, transit tickets at metro stations and tram tickets at some tram stops and in some trams. The typical transaction consists of a user using the interface to select the type and quantity of tickets and then choosing a payment method of either cash. The ticket or tickets are printed and dispensed to the user, to encourage usage of ticket machines and reduce the need for salespersons, machine prices may in some cases be lower than those at a ticket counter. In many countries where trains and urban transport tickets operate largely on the honor system and this is for the situation where one buys a ticket in advance and decides to use it later. Usually, the ticket is time-stamped to determine its validity period, a common problem is forgetting to validate and then being fined as if one had no ticket at all. Ticket machines that are out of service or accept exact change only result in losses for transport providers. Ticket machines on trams in Melbourne, for example, often run out of change when passengers use a ratio of $2 and 50c coins. Passengers do not need to buy tickets on trams when ticket machines run out of change, such machines are generally not used in the United States. Recently, however, a handful of rail systems like Metrolink have adopted the use of validation machines for at least some ticket types. Ticket machines are used in car parking, as well as those that issue free tickets — for example. Mechanical ticket machines were used by bus drivers and conductors since the late 1920s and their functions may include printing tickets, recording of sales and payments. Some manufacturers are TIM, Almex, Setright, AEG, CAMP, Gibson GFI Genfare, Parkeon, Xerox, since the 1980s, electronic computer terminals and printers are used. Handheld ticket machines are used on buses in India to sell tickets, validate smart cards and these machines replaced the earlier manual fare collection system where tickets were often punched to indicate journey and fare stages. List of tram and light-rail transit systems Self service Ticketing kiosk Winchester, Clarence, ed. Ticket and change machines, Railway Wonders of the World, pp
36.
Thermometer
–
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two important elements, a sensor in which some physical change occurs with temperature. Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate processes, in the study of weather, in medicine, there are various principles by which different thermometers operate. They include the expansion of solids or liquids with temperature. Radiation-type thermometers measure the energy emitted by an object, allowing measurement of temperature without contact. Most metals are good conductors of heat and they are solids at room temperature, Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature, and has high coefficient of expansion. Hence, the slightest change in temperature is notable when its used in a thermometer and this is the reason behind mercury and alcohol being used in thermometer. Some of the principles of the thermometer were known to Greek philosophers of two years ago. The modern thermometer gradually evolved from the thermoscope with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century, while an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is a thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points, the most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K to approximately 1,358 K, various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not an invention, however, but a development. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the interface to move along the tube. Such a mechanism was used to show the hotness and coldness of the air with a tube in which the water level is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the gas. These devices were developed by several European scientists in the 16th and 17th centuries, as a result, devices were shown to produce this effect reliably, and the term thermoscope was adopted because it reflected the changes in sensible heat. The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale, though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, what he produced were thermoscopes. The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by Giuseppe Biancani and this was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water
37.
Body composition
–
In physical fitness, body composition is used to describe the percentages of fat, bone, water and muscle in human bodies. Because muscular tissue takes up space in our body than fat tissue, our body composition, as well as our weight. Two people of same sex and body weight may look different from each other because they have a different body composition. The mass of the body is found by simply weighing a person on a scale, the volume of the body is most easily and accurately determined by completely immersing a person in water and calculating the volume of water from the weight of water that is displaced. The proportions of water, protein and mineral in the body are found by various chemical, the densities of water, fat, protein and mineral are either measured or estimated. The equation is then rearranged to solve for the proportion of fat from the other quantities, a reasonably accurate estimation of body fat can be obtained by means of a two compartment model of the human body which is based upon two simplifying assumptions,1. Human fat has a density of 0.9 grams/ml, and 2, the lean components of the human body have an overall density of 1.1 grams/ml. The two compartment model allows for an estimation of the proportions of fat and lean components of the body to be made from the body density. And, as explained above, the body density is easily calculated from body mass. To address these differences, unique equations for the two compartment model have been proposed for specific populations, Body composition measurement with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry is used increasingly for a variety of clinical and research applications. A DEXA scan requires medical supervision by a radiologist and some consider it to be the new Gold Standard in body composition testing, the estimation of body fatness from body density was accepted as the gold standard for many decades. Some researchers now claim that whole body scanning techniques are the new gold standard, but these claims are somewhat dubious since the scanning algorithms are validated against body composition assessments based on fractional density from underwater weighing. They are also fast, simple, non-invasive, and expose the subject to a level of less than that of a cross-country flight. DEXA exams provide both total body and up to 14 regional results, another technique for measuring body composition has been developed for measuring body volume using a different method than underwater weighing. The technique uses air as opposed to water and is known as air displacement plethysmography, subjects enter a sealed chamber that measures their body volume through the displacement of air in the chamber. Body volume is combined with weight in order to determine body density. The technique then estimates the percentage of fat and lean body mass through empirically derived equations similar to those used with underwater weighing. Another method is bioelectrical impedance analysis, which uses the resistance of electrical flow through the body to body fat
38.
Pedometer
–
A pedometer is a device, usually portable and electronic or electromechanical, that counts each step a person takes by detecting the motion of the persons hands or hips. Distance traveled can be measured directly by a GPS receiver, used originally by sports and physical fitness enthusiasts, pedometers are now becoming popular as an everyday exercise counter and motivator. Often worn on the belt and kept on all day, it can record how many steps the wearer has walked that day, Step counters can give encouragement to compete with oneself in getting fit and losing weight. A total of 10,000 steps per day, equivalent to 8 kilometres, is recommended by some to be the benchmark for an active lifestyle, thirty minutes of moderate walking are equivalent to 3, 000-4,000 steps as determined by a pedometer. Step counters are being integrated into a number of portable consumer electronic devices such as music players, smartphones. Pedometers can be a tool for people wanting to increase their physical activity. Various websites exist to allow people to track their progress, however, many also find entering their daily step count. Pedometers have been shown in studies to increase physical activity. A daily target of 10,000 steps was first proposed, the target has been recommended by the US Surgeon General and by the UK Department of Health. One criticism of the pedometer is that it not record intensity. Leonardo da Vinci envisioned a mechanical pedometer as a device with military applications, in 1780 Abraham-Louis Perrelet of Switzerland created the first pedometer, measuring the steps and distance while walking, it was based on a 1770 mechanism of his to power a self-winding watch. A mechanical pedometer obtained from France was introduced in the US by Thomas Jefferson and it is not known if he modified the design, although this pedometer is widely attributed to Jefferson, proof is difficult to obtain as he did not apply for patents on any of his inventions. In 1965 a pedometer called a manpo-kei was marketed in Japan by Y, the technology for a pedometer includes a mechanical sensor and software to count steps. Early forms used a switch to detect steps together with a simple counter. If one shakes these devices, one hears a lead ball sliding back and forth, today advanced step counters rely on MEMS inertial sensors and sophisticated software to detect steps. These MEMS sensors have either 1-, 2- or 3-axis detection of acceleration, the use of MEMS inertial sensors permits more accurate detection of steps and fewer false positives. The software technology used to interpret the output of the inertial sensor, the problem is compounded by the fact that in modern day-to-day life, such step-counters are expected to count accurately on locations where users frequently carry their devices. The accuracy of step counters varies widely between devices, typically, step counters are reasonably accurate at a walking pace on a flat surface if the device is placed in its optimal position
39.
Monitoring (medicine)
–
In medicine, monitoring is the observation of a disease, condition or one or several medical parameters over time. It can be performed by continuously measuring certain parameters by using a monitor, and/or by repeatedly performing medical tests. Transmitting data from a monitor to a distant monitoring station is known as telemetry or biotelemetry, a small monitor worn by an ambulatory patient for this purpose is known as a Holter monitor. Cardiac monitoring can also involve cardiac output monitoring via an invasive Swan-Ganz catheter, hemodynamic monitoring, which monitors the blood pressure and blood flow within the circulatory system. Blood pressure can be measured either invasively through a blood pressure transducer assembly. Also, there are special patient monitors which incorporate the monitoring of brain waves, gas concentrations, bispectral index. They are usually incorporated into anesthesia machines, in neurosurgery intensive care units, brain EEG monitors have a larger multichannel capability and can monitor other physiological events, as well. Blood glucose monitoring Childbirth monitoring Body temperature monitoring through an adhesive pad containing a thermoelectric transducer and these allow for continuous monitoring of a patient, with medical staff being continuously informed of the changes in general condition of a patient. Some monitors can even warn of pending fatal cardiac conditions before visible signs are noticeable to clinical staff, a medical monitor or physiological monitor is a medical device used for monitoring. It can consist of one or more sensors, processing components, display devices, sensors of medical monitors include biosensors and mechanical sensors. Besides the tracings of physiological parameters along time, digital medical displays have automated numeric readouts of the peak and/or average parameters displayed on the screen, old analog patient displays, in contrast, were based on oscilloscopes, and had one channel only, usually reserved for electrocardiographic monitoring. Therefore, medical monitors tended to be highly specialized, one monitor would track a patients blood pressure, while another would measure pulse oximetry, another the ECG. Later analog models had a second or third channel displayed in the screen, usually to monitor respiration movements. Ambulatory telemetry can also be achieved by portable, battery-operated models which are carried by the patient and this newer method of charting patient data reduces the likelihood of human documentation error and will eventually reduce overall paper consumption. In addition, automated ECG interpretation incorporates diagnostic codes automatically into the charts, long-distance connectivity can avail for telemedicine, which involves provision of clinical health care at a distance. A medical monitor can also have the function to produce an alarm to alert the staff when certain criteria are set, an entirely new scope is opened with mobile carried monitors, even such in sub-skin carriage. This class of monitors delivers information gathered in body-area networking to e. g. smart phones, monitoring of clinical parameters is primarily intended to detect changes in the clinical status of an individual. For example, the parameter of oxygen saturation is usually monitored to detect changes in respiratory capability of an individual, when monitoring a clinical parameters, differences between test results can reflect either an actual change in the status of the condition or a test-retest variability of the test method
40.
Drilling rig
–
A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, the term rig therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earths crust. Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe, other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas, and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews. Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle. Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs and this frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i. e. completions vs. drilling. New portable drillcat technology uses smaller portable trailer mounted rigs with shorter 3-metre drill pipe, the shorter drill pipe also allows a much smaller mast. Portable trailer mounted drilling rigs have drill ratings from 90 to 200 metres depending on mud pump flow and pressure ratings, other, heavier, truck rigs are more complicated, thus requiring more skill to run. Theyre also more difficult to handle due to the longer 6-to-9-metre drill pipe. Large truck rigs also require a much higher overhead clearance to operate, large truck drills can use over 570 litres of fuel per day, while the smaller Deeprock Style portable drills use a mere 20 to 75 litres of fuel per day. This makes smaller, more portable rigs preferable in remote or hard-to-reach places, Drilling rigs used for rock blasting for surface mines vary in size dependent on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classified into smaller pre-split and larger production holes. Underground mining uses a variety of drill rigs dependent on the purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling. Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the drilling of wells for the manufacture of salt began by the Song Dynasty in China. The well had a small mouth, as small as a small bowl. Archaeological evidence of the tools used in deep-well dwelling are kept. According to Salt, A World History, a Qing Dynasty well, also located in Zigong, diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception. In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature, in more recent times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty drilling rigs are like a crane and are more usually used to drill water wells
41.
Prison
–
Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
$ 8.279 billion 
