1.
Pop art
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Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising. In pop art, material is sometimes removed from its known context, isolated. Pop art employs aspects of culture, such as advertising, comic books. One of its aims is to use images of popular culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture and it is also associated with the artists use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. Pop art is interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada, Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves. Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising, product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels of Campbells Soup Cans, by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art. The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from Great Britain, in the United States, pop art was a response by artists, it marked a return to hard-edged composition and representational art. They used impersonal, mundane reality, irony, and parody to defuse the personal symbolism, in the U. S. some artwork by Larry Rivers, Alex Katz and Man Ray anticipated pop art. By contrast, the origins of pop art in post-War Britain, while employing irony, early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled by American popular culture when viewed from afar. Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation of Dadaism, among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are, Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Kurt Schwitters. During the 1920s, American artists Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery, the Independent Group, founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement. They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. This material of found objects such as advertising, comic characters, magazine covers. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzis I was a Rich Mans Plaything, following Paolozzis seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising. Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts
2.
Plop art
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Plop art is a pejorative slang term for public art made for government or corporate plazas, spaces in front of office buildings, skyscraper atriums, parks, and other public venues. The term connotes that the work is unattractive or inappropriate to its surroundings - that is, plop art is a play on the term pop art. According to artnet. com, plop art was coined by architect James Wines in 1969, the derisive term was eagerly taken up both by progressives and by conservatives. Progressives were critical of the failure of public art to take an environmentally-oriented approach to the relationship between public art and architecture. Conservatives liked the term because it suggested something ugly, formless, the very word plop suggested something falling wetly and heavily in the manner of excrement — extruded, as it were, from the fundament of the art world, and often at public expense. Right now architecture and sculpture are calling to each other, and calling for response thats intelligent, which have no sense of scale and are just plonked down in public places. More recently, defenders of public art funding have tried to reclaim the term, James Wines Public art Public Art Fund Environmental sculpture Environmental art Susan K Freedman. Plop, recent projects of the Public Art Fund ISBN 1-85894-248-9, ISBN 1-85894-247-0 Artlex. com Artnet. com
3.
Bridget Riley
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Bridget Louise Riley CH CBE is an English painter who is one of the foremost exponents of Op art. She currently lives and works in London, Cornwall and the Vaucluse in France, Riley was born in London in 1931. Her grandfather was an Army officer and her father, John Fisher Riley, originally from Yorkshire, was a printer. In 1938 he relocated the business, together with his family. At the beginning of World War II Rileys father was mobilised from the Honourable Artillery Company, Bridget Riley, together with her mother and sister Sally, moved to a cottage in Cornwall. The cottage, not far from the sea near Padstow, was shared with an aunt who was a student at Goldsmiths College. Primary education came in the form of talks and lectures by non-qualified or retired teachers. She attended Cheltenham Ladies College and then studied art at Goldsmiths College, there her fellow students included artists Peter Blake, Geoffrey Harcourt and Frank Auerbach. In 1955 Riley graduated with a BA degree, between 1956 and 1958 she nursed her father, who had been involved in a serious car crash, and herself suffered a breakdown. After this she worked in a shop and also, for a while. She eventually joined the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, as an illustrator, the large Whitechapel Gallery exhibition of Jackson Pollock, in the winter of 1958, was to have a major impact on her. Her early work was figurative with a semi-impressionist style, between 1958 and 1959 her work at the advertising agency showed her adoption of a style of painting based on the pointillist technique. Around 1960 she began to develop her signature Op Art style consisting of black and white patterns that explore the dynamism of sight. In the summer of 1960 she toured Italy with mentor Maurice de Sausmarez, early in her career, Riley worked as an art teacher from 1957–58 at the Convent of the Sacred Heart, Harrow. Later she worked at the Loughborough School of Art, Hornsey College of Art, in 1961, with partner Peter Sedgley, she visited the Vaucluse plateau in the South of France, and acquired a derelict farm which would eventually be transformed into a studio. Back in London, in the spring of 1962, Riley was given her first solo exhibition, in 1968 Riley, with Peter Sedgley and the journalist Peter Townsend, created the artists organisation SPACE, with the goal of providing artists large and affordable studio space. Rileys mature style, developed during the 1960s, was influenced by a number of sources and it was during this time that Riley began to paint the black and white works for which she is best known. They present a variety of geometric forms that produce sensations of movement or colour
4.
Art
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In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art
5.
Optical illusion
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An optical illusion is an illusion caused by the visual system and characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that does not tally with a measurement of the stimulus source. Pathological visual illusions arise from a pathological exaggeration in physiological visual perception mechanisms causing the aforementioned types of illusions, optical illusions are often classified into categories including the physical and the cognitive or perceptual, and contrasted with optical hallucinations. The Hermann grid illusion and Mach bands are two illusions that are best explained using a biological approach, once a receptor is active, it inhibits adjacent receptors. This inhibition creates contrast, highlighting edges, in the Hermann grid illusion the gray spots appear at the intersection because of the inhibitory response which occurs as a result of the increased dark surround. Lateral inhibition has also used to explain the Hermann grid illusion. More recent empirical approaches to optical illusions have had success in explaining optical phenomena with which theories based on lateral inhibition have struggled. A pathological visual illusion is a distortion of an external stimulus and are often diffuse. Pathological visual illusions usually occur throughout the field, suggesting global excitability or sensitivity alterations. Alternatively visual hallucination is the perception of a visual stimulus where none exists. Visual hallucinations are often from focal dysfunction and are usually transient and these symptoms may indicate an underlying disease state and necessitate seeing a medical practitioner. Etiologies associated with visual illusions include multiple types of ocular disease, migraines, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, head trauma. If the visual illusions are diffuse and persistent, they affect the patients quality of life. These symptoms are refractory to treatment and may be caused by any of the aforementioned etiologes. There is no treatment for these visual disturbances. Cognitive illusions are commonly divided into ambiguous illusions, distorting illusions, paradox illusions, ambiguous illusions are pictures or objects that elicit a perceptual switch between the alternative interpretations. The Necker cube is an example, another instance is the Rubin vase. Distorting or geometrical-optical illusions are characterized by distortions of size, length, a striking example is the Café wall illusion
6.
Francis Picabia
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Francis Picabia was a French avant-garde painter, poet and typographist. After experimenting with Impressionism and Pointillism, Picabia became associated with Cubism and his highly abstract planar compositions were colourful and rich in contrasts. He was one of the major figures of the Dada movement in the United States. He was later associated with Surrealism, but would soon turn his back on the art establishment. Francis Picabia was born in Paris of a French mother and a Cuban father who was an attaché at the Cuban legation in Paris and his mother died of tuberculosis when he was seven. Some sources would have his father as of aristocratic Spanish descent, whereas others consider him of non-aristocratic Spanish descent, financially independent, Picabia studied under Fernand Cormon and others at the École des Arts Decoratifs in the late 1890s. Fernand Cormon took him into his academy at 104 boulevard de Clichy, from the age of 20, he lived by painting, he subsequently inherited money from his mother. In the beginning of his career, from 1903 to 1908, little churches, lanes, roofs of Paris, riverbanks, wash houses, lanes, barges—these were his subject matter. Some however, began to question his sincerity and said he copied Sisley, or that his cathedrals looked like Monet, from 1909, he came under the influence of those that would soon be called Cubists and later form the Golden Section. The same year, he married Gabrielle Buffet, around 1911 Picabia joined the Puteaux Group, members of which he met at the studio of Jacques Villon in Puteaux, a commune in the western suburbs of Paris. There he became friends with artist Marcel Duchamp and close friends with Guillaume Apollinaire, other group members included Albert Gleizes, Roger de La Fresnaye, Fernand Léger and Jean Metzinger. From 1913 to 1915 Picabia traveled to New York City several times and took part in the avant-garde movements. The magazine 291 devoted an issue to him, he met Man Ray, Gabrielle and Duchamp joined him, drugs and alcohol became a problem. He suffered from dropsy and tachycardia and these years can be characterized as Picabias proto-Dada period, consisting mainly of his portraits mécaniques. He continued the periodical with the help of Marcel Duchamp in the United States, in Zurich, seeking treatment for depression and suicidal impulses, he had met Tristan Tzara, whose radical ideas thrilled Picabia. Picabia, the provocateur, was back home, Picabia continued his involvement in the Dada movement through 1919 in Zürich and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in Surrealist art. He denounced Dada in 1921, and issued an attack against Breton in the final issue of 391. The same year, he put in an appearance in the René Clair surrealist film Entracte, the film served as an intermission piece for Picabias avant-garde ballet, Relâche, premiered at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, with music by Erik Satie
7.
Neo-impressionism
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Neo-Impressionism is a term coined by French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe an art movement founded by Georges Seurat. Around this time, the peak of France’s modern era emerged, followers of Neo-Impressionism, in particular, were drawn to modern urban scenes as well as landscapes and seashores. Science-based interpretation of lines and colors influenced Neo-Impressionists characterization of their own contemporary art, the Pointillist and Divisionist techniques are often mentioned in this context, because it was the dominant technique in the beginning of the Neo-impressionist movement. Some argue that Neo-Impressionism became the first true movement in painting. The Neo-Impressionists were able to create a movement very quickly in the 19th century, partially due to its connection to anarchism. The movement and the style were an attempt to drive harmonious vision from modern science, anarchist theory, during the emergence of Neo-Impressionism, Seurat and his followers strove to refine the impulsive and intuitive artistic mannerisms of Impressionism. Neo-impressionists used disciplined networks of dots and blocks of color in their desire to instill a sense of organization, in further defining the movement, Seurat incorporated the recent explanation of optic and color perceptions. The development of theory by Michel Eugène Chevreul and others by the late 19th century played a pivotal role in shaping the Neo-Impressionist style. Ogden Rood’s book, Modern Chromatics, with Applications to Art and Industry, acknowledged the different behaviors exhibited by colored light, while the mixture of the former created a white or gray color, that of the latter produced a dark, murky color. As painters, Neo-Impressionists had to deal with colored pigments, so to avoid the dullness, mixing of colors was not necessary. There are a number of alternatives to the term Neo-Impressionism and each has its own nuance and it emphasized the studies of color and light which were central to his artistic style. This term is used today. Divisionism, which is commonly used, is used to describe a mode of Neo-Impressionist painting. It refers to the method of applying individual strokes of complementary, unlike other designations of this era, the term Neo-Impressionism was not given as a criticism. Instead, it embraces Seurats and his followers ideals in their approach to art, note, Pointillism merely describes a later technique based on divisionism in which dots of color instead of blocks of color are applied. Neo-Impressionism was first presented to the public in 1886 at the Salon des Indépendants, the Indépendants remained their main exhibition space for decades with Signac acting as president of the association. But with the success of Neo-Impressionism, its fame spread quickly, in 1886, Seurat and Signac were invited to exhibit in the 8th and final Impressionist exhibition, later with Les XX and La Libre Esthétique in Brussels. In 1892, a group of Neo-Impressionist painters united to show their works in Paris, in the Salons of the Hôtel Brébant,32, the following year they exhibited at 20, rue Laffitte
8.
Cubism
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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon
9.
Futurism
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Futurism was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth, and violence, and objects such as the car, the aeroplane, although it was largely an Italian phenomenon, there were parallel movements in Russia, England, Belgium and elsewhere. It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past, Cubism contributed to the formation of Italian Futurisms artistic style. Important Futurist works included Marinettis Manifesto of Futurism, Boccionis sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, to some extent Futurism influenced the art movements Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism. Futurism is a movement founded in Milan in 1909 by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. He was soon joined by the painters Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini, Marinetti expressed a passionate loathing of everything old, especially political and artistic tradition. We want no part of it, the past, he wrote, publishing manifestos was a feature of Futurism, and the Futurists wrote them on many topics, including painting, architecture, religion, clothing and cooking. The founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting. This committed them to a universal dynamism, which was to be represented in painting. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, the Futurist painters were slow to develop a distinctive style and subject matter. In 1910 and 1911 they used the techniques of Divisionism, breaking light and color down into a field of stippled dots and stripes, which had been originally created by Giovanni Segantini and others. Later, Severini, who lived in Paris, attributed their backwardness in style and method at this time to their distance from Paris, the centre of avant-garde art. Severini was the first to come into contact with Cubism and following a visit to Paris in 1911 the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists, Cubism offered them a means of analysing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. They often painted modern urban scenes, carràs Funeral of the Anarchist Galli is a large canvas representing events that the artist had himself been involved in, in 1904. The action of an attack and riot is rendered energetically with diagonals. His Leaving the Theatre uses a Divisionist technique to render isolated, Boccionis The City Rises represents scenes of construction and manual labour with a huge, rearing red horse in the centre foreground, which workmen struggle to control. The Futurists aimed through their art thus to enable the viewer to apprehend the inner being of what they depicted, Boccioni developed these ideas at length in his book, Pittura scultura Futuriste, Dinamismo plastico. Ballas Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash exemplifies the Futurists insistence that the world is in constant movement
10.
Constructivism (art)
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Constructivism was an artistic and architectural philosophy that originated in Russia beginning in 1913 by Vladimir Tatlin. This was a rejection of the idea of autonomous art, the movement was in favour of art as a practice for social purposes. Constructivism had an effect on modern art movements of the 20th century, influencing major trends such as the Bauhaus. Its influence was pervasive, with effects upon architecture, graphic design, industrial design, theatre, film, dance, fashion. The term Construction Art was first used as a term by Kazimir Malevich to describe the work of Alexander Rodchenko in 1917. Constructivism first appears as a term in Naum Gabos Realistic Manifesto of 1920. Aleksei Gan used the word as the title of his book Constructivism, Constructivism was a post-World War I development of Russian Futurism, and particularly of the counter reliefs of Vladimir Tatlin, which had been exhibited in 1915. Constructivism as theory and practice was derived largely from a series of debates at INKhUK in Moscow, later the definition would be extended to designs for two-dimensional works such as books or posters, with montage and factography becoming important concepts. As much as involving itself in designs for industry, the Constructivists worked on public festivals, perhaps the most famous of these was in Vitebsk, where Malevichs UNOVIS Group painted propaganda plaques and buildings. Inspired by Vladimir Mayakovskys declaration the streets our brushes, the squares our palettes, artists, in addition some Constructivists were heavily involved in the ROSTA Windows, a Bolshevik public information campaign of around 1920. Some of the most famous of these were by the poet-painter Vladimir Mayakovsky, the constructivists tried to create works that would make the viewer an active viewer of the artwork. These theories were tested in theatre, particularly with the work of Vsevolod Meyerhold, Meyerhold developed a biomechanical acting style, which was influenced both by the circus and by the scientific management theories of Frederick Winslow Taylor. Meanwhile, the sets by the likes of Vesnin, Popova and Stepanova tested Constructivist spatial ideas in a public form. A more populist version of this was developed by Alexander Tairov, with sets by Aleksandra Ekster. These ideas would influence German directors like Bertolt Brecht and Erwin Piscator, Gabo publicly criticized Tatlins design saying, Either create functional houses and bridges or create pure art, not both. This had already caused a controversy in the Moscow group in 1920 when Gabo. This was opposed to the utilitarian and adaptable version of Constructivism held by Tatlin, the tower was never built, however, due to a lack of money following the revolution. A Constructivist international was formed, which met with Dadaists and De Stijl artists in Germany in 1922, participants in this short-lived international included Lissitzky, Hans Richter, and László Moholy-Nagy
11.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
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Julian Stanczak
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Julian Stanczak was a Polish-born American painter and printmaker. The artist lived and worked in Seven Hills, Ohio with his wife, Julian Stanczak was born in Borownica, Poland in 1928. At the beginning of World War II, Stanczak was forced into a Siberian labor camp, in 1942, aged thirteen, Stanczak escaped from Siberia to join the Polish army-in-exile in Persia. After deserting from the army, he spent his years in a hut in a Polish refugee camp in Uganda. In Africa, Stanczak learned to write and paint left-handed and he then spent some years in London, before moving to the United States in 1950. In 2007, Stanczak was interviewed by Brian Sherwin for Myartspace, during the interview, Stanczak recalled his experiences with war and the loss of his right arm and how both influenced his art. Stanczak explained, The transition from using my left hand as my right and my youthful experiences with the atrocities of the Second World War are with me, - but I wanted to forget them and live a normal life and adapt into society more fully. In the search for Art, you have to separate what is emotional, I did not want to be bombarded daily by the past, - I looked for anonymity of actions through non-referential, abstract art. The Op Art movement was named after his first major show, Julian Stanczak, Optical Paintings and his work was included in the Museum of Modern Arts 1965 exhibition The Responsive Eye. In 1966 he was named a New Talent by Art in America magazine, in the early 1960s he began to make the surface plane of the painting vibrate through his use of wavy lines and contrasting colors in works such as Provocative Current. These paintings gave way to more complex compositions constructed with geometric rigidity yet softened with varying degrees of color such as Netted Green. In addition to being an artist, Stanczak was also a teacher, having worked at the Art Academy of Cincinnati from 1957–64 and as Professor of Painting, at the Cleveland Institute of Art and he was named Outstanding American Educator by the Educators of America in 1970. Stanczak deployed repeating forms to create compositions that are manifestations of his visual experiences, stanczaks work is an art of experience, and is based upon structures of color. In the 1980s and 1990s Stanczak retained his geometric structure and created compositions with bright or muted colors, weisman Art Museum at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota Frederick R. Julian Stanczak, Decades of Light McClelland, Elizabeth
13.
Victor Vasarely
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Victor Vasarely, was a Hungarian–French artist, who is widely accepted as a grandfather and leader of the op art movement. His work entitled Zebra, created in the 1930s, is considered by some to be one of the earliest examples of op art, Vasarely was born in Pécs and grew up in Pöstyén and Budapest, where in 1925 he took up medical studies at Eötvös Loránd University. In 1927, he abandoned medicine to learn traditional academic painting at the private Podolini-Volkmann Academy, in 1928/1929, he enrolled at Sándor Bortnyiks private art school called Műhely, then widely recognized as Budapests centre of Bauhaus studies. Cash-strapped, the műhely could not offer all that the Bauhaus offered, instead it concentrated on applied graphic art and typographical design. In 1929 he painted his Blue Study and Green Study, in 1930, he married his fellow student Claire Spinner. Together they had two sons, Andre and Jean-Pierre, in Budapest, he worked for a ball-bearings company in accounting and designing advertising posters. Vasarely became a designer and a poster artist during the 1930s combining patterns. Vasarely left Hungary and settled in Paris in 1930 and he worked as a graphic artist and as a creative consultant at the advertising agencies Havas, Draeger and Devambez. His interactions with other artists during this time were limited and he thought of opening an institution modeled after Sándor Bortnyiks műhely and developed some teaching material for it. Having lived mostly in hotels, he settled in 1942/1944 in Saint-Céré in the Lot département. After the Second World War, he opened an atelier in Arcueil, in 1961, he finally settled in Annet-sur-Marne. Vasarely eventually went on to art and sculpture using optical illusion. His early graphic period resulted in such as Zebras, Chess Board. Afterwards, he said he was on the wrong track and he exhibited his works in the gallery of Denise René and the gallery René Breteau. Writing the introduction to the catalogue, Jacques Prévert placed Vasarely among the surrealists, Prévert creates the term imaginoires to describe the paintings. Self Portrait and The Blind Man are associated with this period, 1947-1951, Developing geometric abstract art, Finally, Vasarely found his own style. The overlapping developments are named after their geographical heritage, Denfert refers to the works influenced by the white tiled walls of the Paris Denfert - Rochereau metro station. Ellipsoid pebbles and shells found during a vacation in 1947 at the Breton coast at Belle Île inspired him to the Belles-Isles works, since 1948, Vasarely usually spent his summer months in Gordes in Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur
14.
Curvature
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In mathematics, curvature is any of a number of loosely related concepts in different areas of geometry. This article deals primarily with extrinsic curvature and its canonical example is that of a circle, which has a curvature equal to the reciprocal of its radius everywhere. Smaller circles bend more sharply, and hence have higher curvature, the curvature of a smooth curve is defined as the curvature of its osculating circle at each point. Curvature is normally a scalar quantity, but one may define a curvature vector that takes into account the direction of the bend in addition to its magnitude. The curvature of more objects is described by more complex objects from linear algebra. This article sketches the mathematical framework which describes the curvature of a curve embedded in a plane, the curvature of C at a point is a measure of how sensitive its tangent line is to moving the point to other nearby points. There are a number of equivalent ways that this idea can be made precise and it is natural to define the curvature of a straight line to be constantly zero. The curvature of a circle of radius R should be large if R is small and small if R is large, thus the curvature of a circle is defined to be the reciprocal of the radius, κ =1 R. Given any curve C and a point P on it, there is a circle or line which most closely approximates the curve near P. The curvature of C at P is then defined to be the curvature of that circle or line, the radius of curvature is defined as the reciprocal of the curvature. Another way to understand the curvature is physical, suppose that a particle moves along the curve with unit speed. Taking the time s as the parameter for C, this provides a natural parametrization for the curve, the unit tangent vector T also depends on time. The curvature is then the magnitude of the rate of change of T. Symbolically and this is the magnitude of the acceleration of the particle and the vector dT/ds is the acceleration vector. Geometrically, the curvature κ measures how fast the unit tangent vector to the curve rotates. If a curve close to the same direction, the unit tangent vector changes very little and the curvature is small, where the curve undergoes a tight turn. These two approaches to the curvature are related geometrically by the following observation, in the first definition, the curvature of a circle is equal to the ratio of the angle of an arc to its length. e. For such a curve, there exists a reparametrization with respect to arc length s. This is a parametrization of C such that ∥ γ ′ ∥2 = x ′2 + y ′2 =1, the velocity vector T is the unit tangent vector
15.
This Is Tomorrow
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This Is Tomorrow was a seminal art exhibition in August 1956 at the Whitechapel Art Gallery on High Street in London, UK, facilitated by curator Bryan Robertson. The core of the exhibition was the ICA Independent Group, while each using their own style, they built pieces that represented their version of contemporary art. This is Tomorrow was nearly two years in the making, after architect and art critic Theo Crosby came up with the idea of mounting a large scale collaborative show at Whitechapel Gallery, the 12 exhibits were each produced separately and were independent of each other. After This is Tomorrow opened nearly a thousand people a day saw the exhibit, the catalogue for the exhibit, designed by Independent member and graphic designer Edward Wright cost five shillings, a high price for 1956, sold out and had to be reprinted. This is Tomorrow is considered to be the forerunner of the British Pop Art movement, Crosby writes on June 8,1955 that the discussions… are really the point of the collaboration… the exhibition will not be a collection of miscellaneous art works. Each group took as their point the human senses and the theme of habitation. Each group worked independently but saw the display as one environment. The ripples of influence it created 50 years ago are still being felt today, as Banham stated in his documentary, This is modern art to entertain people, modern art as a game people will want to play. The exhibitions most remembered exhibit was the created by Group 2, comprising Richard Hamilton, John Voelcker and John McHale, though with help from Magda Cordell. Frank Cordell also installed the electronic amplifier and microphone enabling the ambient sounds from audience cybernetic feedback, the Pop art poster Just What Is It that Makes Todays Homes So Different, So Appealing. was designed by Hamilton for Group 2. A second poster, comprising intersecting arrows and swirls was designed by McHale, but Hamilton chose not to collaborate on the third poster, and expend the creative energy to bring the E=MC2 to final completion at the TIT. Group Six was composed of architects Alison and Peter Smithson and artists Eduardo Paolozzi, the resulting work, Patio and Pavilion, was a three walled structure with a corrugated plastic roof and surrounded by a sand patio. Found objects such as parts, a battered bugle and a clock without hands were strewn throughout the installation. In a country still recovering from war, the spare architecture offered an exploration of the fractured, the exhibition catalogue featured essays by Reyner Banham and Lawrence Alloway. McHale wrote the text for the page Are they Cultured. colin St John Wilson designed the exhibition guide. The graphic designer Edward Wright, who taught typography at the Central School of Art from 1950 to 1955 and then the Royal College of Art, Theo Crosby found the money for it, and it was printed by Lund Humphries. The director of Lund Humphries, Peter Gregory along with Peter Watson were among the founding patrons of the ICA. This is Tomorrow is now considered a watershed in post-war British Art, the 1977 song This is Tomorrow from In Your Mind by Bryan Ferry, a student of Richard Hamiltons, took its title from the name of the show
16.
Institute of Contemporary Arts
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The Institute of Contemporary Arts is an artistic and cultural centre on The Mall in London, just off Trafalgar Square. It is located within Nash House, part of Carlton House Terrace, near the Duke of York Steps and it contains galleries, a theatre, two cinemas, a bookshop and a bar. The current director is Stefan Kalmár, the ICA was founded by Roland Penrose, Peter Watson, Herbert Read, Peter Gregory, Geoffrey Grigson and E. L. T. Mesens in 1947. The ICAs founders intended to establish a space where artists, writers, the Academy Cinema building included the Pavilion, a restaurant, and the Marquee ballroom in the basement, the building was managed by George Hoellering, the film, jazz and big band promoter. With the acquisition of 17 Dover Street, Piccadilly, in May 1950, ewan Phillips served as the first director. It was the residence of Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson. The gallery, clubroom and offices were refurbished by modernist architect Jane Drew assisted by Neil Morris, Paolozzi decorated the bar area and designed a metal and concrete table with student Terence Conran. Ewan Phillips left in 1951, and Dorothy Morland was asked to take over temporarily, the critic Reyner Banham acted as assistant Director during the early 1950s, followed by Lawrence Alloway during the mid to later 1950s. In its early years, the Institute organised exhibitions of art including Picasso. A Georges Braque exhibition was held at the ICA in 1954 and it also launched Pop art, Op art, and British Brutalist art and architecture. The Independent Group met at the ICA in 1952–1962/63 and organised several exhibitions, with the support of the Arts Council, the ICA moved to its current site at Nash House in 1968. For a period during the 1970s the Institute was known for its often anarchic programme, rosenthal claims the group which assaulted him included the actor Keith Allen. Bill McAllister was ICA Director from 1977 to 1990, when the Institute developed a system of separate departments specializing in art, cinema. A fourth department was devoted to talks and lectures, iwona Blazwick was Director of Exhibitions from 1986 to 1993. Other notable curatorial and programming staff have included Lisa Appignanesi, James Lingwood, Michael Morris, Lois Keidan, Catherine Ugwu, MBE, Tim Highsted, mik Flood took over as director of the ICA in 1990 after McAllisters resignation. Flood announced that the Institute would have to leave its Mall location and move to a larger site and he was replaced as Director in 1997 by Philip Dodd. In 2002, the then ICA Chairman Ivan Massow criticised what he described as concept art, the ICA appointed Ekow Eshun Artistic Director in 2005 following the departure of Philip Dodd. A large financial deficit led to redundancies and resignations of key staff, Art critic JJ Charlesworth saw Eshun’s directorship as a direct cause of the ICA’s ills
17.
Martin Gardner
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He was considered a leading authority on Lewis Carroll. The Annotated Alice, which incorporated the text of Carrolls two Alice books, was his most successful work and sold over a million copies and he had a lifelong interest in magic and illusion and was regarded as one of the most important magicians of the twentieth century. He was considered the dean of American puzzlers and he was a prolific and versatile author, publishing more than 100 books. Gardner was one of the foremost anti-pseudoscience polemicists of the 20th century and his book Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, published in 1957, became a classic and seminal work of the skeptical movement. In 1976 he joined with fellow skeptics to found CSICOP, an organization promoting scientific inquiry, Gardner, son of a petroleum geologist, grew up in and around Tulsa, Oklahoma. His lifelong interest in puzzles started in his boyhood when his father gave him a copy of Sam Loyds Cyclopedia of 5000 Puzzles, Tricks and he attended the University of Chicago, where he earned his bachelors degree in philosophy in 1936. Early jobs included reporter on the Tulsa Tribune, writer at the University of Chicago Office of Press Relations, during World War II, he served for four years in the U. S. Navy as a yeoman on board the destroyer escort USS Pope in the Atlantic. His ship was still in the Atlantic when the war came to an end with the surrender of Japan in August 1945, after the war, Gardner returned to the University of Chicago. He attended graduate school for a year there, but he did not earn an advanced degree, in 1950 he wrote an article in the Antioch Review entitled The Hermit Scientist. His paper-folding puzzles at that magazine led to his first work at Scientific American, appropriately enough—given his interest in logic and mathematics—they lived on Euclid Avenue. The year 1960 saw the edition of his best-selling book ever. In 1979, Gardner retired from Scientific American and he and his wife Charlotte moved to Hendersonville and he also revised some of his older books such as Origami, Eleusis, and the Soma Cube. Charlotte died in 2000 and two years later Gardner returned to Norman, Oklahoma, where his son, James Gardner, was a professor of education at the University of Oklahoma and he died there on May 22,2010. An autobiography — Undiluted Hocus-Pocus, The Autobiography of Martin Gardner — was published posthumously, the main-belt asteroid 2587 Gardner discovered by Edward L. G. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station in 1980 is named after Martin Gardner. Martin Gardner had a impact on mathematics in the second half of the 20th century. His column was called Mathematical Games but it was more than that. His writing introduced many readers to real mathematics for the first time in their lives, the column lasted for 25 years and was read avidly by the generation of mathematicians and physicists who grew up in the years 1956 to 1981. It was the inspiration for many of them to become mathematicians or scientists themselves
18.
Bauhaus
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The Bauhaus was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. Nonetheless, it was founded with the idea of creating a work of art in which all arts, including architecture. The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design, Modernist architecture and art, design, the Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography. Although the school was closed, the continued to spread its idealistic precepts as they left Germany. The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated, Gropius did not share these radical views, thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the body on questions of design in Germany. The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen, beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. Behrens was a member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period. The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity, beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a minimal dwelling written into the new Weimar Constitution, ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, the Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization, the two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner. Vkhutemas was a school than the Bauhaus, but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union. With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus. In addition, El Lissitzkys book Russia, an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there. The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906
19.
Walter Gropius
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Born in Berlin, Walter Gropius was the third child of Walter Adolph Gropius and Manon Auguste Pauline Scharnweber. In 1915 Gropius married Alma Mahler, widow of Gustav Mahler, Walter and Almas daughter, named Manon after Walters mother, was born in 1916. When Manon died of polio at age 18, in 1935, Gropius and Alma divorced in 1920. On 16 October 1923, Gropius married Ilse Frank, and they remained together until his death in 1969 and they adopted a daughter together, Beate Gropius, known as Ati. Ise Gropius died on 9 June 1983 in Lexington, Massachusetts, Walter Gropius was drafted August 1914 and served as a sergeant and then as a lieutenant in the signal corps in the First World War. He survived being buried under rubble and dead bodies, and shot out of the sky with a dead pilot. He was awarded the Iron Cross twice, Gropius then, like his father and his great-uncle Martin Gropius before him, became an architect. Gropius could not draw, and was dependent on collaborators and partner-interpreters throughout his career, in school he hired an assistant to complete his homework for him. His fellow employees at this time included Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, in 1910 Gropius left the firm of Behrens and together with fellow employee Adolf Meyer established a practice in Berlin. Together they share credit for one of the seminal modernist buildings created during this period, the Faguswerk in Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany, the factory is now regarded as one of the crucial founding monuments of European modernism. Gropius was commissioned in 1913 to design a car for the Prussian Railroad Locomotive Works in Königsberg and this locomotive was unique and the first of its kind in Germany and perhaps in Europe. Other works of early period include the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne. In 1913, Gropius published an article about The Development of Industrial Buildings, Gropiuss career was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Called up immediately as a reservist, Gropius served as a sergeant major at the Western front during the war years and was wounded, Gropius was awarded an Iron Cross while fighting for four years for Germany on the Western Front. Gropiuss career advanced in the postwar period, henry van de Velde, the master of the Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts in Weimar was asked to step down in 1915 due to his Belgian nationality. His recommendation for Gropius to succeed him led eventually to Gropiuss appointment as master of the school in 1919, in principle, the Bauhaus represented an opportunity to extend beauty and quality to every home through well designed industrially produced objects. The Bauhaus program was experimental and the emphasis, was theoretical, one example product of the Bauhaus was the armchair F51, designed for the Bauhauss directors room in 1920 – nowadays a re-edition in the market, manufactured by the German company TECTA/Lauenfoerde. In 1919, Gropius was involved in the Glass Chain utopian expressionist correspondence under the pseudonym Mass
20.
Anamorphosis
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Anamorphosis is a distorted projection or perspective requiring the viewer to use special devices or occupy a specific vantage point to reconstitute the image. The word anamorphosis is derived from the Greek prefix ana‑, meaning back or again, an optical anamorphism is the visualization of a mathematical operation called an affine transformation. There are two types of anamorphosis, perspective and mirror. More-complex anamorphoses can be devised using distorted lenses, mirrors, or other optical transformations, examples of perspectival anamorphosis date to the early Renaissance. Examples of mirror anamorphosis were first seen in the late Renaissance, the deformed image is painted on a plane surface surrounding the mirror. By looking into the mirror, a viewer can see the image undeformed, leonardos Eye is the earliest known definitive example of perspective anamorphosis in modern times. The prehistoric cave paintings at Lascaux may also use this technique, Hans Holbein the Younger is well known for incorporating an oblique anamorphic transformation into his painting The Ambassadors. In this artwork, a distorted shape lies diagonally across the bottom of the frame, viewing this from an acute angle transforms it into the plastic image of a human skull, a symbolic memento mori. During the seventeenth century, Baroque trompe loeil murals often used anamorphism to combine actual architectural elements with illusory painted elements, when a visitor views the art work from a specific location, the architecture blends with the decorative painting. The dome and vault of the Church of St. Ignazio in Rome, painted by Andrea Pozzo, due to neighboring monks complaining about blocked light, Pozzo was commissioned to paint the ceiling to look like the inside of a dome, instead of building a real dome. As the ceiling is flat, there is one spot where the illusion is perfect. Mirror anamorphosis emerged early in the 17th century in Italy and China and it remains uncertain whether Jesuit missionaries imported or exported the technique. Anamorphosis could be used to conceal images for privacy or personal safety, a secret portrait of Bonnie Prince Charlie is painted in a distorted manner on a tray and can only be recognized when a polished cylinder is placed in the correct position. To possess such an image would have seen as treason in the aftermath of the 1746 Battle of Culloden. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, anamorphic images had come to be used more as childrens games than fine art, in the twentieth century, some artists wanted to renew the technique of anamorphosis. Marcel Duchamp was interested in anamorphosis, and some of his installations are visual paraphrases of anamorphoses, Jan Dibbets conceptual works, the so-called perspective corrections are examples of linear anamorphoses. In the late century, mirror anamorphosis was revived as childrens toys. Beginning in 1967, Dutch artist Jan Dibbets based a series of photographic work titled Perspective Corrections on the distortion of reality through perspective anamorphosis
21.
Gestalt psychology
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Gestalt psychology or gestaltism is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire, the central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which Gestalt theory rests are poorly defined, the Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as being descriptive of the end products of perception without providing much insight into the processes that lead to perception. What happened to the Gestalt school that always aspired to provide a vision of psychology. Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds the classic phenomena of Gestalt psychology together and this principle maintains that when the human mind forms a percept or gestalt, the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. Koffka did not like the translation and he firmly corrected students who replaced other with greater. This is not a principle of addition he said, the whole has an independent existence. In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli, contrary to the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism, Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements. The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels, the idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory and this gestalt or whole form approach sought to define principles of perception—seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen, images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance, the figure in front and these laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, in any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology and his work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. There are clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the field, foremost in Europe. The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research, principle of psychophysical isomorphism – A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity
22.
Psychophysiology
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Psychophysiology is the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes. Some people have difficulty distinguishing a psychophysiologist from a physiological psychologist, psychologists are interested in why we may fear spiders and physiologists may be interested in the input/output system of the amygdala. A psychophysiologist will attempt to link the two, psychophysiologists generally study the psychological/physiological link in intact human subjects. It is this perspective of studying the interface of mind and body that makes psychophysiologists most distinct, historically, most psychophysiologists tended to examine the physiological responses and organ systems innervated by the autonomic nervous system. Often, physiological psychologists examine the effects that they study in infrahuman subjects using surgical or invasive techniques and processes, psychophysiology is closely related to the field of neuroscience and social neuroscience, which primarily concerns itself with relationships between psychological events and brain responses. Psychophysiology is also related to the discipline known as psychosomatics. Psychophysiology measures exist in three domains, reports, readings, and behavior, Physiological responses also can be measured via instruments that read bodily events such as heart rate change, electrodermal activity, muscle tension, and cardiac output. These measures are beneficial because they provide accurate and perceiver-independent objective data recorded by machinery, the downsides, however, are that any physical activity or motion can alter responses, and basal levels of arousal and responsiveness can differ among individuals and even between situations. Finally, one can measure overt action or behavior, which involves the observation and recording actual actions, such as running, freezing, eye movement and these are good response measures and easy to record in animals, but they are not as frequently used in human studies. Psychophysiological measures are used to study emotion and attention responses to stimuli, during exertion. Physiological sensors have been used to detect emotions in schools and intelligent tutoring systems and it has long been recognized that emotional episodes are partly constituted by physiological responses. Early work done linking emotions to psychophysiology started with research on mapping consistent autonomic nervous system responses to emotional states. The autonomic activity produced distinguished not only positive and negative emotions, but also among negative emotions”. Some of these differences can be attributed to variables like induction technique, context of the study, or classification of stimuli, however it was also found that features of the participant could also alter ANS responses. Even supposedly discrete emotional states fail to show specificity, as such no definitive correlation can be drawn linking specific autonomic patterns to discrete emotions, causing emotion theorists to rethink classical definitions of emotions. Physiological computing represents a category of affective computing that incorporates real-time software adaption to the activity of the user. The main goal of this is to build a computer that responds to user emotion, cognition and motivation, the approach is to enable implicit and symmetrical human-computer communication by granting the software access to a representation of the users psychological status. There are several methods to represent the psychological state of the user
23.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
24.
Black Mountain College
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Many of the schools students and faculty were influential in the arts or other fields, or went on to become influential. Although notable even during its life, the school closed in 1957 after only 24 years. The history and legacy of Black Mountain College are preserved and extended through Black Mountain College Museum + Arts Center, in downtown Asheville, NC. The schools Lake Eden campus, used from 1941 to 1957, is now part of Camp Rockmont, a camp for boys. Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was their first geodesic dome, Merce Cunningham formed his dance company, not a haphazardly conceived venture, Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement. In its day it was an educational experiment for the artists. Bennington College was founded the year before Black Mountain College based on the same philosophy, for the first eight years, the college rented the YMCA Blue Ridge Assembly buildings south of Black Mountain, North Carolina. In 1941, it moved across the valley to its own campus at Lake Eden where it remained until its closing in 1956, a number of the original structures are still in use as lodgings or administrative facilities. The college suspended classes by court order in 1957 and this was due to debts not sustained by the decreased number of students. In 1962, the books were finally closed, with all debts covered. The college was featured in the Nicholas Sparks novel, The Longest Ride and 2015 movie, richards, Alexander Schawinsky, Ben Shahn, Arthur Siegel, Aaron Siskind, Theodoros Stamos, Robert C. Turner, Jack Tworkov, Peter Voulkos, Emerson Woelffer, Stefan Wolpe, guest lecturers included Albert Einstein, Clement Greenberg, Bernard Rudofsky, Richard Lippold, and William Carlos Williams. The college ran summer institutes from 1944 until its closing in 1956 and it was however influential to the founding of the Free University of New York. Various avant-garde poets were drawn to the school through the years, most notably Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, Denise Levertov, Jonathan Williams, Ed Dorn and Robert Creeley. Black Mountain College is the subject of the museum exhibition Leap Before You Look, Black Mountain College 1933-1957, the show was curated by Helen Molesworth with Ruth Erickson. The story of BMC is woven through interviews with students, professors and modern scholars with archival footage, produced and directed by Judith Pearlman, Cliofilm
25.
Asheville, North Carolina
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Asheville is a city in and the county seat of Buncombe County, North Carolina, United States. It is the largest city in Western North Carolina, and the 11th largest city in North Carolina, the citys population was 87,236 according to the 2013 estimates. It is the city in the four-county Asheville metropolitan area. Asheville is home to the United States National Climatic Data Center, before the arrival of the Europeans, the land where Asheville now exists lay within the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation. In 1540, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto came to the area, bringing the first European visitors along with European diseases, the area was used as an open hunting ground until the middle of the 19th century. The history of Asheville, as a town, began in 1784, in that year, Colonel Samuel Davidson and his family settled in the Swannanoa Valley, redeeming a soldiers land grant from the state of North Carolina. Soon after building a log cabin at the bank of Christian Creek, Davidson was lured into the woods by a band of Cherokee hunters, Davidsons wife, child and female slave fled on foot overnight to Davidsons Fort 16 miles away. In response to the killing, Davidsons twin brother Major William Davidson and brother-in-law Colonel Daniel Smith formed an expedition to retrieve Samuel Davidsons body and avenge his murder. Months after the expedition, Major Davidson and other members of his family returned to the area. The United States Census of 1790 counted 1,000 residents of the area, Buncombe County was officially formed in 1792. The county seat, named Morristown in 1793, was established on a plateau where two old Indian trails crossed, in 1797, Morristown was incorporated and renamed Asheville after North Carolina Governor Samuel Ashe. For a time, an Enfield rifle manufacturing facility was located in the town, in late April 1865 troops under the overall command of Union Gen. Stoneman captured Asheville. Hartley, Stonemans Raid, p.362 After a negotiated departure, the years following the war were a time of economic and social hardship in Buncombe County, as throughout most of the defeated South. On October 2,1880, the Western North Carolina Railroad completed its line from Salisbury to Asheville, almost immediately it was sold and resold to the Richmond and Danville Railroad Company, becoming part of the Southern Railway in 1894. With the completion of the first railway, Asheville experienced a slow but steady growth as industrial plants increased in number and size, textile mills were established and plants were set up for the manufacture of wood and mica products, foodstuffs, and other commodities. The 21-mile distance between Hendersonville and Asheville of the former Asheville and Spartanburg Railroad was completed in 1886, by that point, the line was operated as part of the Richmond and Danville Railroad until 1894 and controlled by the Southern Railway afterward. Asheville had the first electric railway lines in the state of North Carolina. These would be replaced by buses in 1934, Asheville prospered in the decades of the 1910s and 1920s and at one point was the third largest city in the state, behind Charlotte and Wilmington
26.
Anni Albers
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Annelise Albers was a German textile artist and printmaker. She is perhaps the best known textile artist of the 20th century, Albers was born Annelise Else Frieda Fleischmann in Berlin of Jewish descent. Her mother was from a family in the industry and her father was a furniture maker. Even in her childhood, she was intrigued by art and the visual world and she eventually decided to attend art school, even though the challenges for art students were often great and the living conditions harsh. Such a lifestyle sharply contrasted the affluent and comfortable living that she had used to. Albers attended the Kunstgewerbeschule in Hamburg for only two months in 1919, then in April 1922 began her studies at the Bauhaus at Weimar, at the Bauhaus she began her first year under Georg Muche and then Johannes Itten. With her instructor Gunta Stölzl, however, Albers soon learned to love weavings tactile construction challenges, in 1925 Anni and Josef Albers, the latter having rapidly become a Junior Master at the Bauhaus, were married. She had several of her designs published and received contracts for wall hangings, for a time Albers was a student of Paul Klee, and after Gropius left Dessau in 1928 Josef and Anni Albers moved into the teaching quarters next to both the Klees and the Kandinskys. During this time, the Albers began their lifelong habit of travelling extensively, first through Italy, Spain, and the Canary Islands. When Gunta Stölzl left the Bauhaus in 1931, Anni Albers took over her role as Head of the Weaving Workshop, the Bauhaus at Dessau was closed in 1932 under pressure from the Nazi party and moved briefly to Berlin, permanently closing a year later in August 1933. Anni and Joseph Albers were invited by Philip Johnson to teach at the experimental Black Mountain College in North Carolina, both taught at Black Mountain until 1949. During these years Anni Alberss design work, including weavings, were shown throughout the US, Albers wrote and published many articles on design. In 1949, Anni Albers became the first designer to have an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Alberss design exhibition at MoMA began in the fall and then toured the US from 1951 until 1953, during these years, she also made many trips to Mexico and throughout the Americas, and became an avid collector of pre-Columbian artwork. After leaving Black Mountain in 1949, Anni moved with her husband to Connecticut, in 1963, while at the Tamarind Lithography Workshop in Los Angeles with Josef for a lecture of his, Anni Albers was invited to experiment with print media. She grew immediately fond of the technique, and thereafter gave up most of her time to lithography and screen printing. She was invited back as a fellow to Tamarind in 1964, wrote an article for Britannica in 1963 and her design work and writings on design helped establish Design History as a serious area of academic study. She continued to travel to Latin America and Europe, to design and to make prints, and to lecture until her death on May 9,1994, in Connecticut
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Josef Albers
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Albers was born into a Roman Catholic family of craftsmen in Bottrop, Westphalia, Germany. He worked from 1908 to 1913 as a schoolteacher in his town, he also trained as an art teacher at Königliche Kunstschule in Berlin, Germany. From 1916 to 1919 he began his work as a printmaker at the Kunstgewerbschule in Essen, in 1918 he received his first public commission, Rosa mystica ora pro nobis, a stained-glass window for a church in Essen. In 1919 he went to Munich, Germany, to study at the Königliche Bayerische Akademie der Bildenden Kunst, Albers enrolled as a student in the preliminary course of Johannes Itten at the Weimar Bauhaus in 1920. In 1925, Albers was promoted to professor, the year the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, at this time, he married Anni Albers who was a student there. His work in Dessau included designing furniture and working with glass, as a younger art teacher, he was teaching at the Bauhaus among artists who included Oskar Schlemmer, Wassily Kandinsky, and Paul Klee. The so-called form master, Klee taught the formal aspects in the workshops where Albers was the crafts master. With the closure of the Bauhaus under Nazi pressure in 1933 the artists dispersed, Albers emigrated to the United States. The architect Philip Johnson, then a curator at the Museum of Modern Art, arranged for Albers to be offered a job as head of a new art school, Black Mountain College, in North Carolina. In November 1933, he joined the faculty of the college where he was the head of the program until 1949. At Black Mountain, his students included Ruth Asawa, Ray Johnson, Robert Rauschenberg, Cy Twombly and he also invited important American artists such as Willem de Kooning, to teach in the summer seminar. Albers produced many woodcuts and leaf studies at this time, in 1950, Albers left Black Mountain to head the department of design at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. While at Yale, Albers worked to expand the nascent graphic design program, hiring designers Alvin Eisenman, Herbert Matter, Albers worked at Yale until he retired from teaching in 1958. At Yale, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Eva Hesse, Neil Welliver, in 1962, as a fellow at Yale, he received a grant from the Graham Foundation for an exhibit and lecture on his work. Albers also collaborated with Yale professor and architect King-lui Wu in creating designs for some of Wus projects. Among these were distinctive geometric fireplaces for the Rouse and DuPont houses, the façade of Manuscript Society, one of Yales secret senior groups, also, at this time he worked on his structural constellation pieces. In 1963, he published Interaction of Color which presented his theory that colors were governed by an internal, the very rare first edition has a limited printing of only 2,000 copies and contained 150 silk screen plates. This work has been republished since and is now available as a cell phone app
28.
Kinetic art
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Kinetic art is art from any medium that contains movement perceivable by the viewer or depends on motion for its effect. Canvas paintings that extend the viewers perspective of the artwork and incorporate multidimensional movement are the earliest examples of kinetic art, more pertinently speaking, kinetic art is a term that today most often refers to three-dimensional sculptures and figures such as mobiles that move naturally or are machine operated. The moving parts are generally powered by wind, a motor or the observer, Kinetic art encompasses a wide variety of overlapping techniques and styles. There is also a portion of art that includes virtual movement. This term also clashes frequently with the apparent movement, which many people use when referring to an artwork whose movement is created by motors, machines. Both apparent and virtual movement are styles of art that only recently have been argued as styles of op art. Kinetic art as a developed from a number of sources. This triumvirate of impressionist painters all sought to create art that was more lifelike than their contemporaries, by the early 1900s, certain artists grew closer and closer to ascribing their art to dynamic motion. Naum Gabo, one of the two artists attributed to naming this style, wrote frequently about his work as examples of kinetic rhythm and he felt that his moving sculpture Kinetic Construction was the first of its kind in the 20th century. From the 1920s until the 1960s, the style of art was reshaped by a number of other artists who experimented with mobiles. The strides made by artists to lift the figures and scenery off the page and prove undeniably that art is not rigid took significant innovations, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, and Claude Monet were the three artists of the 19th century that initiated those changes in the Impressionist movement. Even though they each took unique approaches to incorporating movement in their works, in the same period, Auguste Rodin was an artist whose early works spoke in support of the developing kinetic movement in art. It is almost impossible to ascribe Manets work to any one era or style of art, one of his works that is truly on the brink of a new style is Le Ballet Espagnol. The figures contours coincide with their gestures as a way to suggest depth in relation to one another, Manet also accentuates the lack of equilibrium in this work to project to the viewer that he or she is on the edge of a moment that is seconds away from passing. The blurred, hazy sense of color and shadow in this work similarly place the viewer in a fleeting moment, in 1863, Manet extended his study of movement on flat canvas with Le déjeuner sur lherbe. The light, color, and composition are the same, the woman bending in the background is not completely scaled as if she were far away from the figures in the foreground. The lack of spacing is Manets method of creating snapshot, near-invasive movement similar to his blurring of the objects in Le Ballet Espagnol. Edgar Degas is believed to be the extension of Manet
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Yacov Agam
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Yaacov Agam is an Israeli sculptor and experimental artist best known for his contributions to optical and kinetic art. Yaacov Agam was born Yaakov Gibstein in Rishon LeZion, then Mandate Palestine and his father, Yehoshua Gibstein, was a rabbi and a kabbalist. In 1951 Agam went to Paris, France, where he still lives and he has a daughter and two sons, one of whom is the photographer Ron Agam. Agams first solo exhibition was at the Galerie Craven, Paris, in 1953, in 1964, Agam wrote his artistic credo, unchanged since then. My aim is to show what can be seen within the limits of possibility which exists in the midst of coming into being, Agams work is usually abstract, kinetic art, with movement, viewer participation and frequent use of light and sound. His works are placed in public places. He is also known for a type of print known as an Agamograph, the lenticular technique was executed in large scale in the 30 ft square Complex Vision which adorns the facade of the Callahan Eye Foundation Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama. Agam had an exhibition in Paris at the Musée National dArt Moderne in 1972. His works are held in museum collections including the Museum of Modern Art. He is the subject of two films by American filmmaker Warren Forma, Possibilities of Agam and Agam and. In 1996, he was awarded the Jan Amos Comenius Medal by UNESCO for the Agam Method for visual education of young children and he designed and created the winners trophy for the 1999 Eurovision Song Contest that was held in Jerusalem. In 2009, at age 81, Agam created a monument for the World Games in Kaohsiung and it consists of nine 10m high hexagon pillars positioned in diamond or square formation. The sides of the pillars are painted in different patterns and hues, one of Agams more notable creations is the Hanukkah Menorah at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 59th Street in New York City, sponsored by the Lubavitch Youth Organization. The 32-foot-high, gold colored,4,000 pound steel structure is recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the Worlds Largest Hanukkah Menorah and it uses real oil lamps, which are lighted every year during Hanukkah with the aid of cherry-picking machines. In May 2014, Agams piece Faith- Visual Pray was presented to Pope Francis by El Al Israel Airlines president, the piece included significant symbols of both Jewish and Christian faiths. Agam is the highest-selling Israeli artist, Visual arts in Israel List of public art in Israel Ragon, Michel. Agam,54 mots cles pour une lecture polyphonique dAgam, origins and Development of Kinetic Art. Studio Vista and New York Graphic Society, works by or about Yaacov Agam in libraries Yaacov Agams Bio
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Gregorio Vardanega
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Gregorio Vardanega was an artist of Italian origins who worked in Argentina and France. Vardanega and Martha Boto, his companion, created the term chromocinetism to describe their artistic research, vardanegas family migrated to Argentina when he was three years old. He attended the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes in Buenos Aires from 1939 to 1946 and he won gold medals at the Exposition of Visual Art in Argentina and at the International and Universal Exposition in Brussels in 1958. Vardanega lived in France from 1959 till his death in 2007, in 1946 Vardanega began working in acrylic glass, and also produced structures using overlapping wires. Through the 1950s he experimented with art, constructing artworks moving and rotating at irregular intervals. His first kinetic piece using a motor was exhibited in the gallery of the Estimulo de Bellas Artes in October 1957. In 1959 Vardanega moved to Paris, where he met the Argentinian artist Martha Boto and they maintained contact with artists in Buenos Aires, including Eduardo Jonquières and his group Arte Nuevo, and the artists group MADI. He was represented by Galerie Denise René, Vardanega had his first solo exhibition in Paris in 1964, which established him as an important practitioner of kinetic art. Gregorio Vardenaga at the Encyclopédie audiovisuelle de lart contemporain
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Julio Le Parc
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Julio Le Parc is an Argentina-born artist who focuses on both modern op art and kinetic art. Le Parc attended the School of Fine Arts in Argentina, a founding member of Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visual and award winning artworks, he is a significant figure in Argentinean modern art. Julio Le Parc was born into a family of limited economic means, at age thirteen he moved with his mother and brothers to Buenos Aires. While there he attended the School of Fine Arts and showed growing interest in artistic avant-garde movement in Argentina, the socially conscious artist was expelled from France in May 1968, after participating in the Atelier Populaire and its protests against major institutions. He currently lives and works in Cachan France, Julio Le Parc found an interest in art at the age of thirteen when it was evident that, while he was a mediocre student, he was exceptional at sketching portraits and illustration cards. His environment, mainly being the School of Fine Arts significantly influenced the early part of his career, while there he attended night classes while working full-time. Le Parc took a special interest in the artistic movements in Argentina. After attending the School for four and a half years he decided to leave the school and he decides to go travel the country, not speaking to his family for eight years. He later returns to the Academy of Fine Arts, where he takes a role in student movement groups. After returning, in 1958 Le Parc received a grant from the French Cultural Service to go to Paris, much of his early career was committed to painting, engraving and creating monotypes. However, in 1959 Le Parc begins his experimentation with image produced by light multiplied by layers of planes of Plexiglas, Le Parc participated in his first exhibition, Bienal de Sáo Paulo in Sáo Paulo, Brazil in 1957. Upon arriving in Paris in 1958 he connected with Jesús Rafael Soto, there they met Victor Vasarely, Georges Vantongerloo, Morellet, and Denise René, whom they became friends with. René, a French dealer, was committed to the promotion of abstract art, upon building relationships with these fellow artists and moving permanently to Paris, Le Parc began to paint what came to be known as Surfaces Sequences. These are works in which the progression of forms with slight variations create illusions of rhythmic movements when completed, in 1960 the GRAV group was established with the collective strategy to delegate the creative act to the viewer. The group advocated for art to play a wider and more role in society. In 1966, Le Parc won the Grand Prize in Painting at the 33rd Biennale di Venezia and he had been living in Paris for eight years at the time of receiving the award. By this time, Le Parc had invested himself in experiments with light, Le Parc had personal experiences with light and mobiles in a translucid cube, as well as an animated piece of light projected on ceilings, walls and the floor. He was also experimenting with light on a reflecting cylinder, a defender of human rights, he fought against dictatorship in Latin America
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Francisco Sobrino
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Francisco Sobrino was a Spanish sculptor. His career began in 1959 when he moved to Paris to have a start in his career and his works can be seen in Tel Aviv, Guadalajara, Chicago, Madrid, New York City and Paris. Sobrino was born in Guadalajara, Spain and lived in Paris, Sobrino died in France on 11 May 2014, at the age of 82
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Yvaral
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Jean-Pierre Vasarely, professionally known as Yvaral, was a French artist working in the fields of op-art and kinetic art from 1954 onwards. He was the son of Victor Vasarely, Yvaral studied graphic art and publicity at the École des Arts Appliqués in Paris between 1950 and 1953. In 1975 he coined the phrase Numerical Art to describe artwork composed according to rules or algorithms. From this time onwards he used computers to process and manipulate images. He died on August 2,2002, aged 68 and was survived by his widow, overview Biography Biography in Tate catalogue Holzhey, Magdalena, Vasarely ISBN 3-8228-3908-6 Official site published by Michèle Vaserely Images Yvaral biography Yvaral prints
34.
Labyrinth
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In Greek mythology, the labyrinth was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos. Its function was to hold the Minotaur eventually killed by the hero Theseus, Daedalus had so cunningly made the Labyrinth that he could barely escape it after he built it. Even as the designs became more elaborate, visual depictions of the mythological Labyrinth from Roman times until the Renaissance are almost invariably unicursal, branching mazes were reintroduced only when garden mazes became popular during the Renaissance. In English, the labyrinth is generally synonymous with maze. As a result of the history of unicursal representation of the mythological Labyrinth, however, many contemporary scholars. In this specialized usage refers to a complex branching multicursal puzzle with choices of path and direction. A labyrinth in this sense has a route to the center and back. Unicursal labyrinths appeared as designs on pottery or basketry, as body art, the Romans created many primarily decorative unicursal designs on walls and floors in tile or mosaic. Many labyrinths set in floors or on the ground are large enough that the path can be walked, unicursal patterns have been used historically both in group ritual and for private meditation, and are increasingly found for therapeutic use in hospitals and hospices. Labyrinth is a word of Pre-Greek origin, which the Greeks associated with the palace of Knossos in Crete and this designation may not have been limited to Knossos, because the same symbols were discovered in other palaces in Crete. Labrys was a cult-word that was introduced from Anatolia, where such symbols have been found in Çatal Höyük from the Neolithic age. In Labraunda of Caria the double-axe accompanies the storm-god Zeus Labraundos and it also accompanies the Hurrian god of sky and storm Teshub. Labrys, however, comes from Lydian, not Minoan, the Linear B inscription
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Gerhard von Graevenitz
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Gerhard von Graevenitz was a German kinetic artist, co-founding member of the Nouvelle Tendance and member of the op-art movement. He also belonged to the circle of the Zero-Group. He is seen as one of the representatives of the constructive-concrete art of the younger generation. Gerhard von Graevenitz’ father was head of a district council, as the youngest of four brothers, he studied economics at the University of Frankfurt, and at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. His professor there was Ernst Geitlinger, together with Jürgen Morschel he edited the magazine nota, which appeared in four numbers and was dedicated to international art and concrete poetry. Both started the gallery nota in Munich, showing solo-exhibitions of Otto Piene, Heinz Mack, Almir Mavignier and they organized lectures, e. g. by the information-theorist Max Bense. In 1961, von Graevenitz lived in Paris, where he was in contact with the Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visuel, in 1962 he was co-founder of the international movement Nouvelle Tendance. Until the group’s break-up in 1965, he was one of the four organizers of the international group-shows, the first solo-exhibition of his work was organized in 1962 at Gallery Roepcke in Wiesbaden. He participated in such as “the Responsive Eye” MOMA, New York. In 1970 he settled in Amsterdam, in 1976 he co-founded the Internationales Künstlergremium and worked for it as its vice-president in 1978/79. From 1979 on he was a member of the board of Stichting de Appel in Amsterdam, in 1961, he created his first kinetic object, and, from 1963 onwards, light-objects, He installed his light-wall in 1966. From 1972 onwards he used the possibilities of a chance-generator for computer-graphics, for some years from 1968 his large kinetic wall hung in the foyer of the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. In 1968 he participated in documenta 4 in Kassel with three large kinetic objects, in the 1970s he installed kinetic environments in Nürnberg, Milan and Amsterdam. In his work, von Graevenitz investigated and systematically visualized the phenomena of perception as determined by variable movements, light projections, space, time, chance and he was engaged with the optical illusion of movement as well as real movement, using invisible motors and mechanics. He aimed to show a structure of geometrical elements with their unforeseeable movement, open for indeterminable constellations. He intended for the eye to engage in game playing, in the late 1960s, non-hierarchical fields of the same elements gave way to fewer and larger elements, which were more complex in their movement. E. g. he created one concave elliptical element which moved completely alone on its ground and he was married with two children. His third child died as a baby together with its mother, berswordt-Walrabe, Kornelia von, Gerhard von Graevenitz
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Arnold Alfred Schmidt
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Arnold Alfred Schmidt, born in 1930 in Plainfield, New Jersey, lived most of his life in New York City. He graduated with an MA from New Yorks Cooper Union, and worked for years as an Art Director at the Gusso-Hyman Advertising agency on such accounts as Jonathan Logan and he later became a Commercial Art teacher at New Jerseys Kearny High School. He died of cancer in 1993 and his work has been collected by various museums, including the New Orleans Museum of Art. Schmidt was married to Anita Schmidt, and had two sons, Arnold Anthony Schmidt and Bob Schmidt, who Was Who in American Art 1564-19753 Vols,1999. Bowker R R. Whos Who in American Art 1993-94, 20th Edition,1993, Whos Who in American Art,1986. Painting and Sculpture in the Museum of Modern Art,1977, Whos Who in American Art 12th Edition,1977
37.
Terrain Gallery
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The Terrain Gallery, or the Terrain, is an art gallery and educational center at 141 Greene Street in SoHo, Manhattan, New York City. It was founded in 1955 with a basis, the ideas of Aesthetic Realism. Its motto is a statement by Siegel, In reality opposites are one, under the direction of painter Dorothy Koppelman, the Terrain Gallery opened on February 26,1955 with the publication of Siegel’s fifteen questions, Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites. Although exhibiting artists were not required to endorse Aesthetic Realism, many comments on the Siegel Theory of Opposites in relation to their work. Over the years, dozens of exhibition announcements, catalogues, and broadsides were printed and circulated by the Terrain, describing how the opposites in reality are central in art. Pop artist Richard Bernstein, optical artist Arnold Alfred Schmidt, photographers Nancy Starrels, Lou Dienes, Nat Herz, in the book The Indignant Eye, Ralph Shikes writes of how the Vietnam War brought many American artists into active agitation. The Koppelmans were among hundreds of artists who signed their names to an ad in the New York Times protesting the war in Vietnam in 1962, of Chaim Koppelmans print, Vietnam, Shikes writes that the artists protest springs from the art and is not superimposed on it. In 1973, the Terrain moved to the first floor of the not-for-profit Aesthetic Realism Foundation located at 141 Greene Street in Soho. There, the featured a one-man show of drawings and silkscreens by Charles Magistro, and continued exhibitions such as Big and Small. Ten Arts and the Opposites, which included music and architecture, in 1984, the Terrain Gallery began a new series of weekly talks, free to the public, called Art Answers the Questions of Your Life. These talks discussed topics such as precision and abandon in Jackson Pollocks action painting, what mothers can learn about children from the art of Mary Cassatt, hans Hofmann’s Rhapsody” by Bennett Cooperman, and Logic and Emotion in Love and in the Shah Nameh by Barbara Buehler. A memorial exhibition for Chaim Koppelman, in 2010, included over six decades of the prints, paintings, pastels. The Terrain Gallery differed from other art galleries of the time in several ways and it held large group exhibitions that successfully combined diverse stylistic tendencies, such as realism and abstraction, when this was unusual. Painting, sculpture, watercolor, and graphics were brought together under the titles Abstract and Concrete, Depth and Surface, Logic and Emotion, the Terrain Gallery also held “one of the first exhibitions honoring photography as a fine art” and silkscreens as major work. In 1955, the year it opened, the Terrain began a series of talks by the Seurat Art Club, working artists who spoke about the relevance of the Siegel Theory of Opposites to contemporary art and life. Discussing both classical and contemporary work, club members considered the relation of composition in art and in life and they described art as having ethical implications, being not an escape from life but a true picture of reality. Others believed that study of the opposites makes for a new level of perception, a surer technique. Painter Rolph Scarlett wrote, The Siegel Theory of Opposites, which is the consideration of this gallery, is inspiring
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Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
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Frank Stella
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Frank Philip Stella is an American painter and printmaker, noted for his work in the areas of minimalism and post-painterly abstraction. Stella lives and works in New York, Frank Stella was born in Malden, Massachusetts, to parents of Italian descent. His father was a gynecologist, and his mother was an artistically inclined housewife who attended a fashion school, early visits to New York art galleries fostered his artistic development, and his work was influenced by the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Franz Kline. Stella moved to New York in 1958, after his graduation and he is one of the most well-regarded postwar American painters still working today. He is heralded for creating paintings that bear no pictorial illusions or psychological or metaphysical references in twentieth-century painting. As of 2015, Stella lives in Greenwich Village and keeps an office there but commutes on weekdays to his studio in Rock Tavern, Stella married Barbara Rose, later a well-known art critic, in 1961-1969. Around this time he said that a picture was a surface with paint on it - nothing more. This was a departure from the technique of creating a painting by first making a sketch, many of the works are created by simply using the path of the brush stroke, very often using common house paint. This new aesthetic found expression in a series of new paintings, die Fahne Hoch. is one such painting. It has been suggested that the title has a meaning, referring also to Jasper Johns paintings of flags. In any case, its emotional coolness belies the contentiousness its title might suggest, Stella’s art was recognized for its innovations before he was twenty-five. In 1959, several of his paintings were included in Three Young Americans at the Allen Memorial Art Museum at Oberlin College, as well as in Sixteen Americans at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. From 1960 Stella began to produce paintings in aluminium and copper paint which, however they use a wider range of colors, and are his first works using shaped canvases, often being in L, N, U or T-shapes. These later developed more elaborate designs, in the Irregular Polygon series. Also in the 1960s, Stella began to use a range of colors. These paintings are named after circular cities he had visited while in the Middle East earlier in the 1960s, the Irregular Polygon canvases and Protractor series further extended the concept of the shaped canvas. Stella began his engagement with printmaking in the mid-1960s, working first with master printer Kenneth Tyler at Gemini G. E. L. Stella produced a series of prints during the late 1960s starting with a print called Quathlamba I in 1968, Stellas abstract prints used lithography, screenprinting, etching and offset lithography
40.
Ellsworth Kelly
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Ellsworth Kelly was an American painter, sculptor, and printmaker associated with hard-edge painting, Color Field painting and minimalism. His works demonstrate unassuming techniques emphasizing simplicity of form, similar to the work of John McLaughlin and he lived and worked in Spencertown, New York. Kelly was born the son of three to Allan Howe Kelly and Florence Bithens Kelly in Newburgh, New York, approximately 60 miles north of New York City. His father was a company executive of Scots-Irish and German descent. His mother was a schoolteacher of Welsh and Pennsylvania-German stock. His family moved from Newburgh to Oradell, New Jersey, a town of nearly 7,500 people and his family lived near the Oradell Reservoir, where his paternal grandmother introduced him to ornithology when he was eight or nine years old. There he developed his passion for form and color, John James Audubon had a particularly strong influence on Kellys work throughout his career. Kelly has said he was alone as a young boy. He had a stutter that persisted into his teenage years. Kelly attended public school, where art classes stressed materials and sought to develop the artistic imagination, although his parents were reluctant to support Kellys art training, a school teacher encouraged him to go further. As his parents would pay only for training, Kelly studied first at Pratt Institute in Brooklyn. Upon entering U. S military service in 1943 Kelly requested to be assigned to the 603rd Engineers Camouflage Battalion and he was inducted at Fort Dix, New Jersey and sent to Camp Hale, Colorado, where he trained with mountain ski troops. Six to eight weeks later, he was transferred to Fort Meade, during World War II, he served with other artists and designers in a deception unit known as The Ghost Army. The Ghost soldiers used inflatable tanks, trucks, and other elements of subterfuge to mislead the Axis forces about the direction and disposition of Allied forces and his exposure to military camouflage during the time he served became part of his basic art training. Kelly served with the unit from 1943 until the end of the European phase of the war. Bill to study from 1946-47 at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, where he took advantage of the museums collections, while in Paris Kelly established his aesthetic. There in the City of Lights he attended classes infrequently, and he had heard a lecture by Max Beckmann on the French artist Paul Cézanne in 1948 and moved to Paris that year. The experience of visiting artists such as Alberto Magnelli, Francis Picabia, Alberto Giacometti, after being abroad for six years, Kelly decided to return to America in 1954
41.
Alexander Liberman
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Alexander Semeonovitch Liberman was a Russian-American magazine editor, publisher, painter, photographer, and sculptor. He held senior positions during his 32 years at Condé Nast Publications. When his father took a post advising the Soviet government, the moved to Moscow. Life there became difficult, and his father secured permission from Lenin, young Liberman was educated in Russia, England, and France, where he took up life as a White Émigré in Paris. After emigrating to New York in 1941, he working for Condé Nast Publications, rising to the position of editorial director. Only in the 1950s did Liberman take up painting and, later and his highly recognizable sculptures are assembled from industrial objects, often painted in uniform bright colors. In a 1986 interview concerning his years as a sculptor and his aesthetic, Liberman said, I think many works of art are screams. He was married briefly to Hildegarde Sturm, a model and competitive skier and his second wife, Tatiana Yacovleff du Plessix Liberman, had been a childhood playmate and baby sitter. In 1941, they escaped together from occupied France, via Lisbon and she had operated a hat salon in Paris, then designed hats for Henri Bendel in Manhattan. She continued in millinery at Saks Fifth Avenue where she was billed as Tatania du Plessix or Tatania of Saks, in 1992, he married Melinda Pechangco, a nurse who had cared for Tatiana during an early illness. His stepdaughter, Francine du Plessix Gray, is a noted author, part-time design assistant to A. M. ULAN Full Record Display for Alexander Liberman, Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California Alexander Liberman photography archive, ca. Research Library at the Getty Research Institute
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Anonima group
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The American artist collaborative, Anonima Group, was founded in Cleveland, Ohio in 1960 by Ernst Benkert, Francis Hewitt and Ed Mieczkowski. The work was accompanied by writings, proposals, projects and manifestos - socialist in nature - which the artists considered essential to the experience and understanding of their work. Along with other artists in the exhibit, Anonimas work was relegated to what came to be the highly commercialized and publicized category of Op Art. Anonimas anti-commercial stance, including their ultimate refusal to interact with the commercial artworld, had the effect of removing them from the lexicon of known artists from that time. In a catalog essay for Frank Hewitts 1992 retrospective at the Robert Hull Fleming Museum in Burlington, Vermont, lipke wrote that the artists believed that commercialization and popularization obfuscated the real issues being addressed by their work. The Anonima group disbanded in 1971, but the effect of their work has extended into the present through their writing and their ideas are reflected in the work of many contemporary artists. Raleigh, Henry P. Anonima Group, Leonardo, Vol.2, No
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Richard Anuszkiewicz
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Richard Anuszkiewicz is an American painter, printmaker, and sculptor. He was one of the founders and foremost exponents of Op Art, victor Vasarely in France and Bridget Riley in England were his primary international counterparts. He was elected into the National Academy of Design in 1992 as an Associate member, considered a major force in the Op Art movement, Anuszkiewicz is concerned with the optical changes that occur when different high-intensity colors are applied to the same geometric configurations. Most of his work comprises visual investigations of formal structural and color effects, in his series, Homage to the Square, Albers experimented with juxtapositions of color, and Anuszkiewicz developed these concepts further. Anuszkiewicz has continued to produce works in the Op Art style over the last few decades, ISBN 0-8109-0363-6 Alviani, Getulio, Margaret A. Miller and Giancarlo Pauletto. Pordenone, Centro Culturale Casa A. Zanussi, ISBN 978-3-7757-0671-1 Kolva, Jeanne, Maxine Lurie and Marc Mappen. 9780813533254 Madden, David and Nicholas Spike, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Paintings & Sculptures 1945-2001, Catalogue Raisonné. The Abstract Impulse, fifty years of abstraction at the National Academy, ISBN 978-1-887149-17-4 Ratliff, Floyd, Neil K. Color Function Painting, The Art of Josef Albers, Julian Stanczak, winston-Salem, Wake Forest University Fine Arts Gallery
