1.
Emperor of Brazil
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All four of the countrys monarchs were members of the House of Braganza. Before 1815, Brazil was a colony of the Kingdom of Portugal, during the colonial era, from 1645 onwards, the heir apparent of the Portuguese Crown was styled Prince of Brazil. In 1817, in the wake of the creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, Brazil had two monarchs during the United Kingdom epoch, Queen Maria I and King John VI. As an independent nation-state, Brazil had two monarchs, Emperors Pedro I and Pedro II, in 1889, the monarchy was abolished in a military coup détat that proclaimed Brazil a republic. The style of Titular Emperor was a title, and became extinct upon the holders demise. John VI held the title for a few months only. During those months, however, as Johns imperial title was purely honorific, Emperor Pedro I remained the sole monarch of the empire
Emperor of Brazil
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Pedro II
Emperor of Brazil
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Imperial Coat of arms
Emperor of Brazil
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Maria I
Emperor of Brazil
–
João VI
2.
Order of the Southern Cross
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The National Order of the Southern Cross is a Brazilian order of chivalry founded by Emperor Pedro I on 1 December 1822. This order was intended to commemorate the independence of Brazil and the coronation of Pedro I, originally known as the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross, the Order was created by Emperor Pedro I on the day of his Coronation,1 December 1822. Also on the date the first knights of the order were appointed. After the fall of the monarchy, Brazils first republican Constitution, enacted on 24 February 1891, abolished all titles of nobility and all Imperial Orders and decorations. The Order was later re-established by the government of Getúlio Vargas on December 5,1932, during the Old Republic period, National Orders did not exist and the Brazilian State bestowed only military medals. Restored in 1932, the Order of the Southern Cross was the first Order to be created in the re-established and it is considered the senior Brazilian National Order. Those Orders were shared by Brazil and Portugal, the Order of Christ was shared with the Holy See similar to the Austrian and a Spanish Orders of the Golden Fleece. However among the Brazilian created Orders, the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross ranked first, having higher status than the Imperial Order of Pedro I and the Imperial Order of the Rose. Just like the Emperors of Brazil were ex officio Grand Masters of the Imperial Order, accordingly, President Michel Temer is the Orders current Grand Master. Unlike the Imperial Order, that was awarded to Brazilians and foreigners alike, however, the Brazilian State also resented the lack of a decoration with which to honour foreign dignitaries, as is sometimes almost required by diplomatic protocol. The King of the Belgians bestowed Belgian honours to some Brazilians, the National Order of the Southern Cross was intended as an Order that would fill that gap. Today, accepting foreign honours and insignia is allowed, and several Orders have been established to which Brazilians may be admitted, starting with the National Order of Merit, created in 1946. Even so, the statutes of the National Order of the Southern Cross have never been reformed. This was done to improve the prestige of the Order by linking it with the past, in 1932, the republican version of the Order had the same five grades as the old imperial version. In 1939, by a statute issued on 17 July of that year, until the creation of the Grand Collar, awards of which are restricted to Heads of State, the Grand Cross was the Orders highest rank. Awards of, and promotions in, the National Order of the Southern Cross are made by decree of the President of the Republic, the Order also has a Council, chaired by its Chancellor, that recommends awards and promotions. Awards of the Grand Collar are restricted to foreign Heads of State, Grand Cross, the recipient wears the Sash of the Order, and the badge of the Order hangs from the bottom part of that sash. The recipient further wears the star of the Order, displayed on the left breast, Grand Officer, the recipient wears the badge of the Order around the neck suspended from a blue ribbon necklet, and the star of the order is displayed on the left breast
Order of the Southern Cross
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National Order of the Southern Cross
Order of the Southern Cross
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Emperor
Pedro II of Brazil, Grand Master of the Order, wearing the Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross, then the Order's highest rank. The portrait displays both the star of the Order and the sash of a Knight Grand Cross.
Order of the Southern Cross
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Queen
Maria II of Portugal, daughter of Emperor
Pedro I of Brazil and sister of
Pedro II, wearing the Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross and other orders.
Order of the Southern Cross
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Syrian President
Bashar al-Assad wearing the "Grand Collar" of the National Order of the Southern Cross, accompanied by then Brazilian President
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, June 30, 2010
3.
Order of the Rose
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The Imperial Order of the Rose is a Brazilian order of chivalry, instituted by Emperor Pedro I of Brazil on 17 October 1829 to commemorate his marriage to Amélie of Leuchtenberg. On 22 March 1890, the order was cancelled as national order by the government of United States of Brazil. The current Brazilian Imperial Family is split into two branches Petrópolis and Vassouras, and as a consequence the Grand Mastership of the Order is disputed between two branches. Original appointment to the Order of the Rose signed by Emperor Dom Pedro II,1887 - Arquivo Público do Estado de São Paulo Poliano, Brazil - The Imperial Order of the Rose
Order of the Rose
Order of the Rose
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Imperial Order of the Rose
4.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
Portuguese language
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Multilingual sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in
Oizumi,
Japan. Return immigration of
Japanese Brazilians has led to a large Portuguese-speaking community in the town.
Portuguese language
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Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country.
Portuguese language
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Library of the
Mafra National Palace, Portugal
Portuguese language
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Baroque Library of the
Coimbra University, Portugal
5.
Pedro I of Brazil
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Dom Pedro I, nicknamed the Liberator, was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil. As King Dom Pedro IV, he reigned briefly over Portugal, born in Lisbon, Pedro I was the fourth child of King Dom João VI of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina, and thus a member of the House of Braganza. When their country was invaded by French troops in 1807, he and his family fled to Portugals largest and wealthiest colony, Brazil. The outbreak of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Lisbon compelled Pedro Is father to return to Portugal in April 1821 and he had to deal with threats from revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of which he subdued. The Portuguese governments threat to revoke the autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808 was met with widespread discontent in Brazil. Pedro I chose the Brazilian side and declared Brazils independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822, on 12 October, he was acclaimed Brazilian emperor and by March 1824 had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. A few months later, Pedro I crushed the short-lived Confederation of the Equator, in March 1826, Pedro I briefly became king of Portugal before abdicating in favor of his eldest daughter, Dona Maria II. The situation worsened in 1828 when the war in the south resulted in Brazils loss of Cisplatina, during the same year in Lisbon, Maria IIs throne was usurped by Prince Dom Miguel, Pedro Is younger brother. The Emperors concurrent and scandalous affair with a female courtier tarnished his reputation. Other difficulties arose in the Brazilian parliament, where a struggle over whether the government would be chosen by the monarch or by the legislature dominated political debates from 1826 to 1831. Unable to deal with problems in both Brazil and Portugal simultaneously, on 7 April 1831 Pedro I abdicated in favor of his son Dom Pedro II, Pedro I invaded Portugal at the head of an army in July 1832. Pedro I died of tuberculosis on 24 September 1834, just a few months after he, Pedro was born at 08,00 on 12 October 1798 in the Queluz Royal Palace near Lisbon, Portugal. He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara, and his name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. He was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and his mother, Doña Carlota Joaquina, was the daughter of King Don Carlos IV of Spain. Pedros parents had an unhappy marriage, Carlota Joaquina was an ambitious woman, who always sought to advance Spains interests, even to the detriment of Portugals. Reputedly unfaithful to her husband, she went as far as to plot his overthrow in league with dissatisfied Portuguese nobles, as the second eldest son, Pedro became his fathers heir apparent and Prince of Beira upon the death of his elder brother Francisco António in 1801. Prince Dom João had been acting as regent on behalf of his mother, Queen Maria I, by 1802, Pedros parents were estranged, João lived in the Mafra National Palace and Carlota Joaquina in Ramalhão Palace. Pedro and his siblings resided in the Queluz Palace with their grandmother Maria I, far from their parents, in late November 1807, when Pedro was nine, the royal family escaped from Portugal as an invading French army sent by Napoleon approached Lisbon
Pedro I of Brazil
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Emperor
Dom Pedro I at age 35, 1834
Pedro I of Brazil
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Pedro around age 2, c.1800
Pedro I of Brazil
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Portrait by
Jean-Baptiste Debret of Pedro around age 18, c.1816
Pedro I of Brazil
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Pedro, in his father's name, makes an oath of obedience to the Portuguese Constitution on 26 February 1821. He can be seen at the middle of the balcony raising his hat
6.
Order (honour)
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Modern national orders and orders of merit developed in the 19th century, emerging out of the culture of chivalric orders of the Middle Ages. The modern distinction between orders and decorations is somewhat vague, except that most historic chivalric orders imply a membership in a group, in a few exclusive European orders, membership is or was also limited in number. Orders often come in multiple classes, including knights and dames in imitation of the chivalric orders. They were essentially courtly in nature, characterised by close personal relations between the members and the orders sovereign. By the time of the Renaissance, most European monarchs had acquired an existing order of chivalry, or created new ones of their own, to reward loyal civilian. Such orders remained out of reach to the public, however. In the 18th century, these ideas gradually changed and the orders developed from honourable societies to visible honours, an example of this gradual development can be seen in two orders founded by Maria Theresa of Austria. Still today many dynastic orders are granted by royal families to worthy individuals for service, in 1802 Napoleon created the Légion dhonneur, which could be awarded to any person, regardless of status, for bravery in combat or for 20 years of distinguished service. While still retaining many trappings of an order of chivalry, it was the first modern order of merit and is still Frances highest award today. Curiously, orders of merit based on the French Legion of Honour typically retain five classes in accordance with habits of chivalric orders. In communist countries, orders of merit usually come in one to three grades, with only a badge worn with or without a ribbon on the chest, an example of a communist order of merit was the one-class Order of Lenin of the Soviet Union. Unlike Western orders, however, communist orders could be awarded more than once to an individual, after the collapse of the Soviet bloc, most Eastern European countries reverted to the Western-style orders originally established before the rise of communism. Today many countries have some form of order of merit or national decorations, both Thailands Order of the White Elephant and Japans Order of the Rising Sun are over 100 years old. In Canada and some Commonwealth Realms, the Order of Merit is the highest civilian honour, Canada has the Order of Canada and provincial orders such as the Order of Nova Scotia. Australia has the Order of Australia, and New Zealand awards the Order of New Zealand, the Order of Mapungubwe is the highest honour in South Africa, while the Orders of Luthuli, and the Baobab exist alongside other decorations. The United States awards the Medal of Honor to members of its military for acts of valour, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom, switzerland does not award any orders. Article 12 of the 1848 Swiss Constitution prohibited the acceptance of honours, the current Constitution of 1999 has no specific prohibition, but a federal statute effectively continues the prohibition by barring holders of foreign orders from holding public office. In 1974 the Cabinet of Sweden passed a regulation forbidding the Monarch of Sweden from awarding membership in orders to Swedish citizens
Order (honour)
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Lemuel Francis Abbott 's portrait of
Admiral Lord Nelson depicting his honours embroidered on his coat jacket
Order (honour)
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Order of the Garter insignia
7.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
Brazil
–
Megaliths in the
Solstice Archaeological Park, in
Amapá, erected between 500 and 2000 years ago, probably to carry out
astronomical observations.
Brazil
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Flag
Brazil
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Representation of the landing of
Pedro Álvares Cabral in
Porto Seguro, 1500.
Brazil
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Painting showing the arrest of
Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known
movement for independence in Colonial Brazil.
8.
Pedro II of Brazil
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Dom Pedro II, nicknamed the Magnanimous, was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina. His fathers abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left a five-year-old Pedro II as Emperor and led to a grim and lonely childhood, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule, he knew only brief moments of happiness and encountered few friends of his age. Inheriting an Empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II turned Portuguese-speaking Brazil into a power in the international arena. Brazil was also victorious in three international conflicts under his rule, as well as prevailing in other international disputes. Pedro II steadfastly pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political, a savant in his own right, the Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning, culture and the sciences. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the future prospects. He did not allow his ouster to be opposed and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy and he spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic, a few decades after his death, his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide. Historians have regarded the Emperor in a positive light and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian. Pedro was born at 02,30 on 2 December 1825 in the Palace of São Cristóvão, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Named after St. Peter of Alcantara, his name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Dom Pedro I, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza and was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and he was the grandson of Portuguese King Dom João VI and nephew of Dom Miguel I. His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of Franz II, through his mother, Pedro was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France, Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Don Maximiliano I of Mexico. The only legitimate child of Pedro I to survive infancy. Empress Maria Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826, a few days after a stillbirth, Two and a half years later, his father married Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prince Pedro developed a relationship with her, whom he came to regard as his mother. He and Amélie immediately departed for Europe, leaving behind the Prince Imperial, upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his son and remaining daughters
Pedro II of Brazil
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Emperor Pedro II at age 12 wearing court dress and the
Order of the Golden Fleece, 1838
Pedro II of Brazil
–
Emperor
Dom Pedro II around age 61, c. 1887
Pedro II of Brazil
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Pedro II at age 20 wearing court dress, 1846
Pedro II of Brazil
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Pedro II around age 22, c. 1848. This is the earliest surviving photograph of the Emperor
9.
Brazilian Imperial Family
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The imperial title was officially bestowed upon him on October 12,1822. This resulted in the Brazilian Declaration of Independence, in 1825, signing the treaty of Rio de Janeiro of this date, his father, King Dom João VI, recognized the independence of the new state, the former Portuguese dominion, now Empire of Brazil. Between 1815 and 1822, the kingdom was known officially as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, was also King of Portugal in 1826, as Pedro IV. Dom Pedro II of Brazil, Born in 1825 and deceased in 1891, Dom Pedro II of Brazil Dona Isabel of Brazil, Born in 1846, died in 1921. Prince Dom Pedro Henrique of Orléans-Braganza, Born in 1909, died in 1981, grandson of Dona Isabel, son and heir of her second son, Prince Dom Luiz of Orléans-Braganza. The validity of the renunciation was disputed by Dom Pedro Gastão, Prince Dom Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza, eldest son of Dom Pedro Gastão. He doesnt put in question the validity of the renunciation, contrariwise, he declared himself a republican
Brazilian Imperial Family
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The Brazilian Imperial Family in 1887
Brazilian Imperial Family
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Original coat of arms of the Imperial House of Brazil, before 1912, when was added the coat of arms of the House of Orléans in the middle of the Imperial blason (23 years after the Brazilian proclamation of the republic).
10.
Alexander III of Russia
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Alexander III was the Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from 13 March 1881 until his death on 1 November 1894. He was highly conservative and reversed some of the reforms of his father, Alexander II. During Alexanders reign Russia fought no wars, for which he was styled The Peacemaker. Although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, Alexander was seen as lacking refinement, indeed, he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as some of his subjects. His education was not such as to soften these peculiarities, more than six feet tall, he was also noted for his immense physical strength. A sebaceous cyst on the side of his nose caused him to be mocked by some of his contemporaries. I was struck by the size of the man, and although cumbersome and heavy, there was indeed something of the muzhik about him. The look of his eyes made quite an impression on me. As he passed where I was standing, he raised his head for a second and it was a look as cold as steel, in which there was something threatening, even frightening, and it struck me like a blow. The look of a man who stood above all others, but who carried a burden and who every minute had to fear for his life. In later years I came into contact with the Emperor on several occasions, in more ordinary cases Tsar Alexander III could be at once kind, simple, and even almost homely. Great solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as tsesarevich and this included acquaintance with French, English and German, and military drill. Pobedonostsev instilled into the mans mind the belief that zeal for Russian Orthodox thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism to be cultivated by every right-minded emperor. On his deathbed the previous tsesarevich was said to have expressed the wish that his fiancée, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, the union proved a happy one to the end, unlike his fathers, there was no adultery in his marriage. The couple spent their night at the Tsesarevichs private dacha known as My Property. To the scandal of many at court, including the Tsesarevich himself, on 1 March 1881 Alexanders father, Alexander II, was assassinated by members of the terrorist organization Narodnaya Volya. As a result, he ascended to the Russian imperial throne in Nennal on 13 March 1881 and he and Maria Feodorovna were officially crowned and anointed on 27 May 1883. On the day of his assassination Alexander II had signed an ukaz setting up commissions to advise the monarch
Alexander III of Russia
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Alexander III
Alexander III of Russia
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Signature
Alexander III of Russia
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Alexander III as
Tsesarevich, by
Sergei Lvovich Levitsky, 1865
Alexander III of Russia
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Portrait by the artist Georges Becker of the coronation of Tsar Alexander III and
Empress Maria Fyodorovna, which took place on 27 May [
O.S. 15 May] 1883 at the
Uspensky Sobor of the
Moscow Kremlin. On the left of the dais can be seen his young son and heir,
the Tsesarevich Nicolas, and behind Nicholas can be seen a young
Grand Duke George.
11.
Francis II of the Two Sicilies
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Francis II was King of the Two Sicilies from 1859 to 1861. He was the last King of the Two Sicilies, as invasions by Giuseppe Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia ultimately brought an end to his rule. After he was deposed, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Kingdom of Sardinia were merged into the newly formed Kingdom of Italy. The only son and heir of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies by his first wife, Maria Christina of Savoy, Francis II was the last of the Bourbon kings of Naples, where he was born in 1836. On 3 February 1859 in Bari, Francis married princess Duchess Maria Sophie in Bavaria, Maria Sophie, along with Elisabeth, was a great beauty. Their only daughter, Maria Cristina was born ten years after her parents married, Francis II ascended the throne on the death of his father. The incident resulted in the disbanding of the whole Swiss Guard, Cavour again proposed an alliance to divide the Papal States between Piedmont and Naples but Francis rejected an idea which to him seemed like heresy. Filangieri strongly advocated a Constitution as the measure which might save the dynasty. Meanwhile, the parties were conspiring for the overthrow of the Bourbons in Calabria and Sicily. A conspiracy in Sicily was discovered and the plotters punished with brutal severity, but Rosalino Pilo and Francesco Crispi, when Garibaldi landed at Marsala with his Expedition of the Thousand, he conquered the island with astonishing ease. The disintegration of the army and navy proceeded apace, and Cavour sent a Piedmontese squadron carrying troops on board to watch over these events, Garibaldi, who had crossed the strait of Messina, was advancing northwards and was everywhere received by the people as a liberator. The next day Garibaldi entered Naples, was welcomed. King Victor Emmanuel II had decided on the invasion of the Papal States, and after occupying Umbria, garibaldi’s troops defeated the Neapolitan royalists at the Battle of Volturno, while the Piedmontese captured Capua. By late 1860, only Gaeta, Messina, and Civitella del Tronto still held out, the Siege of Gaeta by the Piedmontese began on 6 November 1860. Both Francis II and his wife behaved with great coolness and courage, even when the French fleet, whose presence had hitherto prevented an attack by sea, was withdrawn, they still resisted. It was not until 13 February 1861 that the fortress capitulated, thus the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist and its territory was incorporated into that of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and Francis II was deposed. Francis and Maria Sophia first lived in Rome as guests of the Pope, after the Prussian victory against Austria in 1866 and subsequent expansion of Italian territory, they disbanded this government and left Rome before it was occupied by the Italians in 1870. They led a life from then on, living in Austria, France
Francis II of the Two Sicilies
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Francis II
Francis II of the Two Sicilies
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Francis II photographed with his wife Maria Sophie c. 1860.
Francis II of the Two Sicilies
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King Francis II of Naples and Queen Maria Sofia leave Gaeta of the Two Sicilies
12.
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
–
In 1804, he had founded the Austrian Empire and became Francis I, the first Emperor of Austria, ruling from 1804 to 1835, so later he was named the one and only Doppelkaiser in history. He was also Apostolic King of Hungary and Bohemia as Francis I and he also served as the first president of the German Confederation following its establishment in 1815. Francis II continued his role as an opponent of Napoleonic France in the Napoleonic Wars. The proxy marriage of state of his daughter Marie Louise of Austria to Napoleon on 10 March 1810 was arguably his most severe personal defeat. Due to the establishment of the Concert of Europe, which largely resisted popular nationalist and liberal tendencies, Francis was a son of Emperor Leopold II and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain, daughter of Charles III of Spain. Francis was born in Florence, the capital of Tuscany, where his father reigned as Grand Duke from 1765–90, Emperor Joseph II himself took charge of Franciss development. His disciplinarian regime was a stark contrast to the indulgent Florentine Court of Leopold, the Emperor wrote that Francis was stunted in growth, backward in bodily dexterity and deportment, and neither more nor less than a spoiled mothers child. Josephs martinet method of improving the young Francis were fear and unpleasantness, the young Archduke was isolated, the reasoning being that this would make him more self-sufficient as it was felt by Joseph that Francis fail to lead himself, to do his own thinking. Nonetheless, Francis greatly admired his uncle, if rather feared him, to complete his training, Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary and he settled easily into the routine of military life. After the death of Joseph II in 1790, Franciss father became Emperor and he had an early taste of power while acting as Leopolds deputy in Vienna while the incoming Emperor traversed the Empire attempting to win back those alienated by his brothers policies. The strain told on Leopold and by the winter of 1791 and he gradually worsened throughout early 1792, on the afternoon of 1 March Leopold died, at the relatively young age of 44. Francis, just past his 24th birthday, was now Emperor, Francis had a fraught relationship with France. His aunt Marie Antoinette, the wife of Louis XVI and Queen consort of France, had been guillotined by the revolutionaries at the beginning of his reign, Francis, on the whole, was indifferent to her fate. Georges Danton attempted to negotiate with the Emperor for Marie Antoinettes release, later, he led Austria into the French Revolutionary Wars. He briefly commanded the Allied forces during the Flanders Campaign of 1794 before handing over command to his brother Archduke Charles and he was later defeated by Napoleon. By the Treaty of Campo Formio, he ceded the left bank of the Rhine to France in exchange for Venice, at this point, he believed his position as Holy Roman Emperor to be untenable, so on 6 August 1806, he abdicated the throne. He had anticipated losing the Holy Roman crown, however, two years earlier, as a reaction to Napoleon making himself an emperor, he had raised Austria to the status of an empire. Hence, after 1806, he reigned as Francis I, Emperor of Austria, in 1809, Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the Peninsular War embroiling Napoleon in Spain
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Francis II in his coronation robes, by
Leopold Kupelwieser
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Francis II at the age of 2, 1770. by
Anton Raphael Mengs
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Francis,
Alexander I of Russia and
Frederick III of Prussia after the
battle of Leipzig, 1813
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
–
Emperor Franz I (painting by
Friedrich von Amerling, 1832).
13.
Leopold II of Belgium
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Leopold II was the second King of the Belgians, known for the founding and exploitation of the Congo Free State as a private venture. Born in Brussels as the son of Leopold I and Louise of Orléans, he succeeded his father to the Belgian throne in 1865. His was the longest reign of any Belgian monarch and he died without surviving male issue, the current Belgian king descends from his nephew and successor, Albert I. Leopold was the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State and he used explorer Henry Morton Stanley to help him lay claim to the Congo, an area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. At the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, the nations of Europe authorized his claim by committing the Congo Free State to improving the lives of the native inhabitants. From the beginning, however, Leopold essentially ignored these conditions and he ran the Congo using the mercenary Force Publique for his personal enrichment. He used great sums of the money from this exploitation for public and he donated the private buildings to the state before his death, to preserve them for Belgium. Under his regime millions of the Congolese people died, modern estimates range from 1 to 15 million, human rights abuses under his regime contributed significantly to these deaths. Leopold was born in Brussels on 9 April 1835 and he was the second child of the reigning Belgian monarch, Leopold I, and his second wife, Louise, the daughter of King Louis Philippe of France. The French Revolution of 1848, which spared Belgium, had forced Louis Philippe to flee to the United Kingdom, the royal families of Belgium and the United Kingdom were linked by numerous marriages, and were additionally both descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Louis Philippe died two years later, in 1850, Leopolds fragile mother was deeply affected by the death of her father, and her health deteriorated. She died that year, when Leopold was 15 years old. Three years later, in 1853 at the age of 18, Marie Henriette was a cousin of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, and granddaughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor through her father, Austrian archduke Joseph. Marie Henriette was lively and energetic, and endeared herself to the people by her character and benevolence and she was also an accomplished artist and musician. She was passionate about horseback riding to the point that she would care for her horses personally, some joked about this marriage of a stableman and a nun, the shy and withdrawn Leopold referred to as the nun. Four children were born of marriage, three daughters and one son, also named Leopold. The younger Leopold died in 1869 at the age of nine from pneumonia after falling into a pond and his death was a source of great sorrow for King Leopold, who lost his only heir. The marriage had become unhappy, and the couple separated completely after a last attempt to have another son, in 1895 Marie Henriette retreated to Spa
Leopold II of Belgium
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Leopold II
Leopold II of Belgium
Leopold II of Belgium
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Leopold in 1844
Leopold II of Belgium
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A
political cartoon pillorying Leopold's love affair with Caroline Lacroix. The Abbot: Oh! Sire, at your age? The King: You should try it for yourself!
14.
Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours
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Prince Louis of Orleans, Duke of Nemours was the second son of King Louis-Philippe I of France, and his wife Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily. He was born at the Palais Royal, in Paris, at twelve years of age he was nominated colonel of the first regiment of chasseurs, and in 1830 he became a chevalier of the Order of the Saint Esprit and entered the Chambre des Pairs. General Damrémont was killed at his side on 12 October, and he sailed a third time for Algeria in 1841, and served under General Bugeaud, taking part in the expedition to revictual Médéa on 29 April, and in sharp fighting near Miliana on 3 to 5 May. In the expedition against the town of Takdempt he commanded the 1st infantry division. On his return to France he became commandant of the camp of Compiègne and he had been employed on missions of courtesy to England in 1835, in 1838 and in 1845, and to Berlin and Vienna in 1836. On 26 April 1840, he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and his reserve, and dislike of public functions, with a certain haughtiness of manner, however, made him unpopular. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he held the Tuileries long enough to cover the kings retreat and he embarked for England, where he settled with his parents at Claremont. Nemours was prepared to go further than the other princes of his family in accepting the principles of the legitimists, Nemours had lived at Bushy House after the death in 1866 of Queen Marie Amélie, widow of Louis Philippe. In 1871 the exile imposed on the French princes was withdrawn, in March 1872 he was restored to his rank in the army as general of division, and placed in the first section of the general staff. During the presidency of Marshal MacMahon, he had appeared from time to time at the Elysée and he died at Versailles on 26 June 1896 at the age of 81, the duchess having died at Claremont on 10 November 1857. He outlived all of his siblings apart from Princess Clémentine of Orléans,25 October 1814 –21 September 1824 His Serene Highness The Duke of Nemours. 21 September 1824 –26 June 1896 His Royal Highness The Duke of Nemours and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. René Bazin, Le Duc de Nemours, Paul Thureau-Dangin, Histoire de la monarchie de France
Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours
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Louis
15.
Princess Maria di Grazia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies
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Princess Maria di Grazia was a princess of Bourbon-Two Sicilies and princess of Orléans-Braganza through her marriage to Prince Luiz of Orléans-Braganza. Maria was the daughter of Prince Alfonso of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Count of Caserta, Maria married Prince Luiz Maria of Orléans-Braganza, son of Prince Gaston of Orléans, Count of Eu and his wife Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, on 4 November 1908 in Cannes, France. Pedro Henrique and Maria had twelve children, pia Maria and René had three sons. Dom Luiz died in 1920 leaving Maria a widow for the remainder of her life, in 1922, Maria accompanied the Brazilian Imperial Family to Brazil for the countrys centennial celebrations of its independence. During the course of the trip, the Count of Eu died while recumbent upon her shoulder
Princess Maria di Grazia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies
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Princess Maria di Grazia
16.
History of Brazil
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The history of Brazil starts with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th century, the first European to colonize Brazil was Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22,1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony, the countrys borders were only finalized in the early 20th century. On September 7,1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal, a military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen a dictatorship during Vargas Era and a period of rule under Brazilian military government. When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, the dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called Indians by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500, archaeological remains indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations. At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes, the indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast, initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and Europeans began having children with the Native people right away. Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had brought diseases with them. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people, the diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans. There are so many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the now called Brazil. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the profits gained through commerce with India, China. The system was a failure - only four lots were successfully occupied Pernambuco, São Vicente, Captaincy of Ilhéus, the captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields, the initial exploration of Brazils interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves. However colonists were unable to sustainably enslave Natives, and Portuguese land owners soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa, mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population indigenously
History of Brazil
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Queen
Maria I of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
History of Brazil
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Royal Flag (1495–1521)
History of Brazil
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Henrique Bernardelli: Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca, c. 1900.
History of Brazil
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President
Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1995–2003)
17.
Medal
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A medal may be awarded to a person or organization as a form of recognition for sporting, military, scientific, academic, or various other achievements. Military awards and decorations are more precise terms for types of state decoration. Medals may also be created for sale to commemorate particular individuals or events, an artist who creates medals or medallions is called a medallist or medalist. There are also devotional medals which may be worn for religious reasons, Medals have long been popular collectible items either as a variety of exonumia or of militaria. Medallions may also be called table medals because they are too large to be worn and can only be displayed on a wall, table top, desk, the word medallion has the same ultimate derivation, but this time through the Italian medaglione, meaning large medal. The main or front surface of a medal is termed the obverse, the reverse, or back surface of the medal, is not always used and may be left blank or may contain a secondary design. It is not uncommon to only an artistic rendering on the obverse, while all details. The rim is only occasionally employed to display an inscription such as a motto, privy mark, engraver symbol, assayer’s marking. Medals that are intended to be hung from a ribbon also include a suspension piece at the crest with which to loop a suspension ring through. It is through the ring that a ribbon is run or folded so the medal may hang pendent, Medals pinned to the breast use only a small cut of ribbon that is attached to a top bar where the brooch pin is affixed. Top bars may be hidden under the ribbon so they are not visible, be a device from which the ribbon attaches. Some top bars are elaborate and contain a whole design unto themselves, Medals that are made with inexpensive material might be gilded, silver-plated, chased, or finished in a variety of other ways to improve their appearance. Medals have also made of rock, gemstone, ivory, glass, porcelain, terra cotta, coal, wood, paper, enamel, lacquerware. Honorary awards, as a button, which it is custom to give the kings kinsmen. Roman emperors used both military awards of medals, and political gifts of medallions that were very large coins, usually in gold or silver. Both these and actual golden coins were often set as pieces of jewellery, the bracteate is a type of thin gold medal, usually plain on the reverse, found in Northern Europe from the so-called Dark Ages or Migration Period. They often have suspension loops and were intended to be worn on a chain as jewellery. They imitate, at a distance, Roman imperial coins and medallions, the surviving example is mounted for wearing as jewellery
Medal
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Obverse of medal distributed by
Cecilia Gonzaga 's family to political allies, a common practice in
Renaissance Europe. Designed by
Pisanello in 1447.
Medal
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Reverse of the same medal, this copy with a suspension hole added later (inside a crescent moon in the design).
Medal
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Various prize medals with obverse designs, suspension rings and ribbons typical of medals intended to be draped over the head and hung from the neck
Medal
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Bronze medal of
Isabella d'Este, princess and patron of
Renaissance humanists, distributed as a gift.
