1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
3.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
4.
The Nilgiris District
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The Nilgiris District is in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Nilgiri is the given to a range of mountains spread across the borders among the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka. The Nilgiri Hills are part of a mountain chain known as the Western Ghats. Their highest point is the mountain of Doddabetta, height 2,633 m, the small district is contained mainly within this mountain range, the administrative headquarters is located at Ooty. Nilgiris District ranked first in a comprehensive Economic Environment index ranking districts in Tamil Nadu prepared by the Institute for Financial Management, tea and coffee plantations have been important to its economy. As of 2011, the Nilgiris district had a population of 735,394, the history of peoples settled in the Nilgiri hills has been recorded for several centuries. The Blue Mountains were likely named for the widespread blue Strobilanthes flower or the smoky haze enveloping the area and this area was long occupied by the indigenous tribal peoples of the Toda, Kota, Kurumba and Irula. The lower Wynaad plateau in the west of the district had a different tribal population, the Todas and Kota, who are similar in culture, language and genetic ancestry, were settled across much of the Nilgiri plateau. In addition, the Badaga, though officially recognised by the British in their Gazetteer as primitive tribes are a major group. The Badagas were the agriculturists in the district, cultivating crops such as samai, batha. Under British influence they cultivated English vegetables and later moved on to tea, unlike elsewhere in the country, no historical evidence is found of a state on the Nilgiris or that it was part of any ancient kingdom or empire. It seems always to have been a tribal land, the Toda had small hamlets across most of the plateau. The Kota lived in seven dispersed villages, the Badaga had 435 villages in central and eastern parts of the plateau. They and the Toda had only a few hamlets on the lower Wynaad plateau, since the turn of the 21st century, the Badaga have numbered about 135,000, while the Toda are barely 1,500 and the Kota just over 2,000. Beginning in 1819, the British colonial administration developed the hills rapidly and peaceably, for use as coffee and tea plantations, the 40 mud-forts in the area had been abandoned. During the British raj, Ooty served as the capital of the Madras Presidency from 1870 onwards. District Gazetteers published by the government were reliable reports on the district, its economy, demography and culture. According to a 1996 bibliography of publications of this district, it is probably the most heavily studied rural area anywhere in India and it has been the subject of more than 120 doctoral and masters theses in the natural and human sciences
5.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
6.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
7.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
8.
Climate of India
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The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Many regions have different microclimates. The nation has four seasons, winter, summer, a rainy season. As Earths highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter, though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability, frequency, during the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma and this is underscored by Indias vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India, tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation, elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus, these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The nations climate is influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned according to the Köppen climate classification system. A tropical rainy climate governs regions persistent to warm or high temperatures, India hosts two climatic subtypes- tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group. 1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as a tropical monsoon climate—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, Indias two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate
9.
Climatic regions of India
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India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups and these can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India, the regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally do not go below 18 °C even in the coolest month. Tropical wet The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and it is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year, Most of the rain is received in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the entire year. December to March are the dry months with little rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the wet forests in these regions. Tropical wet and dry or savannah climate Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above 18 °C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the low level areas can go above 45 °C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the rainfall is between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives rainfall during the months of late November to January. This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the rate of moisture received through precipitation. Tropical semi-arid climate A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and this region is a famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 and 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, the coldest month is December but even in this month the temperature remains between 20 °C and 24 °C. The months of March to May are hot and dry with mean temperatures of around 32 °C. The vegetation mostly comprises grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall, hence this area is not very well suited for permanent agriculture. Sub-tropical arid climate Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall, cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30 cm
10.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
11.
Municipality
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It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
12.
Coimbatore
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Coimbatore, also known as Kovai, is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the banks of the Noyyal River surrounded by the Western Ghats, it is the second largest city in the state after Chennai and it is the largest city in the Kongunadu region. It is administered by the Greater Coimbatore Municipal Corporation and is the capital of Coimbatore district. It is one of the fastest growing cities in India. It is often referred to as the Manchester of South India due to its cotton production, Coimbatore is also referred to as the Pump City and it supplies nearly half of Indias requirements of motors and pumps. Coimbatore was part of Kongu Nadu during the Sangam period between c, 1st and the 4th centuries CE and was ruled by the Cheras as it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu. Coimbatore was located along the ancient Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu in South India, the medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE. The region was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century followed by the Nayaks who introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu Nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams. The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai. In 1804, Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed Coimbatore district, the city experienced a textile boom in the early 19th century due to the decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai. Post independence, Coimbatore has seen rapid growth due to industrialisation, Coimbatore was ranked the best emerging city in India by India Today in the 2014,2015 &2016 annual Indian city survey. The city was ranked fourth among Indian cities in investment climate by Confederation of Indian Industry, Coimbatore has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Coimbatore was rated as the safest city in India for women according to National Crime Records Bureau report in 2015, there are multiple theories regarding the origin of the name Coimbatore. According to one theory, Coimbatore is a derivation of Kovanputhur, after chieftain Kovan or Koyan, evolved into Koyambatoor, koyamma, the goddess worshiped by Koyan evolved into Koniamma and later Kovaiamma. Another theory states that the name could have derived from Kovaiamma. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c, 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu. The Kosar tribe mentioned in the second century CE Tamil epic Silappathikaram, the region was located along an ancient Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu. The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE, a Chola highway called Rajakesari Peruvazhi ran through the region
13.
Mysore
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Mysore, officially renamed as Mysuru, is the third most populous and the third largest city in the state of Karnataka, India. Located in the foothills of the Chamundi Hills about 146 km southwest of the state capital Bangalore, according to the provisional results of the 2011 national census of India, the population is 887,446. Mysore City Corporation is responsible for the administration of the city, which is also the headquarters of the Mysore district. Mysore served as the city of the Kingdom of Mysore for nearly six centuries. The Kingdom was ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, with a period of interregnum in the 1860s and 70s when Hyder Ali. Patrons of art and culture, the Wodeyars contributed significantly to the growth of the city. The cultural ambiance and achievements of Mysore earned it the sobriquet Cultural Capital of Karnataka, tourism is the major industry alongside the traditional industries. Mysores inter-city public transportation solely includes rail and bus, flights, however, among many others to be first in, Mysore was the location of the first private radio station in India. Mysore University is headquartered in Mysore, which has produced several notable scientists, authors, politicians, actors, singers, cricket and lawn tennis are the most popular sports in the city. The name Mysore is a version of Mahishūru, which means the abode of Mahisha in the vernacular Kannada. He was killed by the Goddess Chamundeshwari, whose temple is situated atop the Chamundi Hills, mahishapura later became Mahisūru, and finally came to be anglicised as Mysore by the British and Maisūru/Mysuru in the vernacular Kannada language. In December 2005, the Government of Karnataka announced its intention to change the English name of the city to Mysuru and this was approved by the Government of India in October 2014 and Mysore was renamed to Mysuru on November 1,2014. The site where Mysore Palace now stands was occupied by a village named Puragere at the beginning of the 16th century, the Mahishūru Fort was constructed in 1524 by Chamaraja Wodeyar III, who passed on the dominion of Puragere to his son Chamaraja Wodeyar IV. Since the 16th century, the name of Mahishūru has commonly used to denote the city. The Mysore Kingdom, governed by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a state of the Vijayanagara Empire. Seringapatam, near Mysore, was the capital of the kingdom from 1610, the kingdom reached the height of its military power and dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the de facto rulers Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. The latter demolished parts of Mysore to remove legacies of the Wodeyar dynasty, the landlocked interior of the previous Mysore Kingdom was turned into a princely state under the suzerainty of the British Crown. The former Wodeyar rulers were reinstated as puppet monarchs, now styled Maharajas, the British administration was assisted locally by Diwan Purnaiah
14.
Hill station
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A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley. The term was used mostly in colonial Asia, but also in Africa, for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat, up where temperatures are cooler. In the Indian context most hill stations are at an altitude of approximately 1,000 to 2,500 metres, Hill stations in India were established for a variety of reasons. Other factors included anxieties about the dangers of life in India, the hill stations were meant to reproduce the home country, illustrated in Lord Lyttons statement about Ootacamund, in the 1870s, such beautiful English rain, such delicious English mud. Shimla was officially made the capital of India in the 1860s and hill stations served as vital centers of political and military power. Dane Kennedy, following Monika Bührlein, identifies three stages in the evolution of hill stations in India, high refuge, high refuge to hill station, the first settlements started in the 1820s, primarily as sanitoria. In the 1840s and 1850s, there was a wave of new stations, with the main impetus being places to rest. In the second half of the 19th century, there was a period of consolidation with few new hill stations, in the final phase, hill stations reached their zenith in the late nineteenth century. The political importance of the stations was underscored by the inauguration of large. The Great Hill Stations of Asia, the Magic Mountains, Hill Stations and the British Raj. Berkeley, University of California Press,1996, booknotes interview with Barbara Crossette on The Great Hill Stations of Asia, August 23,1998
15.
Nilgiri mountains
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The Nilgiri, form part of the Western Ghats in western Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala states in Southern India. At least 24 of the Nilgiri mountains peaks are above 2,000 metres, spanning an area of 2,479 square kilometres, the mountains central location is 11°22′30″N 76°45′30″E. The Nilgiris District of Tamil Nadu lies within these mountains, spanning 130 km by 185 km and it is connected via Nilgiri Mountain Railway. The mountains are separated from other geographical features by the Moyar River to the north, the Nilgiri Hills are part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, and form a part of the protected bio reserves in India. The high steppes of the Nilgiri Hills have been inhabited since prehistoric times, the first recorded use of the word Nila applied to this region can be traced back to 1117 AD. A hero stone with a Kannada inscription at Vazhaithottam in the Nilgiri District, as a result of these accounts, Messrs. Whish and Kindersley, two young Madras civilians, ventured up in pursuit of some criminals taking refuge in the mountains and they soon saw and felt enough favorable climate and terrain to excite their own curiosity, and that of others. With a detachment of Europeans and Indian sepoys, they set out on this mission on January 2,1819, the journey involved crossing rough and harsh terrain, steep precipices and danger from wild animals. After an expedition that lasted for six days and the loss of some of the members lives. In May 1819, the tourists from Coimbatore, accompanied by Monsieur Leschnault de la Tour, naturalist to the King of France. They asserted the temperature in the shade to be 74 °F at a time when the temperature of the plains was up to 100 °F, such a climate within the tropics was considered so great an anomaly that at first only a few believed its existence. After the early 1820s, the hills were developed rapidly under the British Raj and it was a popular summer and weekend getaway for the British during the colonial days. In 1827, Ooty became the official sanatorium and the capital of the Madras Presidency. Many winding hill roads were built, in 1899, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway was completed by influential and enterprising British citizens, with venture capital from the Madras government. They were documented by Edgar Thurston, paraiyan is also anglicized as pariah. The highest point in the Nilgiris and the extent of the range is Doddabetta Peak,4 km east southeast of Udhagamandalam. Closely linked peaks in the west of Doddabetta range and nearby Udhagamandalam include, Kolaribetta, height,2,630 metres, Hecuba,2,375 metres, Kattadadu,2,418 metres and Kulkudi,2,439 metres. Snowdon 11°23′29″N 76°31′38″E, Pichalbetta and Nilgiri Peak 11°24′0″N 76°30′4″E are the important heights of this area and these three hills of the Wayanad district are generally low in relation to other heights of the district but are distinguished in relation to the generally uniform level of this area
16.
Toda people
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The Toda people are a small pastoral tribal community who live on the isolated Nilgiri plateau in hill country of Southern India. During the 20th century, the Toda population has hovered in the range 700 to 900, the study of their culture by anthropologists and linguists proved significant in developing the fields of social anthropology and ethnomusicology. Their economy was pastoral, based on the buffalo, which products they traded with neighbouring peoples of the Nilgiri Hills. Toda religion features the sacred buffalo, consequently, rituals are performed for all activities as well as for the ordination of dairymen-priests. The religious and funerary rites provide the context in which complex poetic songs about the cult of the buffalo are composed and chanted. Fraternal polyandry in traditional Toda society was fairly common, however, during the last quarter of the 20th century, some Toda pasture land was lost due to outsiders using it for agriculture or afforestation by the State Government of Tamil Nadu. This has threatened to undermine Toda culture by greatly diminishing the buffalo herds, since the early 21st century, Toda society and culture have been the focus of an international effort at culturally sensitive environmental restoration. The Toda lands are now a part of The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Emeneau in 1984, the successive decennial Census of India figures for the Toda are,1871,1881,1891,1901,1911,1951,1961,1971. Another factor in the uncertainty in the figures is the declared or undeclared inclusion or exclusion of Christian Todas by the various enumerators, however, earlier predictions that the community was declining were overly pessimistic and probably never well-founded. DNA studies in the early 21st century showed that the Toda, the Toda are most closely related to the Kota both ethnically and linguistically. The Toda dress consists of a piece of cloth, which is worn like shalya wrap over a dhoti for men. The symbols from traditional costumes are very old and similar to those worn in ancient India and their sole occupation is cattle-herding and dairy-work. Holy dairies are built to store the buffalo milk and they once practised fraternal polyandry, a practice in which a woman marries all the brothers of a family, but no longer do so. All the children of marriages were deemed to descend from the eldest brother. The ratio of females to males is about three to five, the culture historically practised female infanticide. In the Toda tribe, families arrange contracted child marriage for couples, the Todas live in small hamlets called munds. The Toda huts, called dogles, are of an oval and they are usually 10 feet high,18 feet long and 9 feet wide. They are built of bamboo fastened with rattan and are thatched, thicker bamboo canes are arched to give the hut its basic pent shape
17.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
18.
Nilgiri Mountain Railway
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The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a railway in Tamil Nadu, India, built by the British in 1908, and was initially operated by the Madras Railway. The railway relies on its fleet of steam locomotives, NMR comes under the jurisdiction of the newly formed Salem Division. For the past several years diesel locomotives have taken over from steam on the section between Coonoor and Udhagamandalam, local people and tourists have led a demand for steam locomotives to once again haul this section. The NMR track is 1,000 mm metre gauge and the railway is isolated from other metre gauge lines, between Mettupalayam and Coonoor, the line uses the Abt rack and pinion system to climb the steep gradient. On this rack section trains are operated by X Class steam rack locomotives manufactured by the Swiss Locomotive and these steam locomotives can be used on any part of the line, but the newer diesel locomotives can operate on the entire section, between Mettupalayam and Udagamandalam. The work was entrusted to Golden Rock Workshop of Southern Railway at Tiruchirapalli, each of the new engines weighs a little over 50 tonnes and cost Rs.10 crore. The new engine has been provided with pilot and primary burners with separate tanks to hold about 850 litres of diesel and 2,250 litres of furnace oil. The hauling capacity of new engine is 97.6 tonnes and it can run at a speed of 30 kilometres per hour in plains. The arrival of the new engines has eliminated the disruption in service that occurred frequently over the last few years, for long, the X Class locomotives manufactured by Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works of Winterthur in Switzerland lent that distinct charm to NMR. These locomotives are six to eight decades old, railway officials said The steam locomotives are always marshalled at the end of the train. The average gradient in this section is 1 in 24.5. Between Coonoor and Udagamandalam the train is operated by a YDM4 diesel locomotive using conventional rail adhesion principles, as of 2007, there is one train a day over the rack section, which starts from Mettupalayam at 07,10 and reaches Ooty at noon. The return train starts from Ooty at 14,00, the train is scheduled to connect to the Nilgiri Express, which travels from Mettupalayam to Chennai via Coimbatore. A summer special service is run during the months of April and May, starting from Mettupalayam at 09,30. Between Coonoor and Udagamandalam, there are four trains each way. However, ticket booking is similar to conventional trains and can also be done via the Indian Railways website. It is advisable to book tickets for this well in advance. The majority of repairs to the locomotives are carried out at the Coonoor shed, carriages are repaired at Mettupalayam but, like the locomotives, are taken to one of the big railway workshops for major work
19.
Strobilanthes kunthianus
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Kurinji or Neelakurinji is a shrub that is found in the shola forests of the Western Ghats in South India. Nilgiri Hills, which means the blue mountains, got their name from the purplish blue flowers of Neelakurinji that blossoms only once in 12 years. The species is known as ನೀಲಕುರಂಜಿ in Kannada, குறிஞ்சி in Tamil, some Kurinji flowers bloom once every seven years, and then die. Their seeds subsequently sprout and continue the cycle of life and death, the Paliyan tribal people living in Tamil nadu used it as a reference to calculate their age. Kurinji grows at an altitude of 1300 to 2400 metres, the plant is usually 30 to 60 cm high. They can, however, grow well beyond 180 cm under congenial conditions, the Kurinji plant belongs to the genus Strobilanthes which was first scientifically described by Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck in the 19th century. The genus has around 250 species, of which at least 46 are found in India, most of these species show an unusual flowering behavior, varying from annual to 16-year blooming cycles. Blooming periods of different species of Kurinji differ from each other, plants that bloom at long intervals like Strobilanthes kunthiana are known as plietesials. Other commonly used expressions or terms which apply to part or all of the life history include gregarious flowering, mast seeding. Some species of Strobilanthes are examples of a mass seeding phenomenon termed as masting which can be defined as synchronous production of seed at long intervals by a population of plants. Strict masting only occurs in species that are monocarpic -- individuals of the species only once during their lifetime, then die. Kurinji once used to cover the Nilgiri Hills and Palani Hills like a carpet during its flowering season, now plantations and dwellings occupy much of their habitat. Besides the Western Ghats, Neelakurinji is also seen in the Shevroys in the Eastern Ghats, some parts of Idukki, in 2006, Neelakurunji flowered again in Kerala and Tamil Nadu after a gap of 12 years. Thereafter, the Strobilanthes cuspidatus species of Kurinji flowers were blooming in 2016 in Udhagamandalam near a major road. Kurinji Andavar temple located in Kodaikanal on Tamil Nadu dedicated to Hindu God Kartikeya also preserves Strobilanthes plants, the story of Karthikeya is nothing connected with Strobilanthes, it was a later addition. The God associated with Kurinji Malai or Strobilanthes hill is Kurinji Andavan, later mainstream Hindus took over the temple and interwoven story of Karthikeya with Kurinji Andavan. Kurinji flower is used to describe the mountainous landscape where it blooms in classical Tamil literature. The famous poetic fragment Red Earth and Pouring Rain from Tamil literary piece Kuruntokai makes a reference to the flower
20.
Irula people
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Irula is an ethnic group of India. They inhabit the area of the Nilgiri mountains, in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, a scheduled tribe, their population in this region is estimated at 25,000 people. People of Irula ethnicity are called Irular, and speak Irula, Irular means dark people in Tamil and Malayalam, from the root word irul, meaning darkness, in reference to their dark skin complexion. Early 20th century anthropological literature classified the Irular under the Negrito ethnic group, Irular live in two south Indian states – Tamil Nadu and Kerala. In Tamil Nadu they live in the Nilgiris, Coimbatore and Erode districts, in Kerala they live in the Palakkad district and Attapady and Walayar panchayats. They live in four taluks in Coimbatore district, namely Coimbatore South, Coimbatore North, Avinashi, the Coimbatore district houses 4254 Irulas in 40 settlements comprising 139 villages. Nearly 100 Vettakada Irula settlements are found in the forest areas or in the deep mountainous jungles, there are 4 tribal settlements in the Siruvani Hills comprising 14 villages. The Census of Kerala identified 756 Irulan individuals from 189 families, traditionally, the main occupation of the Irulas has been snake and rat catching. They also work as labourers in the fields of the landlords during the sowing and harvesting seasons or in the rice mills, fishing is also a major occupation. Rats destroy a quarter of the grain grown on Tamil Nadu-area farms annually, to combat this pest, Irula men use a traditional earthen pot fumigation method. Smoke is blown through their mouths, which leads to severe respiratory, $70,000 were paid by the state of Florida to hire the Irula men and their translators. They’ve bagged 14 pythons in less than two weeks
21.
Silappatikaram
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Silappadikaram is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil literary tradition. A Jain poet-prince from Kodungallur near Kochi, referred to by the pseudonym Ilango Adigal, is credited with this work and he is reputed to have been the brother of Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, the Chera dynasty king. As a literary work, Silappatikaram is held in regard by the Tamil people. It contains three chapters and a total of 5270 lines of poetry, the epic revolves around Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan Dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom. Silappatikaram has been dated to belong to the beginning of Common era. The story involves the three Tamil kingdoms of the ancient era, which were ruled by the Chola, Pandyan, at the end of the Sangam epoch, the Tamil country was in political confusion. The older order of the three Tamil dynasties was replaced by the invasion of the Kalabhras and these new kings and others encouraged the religions of Buddhism and Jainism. Ilango Adigal, the author of Silappatikaram, probably lived in this period and was one of the vast number of Jain and these authors, perhaps influenced by their monastic faiths, wrote books based on moralistic values to illustrate the futility of secular pleasures. Silappatikaram used akaval meter, a style adopted from Sangam literature, Silappatikaram does not use the convention of regarding the land divisions becoming part of description of life among various communities of hero and heroine. The epic mentions evenings, especially in the season, as the prime time that exacerbates the feelings of longing in those who are separated. These patterns are only in the later works of Sanskrit by Kalidasa. The story of Silappatikaram is set during the first few centuries of CE and it also mentions the Ilankai king Gajabahu and the Chera Senguttuvan. It confirms that the kingdoms of Chedi, Uttarakosala. The epic also describes the Tamil society of the period, its cities. The authorship of Silappatikaram is credited to the pseudonym Ilango Adigal and he is reputed to be the brother of Chera king Senguttuvan, although there is no evidence in the Sangam poetries that the famous king had a brother. There are also claims that Ilango Adigal was a contemporary of Sattanar, the prologues of each of these books tell us that each were read out to the author of the other. In the pathigam, the prologue to the book, Ilango Adigal gives the reader the gist of the book with the précis of the story, Kannagi was born in a very rich trader family. She was brought up with comfort and discipline and she was married to Kovalan, who was the young son of a similarly rich trader
22.
Chera dynasty
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The Cheras were the principal ruling dynasty of the present-day state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu in South India. Along with the Ay kingdom and the Ezhimala kingdom, they formed the kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Christian Era. The origins of the dynasty are unclear and it is understood that they were speakers of Proto-Tamil-Malayalam while some being practitioners of literary writing in Old Tamil. In fact, most of their history is reconstructed from the body of known as the Sangam literature written in Old Tamil around the 3rd century CE. While Pliny and Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Calobotras, the Periplus refers to them as the Keprobotras, the earliest Sanskrit works which refer to the Cheras and Kerala is probably the Aitreya Aranyaka. It refers to the land as Chera-pada - and as one of the three peoples who did not follow some ancient injunctions, there are also brief references by Katyanana, Patanjali and Kautilya, however Panini does not mention of the land. The Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam literature form one of the most important sources for a detailed history of the Cheras. These works roughly span the period 300 BCE to 300 CE, among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the Pattittupattu, the Agananuru, the Purananuru and the Silappatikaram. By the early centuries of the Common Era, civil society, the location of the Chera capital is generally assumed to be at modern Karur. The Cheras were in conflict with the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. The Cheras are said to have defeated the armies of the Pandyas. They also made battles with the Kadambās of Banavasi and the Yavanas on the Indian coast, after the 2nd century CE, the Cheras power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans. Sangam literature describes a line of Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries CE. It records the names of the kings, the princes, the internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the Chera kingdom owed its importance to trade with West Asia, Greece and Rome. The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century, little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram, the Chera rulers of Venad, based at the port Quilon in southern Kerala, trace their relations back to the later/second Cheras
23.
Satavahana dynasty
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The Satavahanas were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, at different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana, the origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the Puranas, their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty. In the post-Maurya era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region, in particular their struggles with the Saka Western Satraps went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the kingdom fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers and they formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They supported Brahmanism as well as Buddhism, and patronised Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit, the date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynastys name, are a matter of debate among the historians. According to one theory, the word Satavahana is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana and this would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty, as was common in ancient India. According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the name is derived from the words sata and vahana. Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty, yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam and Harpan, implying son of the performer of a horse sacrifice. Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title Satakarni, Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and Shalivahana appear to be variations of the same word. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorized that the word Satakarni is derived from the Munda words sada, the Puranas use the name Andhra or Andhra-Bhritya for the Satavahanas. The term Andhra may refer to ethnicity or territory of the dynasty and it does not appear in the dynastys own records. The use of the name Andhra in the Puranas has led scholars to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region. At Kotilingala in Telangana, coins bearing the legend Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa were found, coins attributed to Simukas successors Kanha and Satakarni I were also discovered at Kotilingla. Based on these discoveries, historians such as D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy, however, the coin samples from Kotlingala are small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else. Sastry also later changed his view, and stated that the two kings were different, as for the Puranas, these texts were compiled much later, during the Gupta period, and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time. Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan, all of the four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period have been found in and around this region
24.
Western Ganga dynasty
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Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later, after the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in the Deccan, after a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire, the defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, the kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundarayas writing, Chavundaraya Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose, many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management. Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty, some mythical accounts point to a northern origin, while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin. These regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically, the area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore, Hassan Chamarajanagar, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state. At times, they controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu. The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made Kolar his capital around 350, by the time of Harivarma in 390, the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with Talakad as their capital. Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power. In 529, King Durvinita ascended the throne after waging a war with his brother who was favoured by his father. Some accounts suggest that in this struggle, the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinitas choice of heir. From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam, considered the most successful of the Ganga kings, Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music, dance, ayurveda and taming wild elephants. Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to Yudhishthira and Manu – figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom, politically, the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas. This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy, from the year 725 onwards, the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the Gangavadi-96000 comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka. King Sripurusha fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully, bringing Penkulikottai in north Arcot under his control temporarily for which he earned the title Permanadi
25.
Kadamba dynasty
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Kadamba was an ancient royal brahmin dynasty of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in present-day Uttara Kannada district. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, the Kadambas of Banavasi ruled large parts of modern Karnataka state, King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil and their legacy was so impressive that even the Vijayanagar rulers who fought Deccan Sultanates hired descendants of the Kadambas to manage their Goa military naval fleet. There is no shortage of myths about the origin of the Kadambas, according to one account the dynasty was founded by one Trilochana Kadamba also known from the Halsi and Degamve records as Jayanta who had three eyes and four arms. He was born out of the sweat of Shiva, which had fallen under a Kadamba tree, according to another myth, Mayurasharma himself was born to Lord Shiva and mother earth and had three eyes. An inscription of the Nagarakhanda Kadambas, a later descendent dynasty, gives a legendary account, there are two theories to the origin of the Kadamba dynasty, a native Kannadiga origin and the other a north Indian origin. Mention of the north Indian origin of the Kadambas are only found in their records of their offshoot descendent dynasty and is considered legendary. But this theory has not found popularity as there is no indication of this account in any of their early records, on the contrary, the family derives its name from the Kadamba tree that is common only to the South India region. A claim has made that the Kadambas were none other than a tribe called the Kadambu. The Kadambus find mention in the Tamil Sangam literature as totemic worshippers of the Kadambu tree, being native Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance to their language, Kannada, after coming to power. It is thus claimed that the family of the Kadambas were undoubtedly of Kanarese descent, the Naga descent of the Kadambas has been stated in early inscriptions of King Krishna Varma I too, which confirms the family was from present day Karnataka. Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka. They belonged to the Manavya Gotra and were Haritiputras, which connects them to the native Chutus of Banavasi, inscriptions of the Kadambas in Kannada and Sanskrit ascribed to the main dynasty and branch kingdoms have been published by historians. The Kadambas minted coins with Nagari, Kannada and Grantha legends which provide additional evidence of their history. Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as an official administrative language
26.
Rashtrakuta dynasty
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Rashtrakuta was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapura, other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and this clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively, an Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh, called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the kings by Jainism. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada, Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, the origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, the sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers. Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas, possibilities include the north western ethnic groups of India, the Kannadiga, Reddi, the Maratha, or the tribes from the Punjab region. Scholars however concur that the rulers of the dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit, and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages, the earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas, they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well, the heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. He then helped his father-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, dantidurgas successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780 and he led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control, according to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule. The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarshas third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before, there is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains and his military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata
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Chola dynasty
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The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more, the Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka, Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia, the Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy and their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship and they pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture, the Cholas are also known as the Choda. There is very little available in regarding their origin. Its antiquity is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature, Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. Mentions in the early Sangam literature indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE, Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE as one of the neighboring countries existing in the South. A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the annotator Parimelazhagar said, The charity of people with ancient lineage are forever generous in spite of their reduced means. Other names in use for the Cholas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and this word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with valam – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country, in Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. There is very little evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. Historic records exist thereafter, including inscriptions on temples, the main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period
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Hoysala Empire
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The Hoysala empire was a prominent Southern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern-day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malnad Karnataka, a region in the Western Ghats range. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh, the Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, well known temples which exhibit an amazing display of sculptural exuberance include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada. Kannada folklore tells a tale of a young man Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by striking dead a Tiger he encountered near the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Angadi, the word strike literally translates to hoy in Hale Kannada, hence the name Hoy-sala. This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana, early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadava by referring to the Yadava vamsa as Hoysala vamsa. But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India, historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or Lord of the Male chiefs. This title in the Kannada language was used by the Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time in Kannada and Sanskrit have also helped confirm they were natives of the region known today as Karnataka, the first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I. The next ruler, Munda, was succeeded by Nripa Kama II who held titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a subordinate of the Western Chalukyas. Through Vishnuvardhanas expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a kingdom for the first time. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Halebidu, Vishnuvardhanas ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187–1193. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony – Pandya, Kakatiya, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He assumed the title Establisher of the Chola Kingdom, Emperor of the south and he founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore
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Vijayanagara Empire
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The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, the empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò Da Conti, Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empires power and wealth. The empires legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi, the previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan, efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empires patronage enabled fine arts and literature to new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor, differing theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Vijayanagara empire. Others claim that they were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India. He created the Kampili kingdom, but this was a short lived kingdom during this period of wars, Kampili existed near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra river in northeastern parts of the present-day Karnataka state. It ended after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate, the triumphant army led by Malik Zada sent the news of its victory, over Kampili kingdom, to Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi by sending a straw-stuffed severed head of the dead Hindu king. Within Kampili, on the day of certain defeat, the populace committed a jauhar in 1327/28 CE, eight years later, from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom emerged the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 CE. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the south of the Tungabhadra river. The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in todays Karnataka. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha, italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers and he quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu, the Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute
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Wadiyar dynasty
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The Wadiyar dynasty was an Indian dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 to 1761 and from 1799 to 1947. The kingdom was incorporated into the Dominion of India after its independence from British rule, in Kannada, the word Wadiyar means Lord or Lordship. Historical records use the term ″Wodeyar″ when referring to the royal family members. In more modern Kannada transliteration, the variation ″Odeyar″ is also used, the origin of Wodeyars is traced to Yadavas of Dvārakā, who came to Karnataka and seeing the natural beauty of the place made Mysore their abode. The Yadavas then ruled over the area for 600 years, the dynasty was established in 1399 by Yaduraya Wodeyar. He ruled Mysore under the Vijayanagara Empire until 1423, after Yaduraya Wodeyar, the Mysore kingdom was succeeded by the Wadiyar rulers. The kingdom remained fairly small during this period and was a part of the Vijayanagara Empire. After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, the Kingdom of Mysore became independent, during the reign of Krishnaraja Wadiyar III, the region came under the control of the British Empire. His successors changed the English spelling of their name to Wadiyar. The Vijayanagara Empire disintegrated in 1565, the power vacuum created soon after was exploited by Raja Wadiyar. Later famous rulers of the dynasty included Kanthirava Narasaraja I, who expanded the frontiers of the Mysore kingdom to Trichy in Tamil Nadu. The dynasty reached its peak under Chikka Devaraja, who reformed the administration of the empire by dividing it into 18 departments, after Tipu Sultan was killed by the British in the Battle of Srirangapatna in 1799, the Wadiyars were restored to a reduced kingdom. After restoring the Wadiyars to the throne of Mysore, the British shifted the capital back to the city of Mysore from Srirangapatna, the four-year-old boy Krishna Raja Wadiyar III, son of the last Wadiyar king, Khasa Chamaraja Wadiyar VIII, was anointed as the King of Mysore. Wadiyars were now subsidiaries of the British Raj and had to pay a subsidy to the British. British commissioners administered Mysore from 1831–1881, bowring are among the well-known commissioners of the period. In 1868, the British Parliament heeded the plea and decided to restore the kingdom to his adopted son Chamaraja Wadiyar IX. In 1881, the transfer of power back to the Wadiyars heralded an important phase in the making of modern Mysore, for the first time in India, democratic experiments were introduced by the establishment of a representative assembly. Under British hegemony, the Wadiyars, freed from security concerns and they made Mysore a cultural center of Karnataka, fostering a number of famous musicians, writers and painters
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Tipu Sultan
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Tipu Sultan, also known as the Tiger of Mysore, and Tipu Sahib, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore, Tipu expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He is considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery, Tipu Sultan deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies in their 1792 and 1799 Siege of Srirangapatna. Napoleon, the French commander-in-chief who later became emperor, sought an alliance with Tipu, Tipu engaged in expansionist attacks against his neighbours. He remained an enemy of the British East India Company. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into the humiliating Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of conquered territories, including Malabar. He sent emissaries to foreign states, including the Ottoman Turkey, Afghanistan and he is said to have forced Manglore Catholics to convert to Islam. Also during his only three temples of his kingdom were able to offer daily Pooja. Tipu Sultan was born on 20 November 1750 at Devanahalli, in present-day Bengaluru Rural district and he was named Tipu Sultan after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Tipu was also called Sultan Sayyid walShareef Fateh Ali Khan Tipu after his grandfather Fath Muhammad, Tipu was born at Devanhalli in a Najeeb AlTarfayn Sayyid family meaning having ancestry to both Imams Hassan and Hussain, as the son of Hyder Ali. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a princes education, from the age of 17 Tipu was given independent charge of important diplomatic and military missions. He was his fathers right arm in the wars from which Hyder emerged as the most powerful ruler of southern India. Tipus father, Hyder Ali, was an officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore, he rapidly rose in power. Hyders father, Fath Muhammad, was born in Kolar, Fateh Muhammad eventually entered the service of the Wodeyar Rajas of the Kingdom of Mysore. Tipus mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa, Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing. Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father, at age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16 and he also distinguished himself in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775–1779. In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé, in response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras
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Srirangapatnam
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Srirangapatna is a town in Mandya district of the Indian state of Karnataka. Located near the city of Mysore, it is of religious, cultural, although situated a mere 15 km from Mysore city, Srirangapatna lies in the neighbouring district of Mandya. The entire town is enclosed by the river Kaveri to form a river island, while the main river flows on the eastern side of the island, the Paschima Vaahini segment of the same river flows to its west. The town is accessible by train from Bangalore and Mysore and is also well-connected by road. The highway passes through town and special care was taken to minimize any impact on the monuments. The town takes its name from the celebrated Ranganathaswamy temple which dominates the town, the temple was built by the Ganga dynasty rulers of the area in the 9th century, the structure was strengthened and improved upon architecturally some three centuries later. Thus, the temple is a medley of the Hoysala and Vijayanagar styles of temple architecture, as of 2001 India census, Srirangapatna had a population of 23,448. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%, Srirangapatna has an average literacy rate of 68%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 74%, and female literacy is 63%. In Srirangapatna, 10% of the population is under 6 years of age, Srirangapatna is located at 12. 41°N76. 7°E /12.41,76.7. It has an elevation of 679 metres. Srirangapatna Sangama is the confluence of the three holy streams creating the island, located 27 km upstream from the town is the spectacular Shivanasamudra Falls, the second biggest waterfall in India and the 16th largest in the world. Srirangapatna has since time immemorial been a center and place of pilgrimage. During the Vijayanagar empire, it became the seat of a major viceroyalty, from several nearby vassal states of the empire, such as Mysore. When, perceiving the decline of the Vijayanagar empire, the rulers of Mysore ventured to assert independence, raja Wodeyar vanquished Rangaraya, the then viceroy of Srirangapatna, in 1610 and celebrated the Navaratri festival in the town that year. Srirangapatna became the de facto capital of Mysore under Hyder Ali, in that heady period, the state ruled by Tipu extended its frontiers in every direction, encompassing a major portion of South India. Srirangapatna flourished as the capital of this powerful state. Various Indo-Islamic monuments that dot the town, such as Tipu Sultans palaces, the Darya Daulat and this battle was the last engagement of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. The Battle of Seringapatam,1799, was truly momentous in its historic effects, at the battles climax, Tipu Sultan was killed within the fort of Seringapatam, betrayed by one of his own confidants, the spot where he ultimately fell is marked by a memorial
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Kotagiri
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Kotagiri is a Panchayat town in The Nilgiris District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Kotagiri is situated at an elevation of around 1,793 m above sea level, Kotagiri is located at 11. 43°N76. 88°E /11.43,76.88. It has an elevation of 1793 meters. It was supposed to have the second best climate in Tamil Nadu. As of 2011 India census, Kothagiri town Panchayat has population of 28,207 of which 13,607 are males while 14,600 are females as per report released by Census India 2011. Population of Children with age of 0-6 is 2340 which is 8. 30% of total population of Kotagiri, in Kotagiri Town Panchayat, Female Sex Ratio is of 1073 against state average of 996. Moreover Child Sex Ratio in Kotagiri is around 945 compared to Tamil Nadu state average of 943, literacy rate of Kotagiri city is 86. 79% higher than state average of 80. 09%. In Kotagiri, Male literacy is around 93. 55% while female literacy rate is 80. 57%, majority of people speak Tamil as their first language
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Coonoor
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Coonoor is a Taluk and a municipality in the Nilgiris district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is known for its production of Nilgiri tea, Coonoor is located at an altitude of 1,850 m above sea level, and is the second largest hill station in the Nilgiri hills after Ooty. It is a base for a number of trekking expeditions leading into the Nilgiris. The nearest airport is Coimbatore International Airport about 79 km from Coonoor town, as of 2011, the town had a population of 45,494. Coonoor is located at 11. 35°N76. 82°E /11.35,76.82 and it has an average elevation of 1850 metres above sea level. It features a sub-tropical highland climate due to high altitude. Here, frosts are rare, unlike Ooty or Lovedale. According to 2011 census, Coonoor had a population of 45,494 with a sex-ratio of 1,058 females for every 1,000 males, a total of 3,768 were under the age of six, constituting 1,871 males and 1,897 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 27. 92% and 23% of the population respectively, the average literacy of the city was 84. 79%, compared to the national average of 72. 99%. The city had a total of 12384 households, the town is the second largest in the Nilgiri hills after Ooty, the district headquarters. Coonoor has 61. 81% Hindus,23. 99% Christians,13. 01% Muslims,0. 04% Sikhs,0. 06% Buddhists,0. 95% Jains and 0. 08% Others. 0. 05% of the respondents follow no religion or did not state their religion, coonoors economy relies on seasonal tourist traffic during the summer months, and on the tea industry year round. The local populace almost entirely depends on the tea trade, Coonoor also houses the UPASI - the South Indian Tea Board which is involved in the research, commerce and auction of the Tea produced. It also houses Indian army establishments such as Madras regimental center, spread in an area of 12 ha, Sims Park has a collection of over 1,000 plant species. The botanical garden is partly developed in the Japanese style and derived its name from J. D. Sim, the secretary of the Madras Club in 1874. The key attraction of the park is the fruit and vegetable show held in May. 57th annual fruit show is to be held on 23 and 24 May 2015. Dolphins Nose Viewpoint is 10 km from Coonoor and provides a view of the vast expanse of the Nilgiri Hills. Tourists can trek from Lady Cannings Seat to Dolphins Nose, lamb’s Rock, about 5½ km from Coonoor is another vantage point. Droog Fort is located a distance of 13 km from Coonoor and was used by Tipu Sultan in the 18th century
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Madras Presidency
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The Madras Presidency, or the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India. The city of Madras was the capital of the Presidency and Ootacamund or Ooty. The island of Ceylon was a part of Madras Presidency from 1793 to 1798 when it was created a Crown colony, the agency was upgraded to a Presidency in 1652 before once more reverting to its previous status in 1655. In 1684, it was re-elevated to a Presidency and Elihu Yale was appointed as president, in 1785, under the provisions of Pitts India Act, Madras became one of three provinces established by the East India Company. Thereafter, the head of the area was styled Governor rather than President and became subordinate to the Governor-General in Calcutta, a title that would persist until 1947. Judicial, legislative and executive powers rested with the Governor who was assisted by a Council whose constitution was modified by reforms enacted in 1861,1909,1919 and 1935, regular elections were conducted in Madras up to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. Following the Montague-Chelmsford reforms of 1919, Madras was the first province of British India to implement a system of dyarchy, in the early decades of the 20th century, many significant contributors to the Indian independence movement came from Madras. With the advent of Indian independence on 15 August 1947, the Presidency became the Madras Province. Madras was later admitted as Madras State, a state of the Indian Union at the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950, the discovery of dolmens from this portion of the subcontinent shows inhabitation as early as the Stone Age. The first prominent rulers of the part of the future Presidency were the Tamil pandya dynasty. Following the decline of the pandyas of Tamil Nadu and the Cholas in Tamil Nadu, the country recovered under the subsequent Pallava dynasty and its civilisation attained a peak under the later where the telugu period when telugu kings started accquiring vast places in Tamil Nadu. Following the conquest of Madurai by Malik Kafur in 1311, there was a brief lull when both culture and civilisation began to deteriorate, the Tamil and Telugu territories recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire, founded in 1336. Following the empires demise, the country was split amongst numerous sultans, polygars, between 1685 and 1947, a number of kings ruled the areas that became part of the Madras Presidency. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted a group of English merchants a charter to establish a company which became known as the East India Company. The first of these were built at Surat on the west coast, Masulipatam is thus the oldest English trading post on Indias east coast, dating back to 1611. In 1625, another factory was established at Armagon, a few miles to the south, the English authorities decided to relocate these factories farther south, due to a shortage of cotton cloth, the main trade item of the east coast at the time. The problem was compounded when the Sultan of Golconda started harassing the local officers, an agency was created to govern the new settlement, and the factor Andrew Cogan of Masulipatnam was appointed as its first Agent. All the agencies along Indias east coast were subordinated to the East India Company presidency of Bantam in Java, by 1641, Fort St George became the Companys headquarters on the Coromandel Coast
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Wellington, Tamil Nadu
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Wellington is a town in The Nilgiris District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiri Passenger train passes through Wellington, which has a railway station, the college has a colourful past and traces its lineage to 1905 when it was set up at Devlali. Sometime after the partition of the Indian Subcontinent, the college shifted to Wellington in The Nilgiri Hills and this town is located near the city of Coonoor. Wellington is located at 11. 37°N76. 8°E /11.37,76.8 and it has an average elevation of 1855 metres. As of 2001 India census, Wellington had a population of 20,220, males constitute 54% of the population and females 46%. Wellington has an literacy rate of 82%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 87%. In Wellington, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age
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Madras Regiment
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The Madras Regiment is an infantry regiment of the Indian Army, and one of its oldest, tracing its origins to units formed in the 1750s. The Madras Regiment was initially formed as the Madras European Regiment in the 1660s by the East India Company as the company established in India. However, it was formed as a battalion in 1748 under the command of Major Stringer Lawrence, the battalion was involved in all the battles against the French forces in India. Lawrence structured the regiment to include two battalions, one European and one Sepoy, both battalions were similar in structure and included seven companies each, with each company including three officers in command and seventy privates. Also part of the companies were four sergeants and corporals and three drummers, the oldest Battalion in the Madras Regiment was the 9th Battalion, formerly known as the Nair Brigade. This militia was raised in 1704 at Padmanabhapuram as body guards for the Maharajah of Travancore, the army was made up of soldiers from Nair warrior clans, however after the 1940s, non-Nairs were permitted to join. The Nayar Army became incorporated into the Indian Army on April 1951, in 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence, a veteran of action in Spain, Flanders and the Highlands, was hired by the East India Company to take charge of the defence of Cuddalore. He laid the foundations of what was to become the Indian Army, training the levies to become a militia, the Madras Levies were formed into companies and trained to become a disciplined and fine fighting force. In 1758 Lawrence raised the Madras Regiment, forming the several Companies of Madras Levies into two battalions,2 Madras was raised in 1776 as the 15th Carnatic Infantry at Thanjavur. The regiment has been through many campaigns with both the British Indian Army and the Indian Army, many well-known British officers have commanded this regiment, among them Robert Clive. This regiment fought in the Carnatic wars, which were fought in South India, the elephant crest symbolises its gallantry in the Battle of Assaye under Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington. There after the British annexed the Indian sub-continent, largely with the help of the Madras Regiment sepoys, the coming of the British rule and merging the Presidency armies into a British Indian Army led the erstwhile regiments to be reorganised. After conquest of India, the perceived threat to British was from Russia. So recruitment was re-oriented towards north Indians of Punjab and Nepal and this resulted in the British reducing the strength of the Madras Regiment since the southern borders were relatively peaceful. After many years, this regiment was re-raised with fresh recruits, the newly reborn Madras Regiment performed very creditably during the Burma Campaign. After independence, the battalions of the Travancore Nair Pattalam, Cochin. Two battalions of the Regiment have been awarded citations by the COAS in recognition of their splendid service in combating insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir. Further two battalions served the nation, in the worlds highest battlefield in the temperatures of Siachen Glacier
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Indian Army
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The Indian Army is the land-based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and it is commanded by the Chief of Army Staff, two officers have been conferred with the rank of field marshal, a five-star rank, which is a ceremonial position of great honour. It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during calamities and other disturbances, like Operation Surya Hope. It is a component of national power alongside the Indian Navy. The army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan, other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot and Operation Cactus. The Indian Army has a system, but is operationally and geographically divided into seven commands. It is a force and comprises more than 80% of the countrys active defence personnel. It is the 2nd largest standing army in the world, with 1,200,255 active troops and 990,960 reserve troops, a Military Department was created within the Government of the East India Company at Kolkata in the year 1776. Its main function was to sift and record orders relating to the Army that were issued by various Departments of the East India Company for the territories under its control. With the Charter Act of 1833, the Secretariat of the Government of the East India Company was reorganised into four Departments, including a Military Department. The army in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay & Madras functioned as respective Presidency Army until April 1895, for administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands at that point of time, namely Punjab, Bengal, Madras and Bombay. The British Indian Army was a force for the primacy of the British Empire both in India and across the world. In the 20th century, the Indian Army was an adjunct to the British forces in both the world wars. 1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War I for the Allies, in 1915 there was a mutiny by Indian soldiers in Singapore. After the United Kingdom made promises of self-governance to the Indian National Congress in return for its support, Britain reneged on its promises after the war, following which the Indian Independence movement gained strength. Indian officers given a Kings commission after passing out were posted to one of the eight selected for Indianisation. In World War II Indian soldiers fought for the Allies, in 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men. Their mission was internal security and defence against a possible Soviet threat through Afghanistan, as the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battle fronts as soon as possible
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Oceanic climate
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Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
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Sunshine duration
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It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in hours per day, the first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places, while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location. Another often-used measure is percentage ratio of recorded bright sunshine duration, an important use of sunshine duration data is to characterize the climate of sites, especially of health resorts. This also takes account the psychological effect of strong solar light on human well-being. It is often used to promote tourist destinations, if the Sun were to be above the horizon 50% of the time for a standard year consisting of 8,760 hours, apparent maximal daytime duration would be 4,380 hours for any point on Earth. However, there are physical and astronomical effects that change that picture, namely, atmospheric refraction allows the Sun to be still visible even when it physically sets below the horizon. For that reason, average daytime is longest in polar areas, places on the Arctic Circle have the longest total annual daytime,4,647 hours, while the North Pole receives 4,575. Because of elliptic nature of the Earths orbit, the Southern Hemisphere is not symmetrical, the Equator has a total daytime of 4,422 hours per year. Given the theoretical maximum of daytime duration for a given location, bright sunshine hours represent the total hours when the sunlight is stronger than a specified threshold, as opposed to just visible hours. Visible sunshine, for example, occurs around sunrise and sunset, measurement is performed by instruments called sunshine recorders. For the specific purpose of sunshine duration recording, Campbell–Stokes recorders are used, when the intensity exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the tape burns. The total length of the trace is proportional to the number of bright hours. Another type of recorder is the Jordan sunshine recorder, newer, electronic recorders have more stable sensitivity than that of the paper tape. In 2003, the duration was finally defined as the period during which direct solar irradiance exceeds a threshold value of 120 W/m². The sky is clear in these regions, and fair weather is virtually perpetual, the descending branch of the Hadley cell and the long-term lack of atmospheric disturbances helps to explain the seemingly endless supply of sunny, cloud-free days in the deserts. Low clouding conditions are associated with rainfall shortage, as seen in these dry regions. In the belt encompassing northern Chad and the Tibesti Mountains, northern Sudan, southern Libya, some places in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula receive 3, 600–3,800 hours of bright sunshine annually. The largest sun-baked region in the world is North Africa, the sunniest month in the world is December in Eastern Antarctica, with almost 23 hours of bright sun daily
listen (help·info))), and abbreviated as Udhagai or Ooty, (
Ooty travel guide from Wikivoyage
