1.
Francis de Sales
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Francis de Sales, CO OM OFM Cap. was a Bishop of Geneva and is honored as a saint in the Anglican and Catholic church. He became noted for his faith and his gentle approach to the religious divisions in his land resulting from the Protestant Reformation. He is known also for his writings on the topic of spiritual direction and spiritual formation, particularly the Introduction to the Devout Life and the Treatise on the Love of God. Francis de Sales was born on 21 August 1567 in the Château de Sales into the noble Sales family of the Duchy of Savoy, in what is today Thorens-Glières, Haute-Savoie and his father was François de Sales, Lord of Boisy, Sales, and Novel. His mother was Françoise de Sionnaz, the child of prominent magistrate, Melchior de Sionnaz. He was baptized Francis Bonaventura, after two great Franciscan saints and his father wanted him, the first of his six sons, to attend the best schools in preparation for a career as a magistrate. He therefore enjoyed an education in the nearby town of La Roche-sur-Foron and at the age of eight. In 1583, De Sales went to the Collège de Clermont in Paris, then a Jesuit institution, to study rhetoric, as a nobleman, he was accompanied by his own servant and by a priest tutor, Abbe Deage. To please his father, he took lessons in the pursuits of riding, dancing. In 1584 Francis de Sales attended a discussion about predestination. A personal crisis of despair resulted and this conviction lasted through December 1586. His great despair made him ill and even bedridden for a time. He consecrated himself to the Blessed Virgin Mary, and decided to dedicate his life to God with a vow of chastity and he then became a tertiary of the Minim Order. Sales ultimately concluded that God had good in store for him, because God is love and this faithful devotion to the God of love not only expelled his doubts but also influenced the rest of his life and his teachings. His way of teaching Catholic spirituality is often referred to as the Way of Divine Love, or the Devout Life, taken from a book he wrote of a similar name, Introduction to the Devout Life. In 1588 Sales completed his studies at Collège de Clermont and enrolled at University of Padua in Italy and he took Antonio Possevino, a priest in Society of Jesus, as his spiritual director. There he made up his mind about becoming a priest, in one incident, he rode a horse, and his sword fell to the ground and crossed another sword, making the sign of the Christian cross. In 1592, de Sales received his doctorate in law and theology and he made a pilgrimage to Loreto, Italy, famous for its Basilica della Santa Casa and then returned home to Savoy
2.
Jane Frances de Chantal
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Saint Jane Frances de Chantal is a Roman Catholic saint, who founded a religious order after the death of her husband. Jane Frances de Chantal was born in Dijon, France, on 28 January 1572 and her mother died when Jane was 18 months old. Her father became the influence on her education. She developed into a woman of beauty and refinement, lively and she married the Baron de Chantal when she was 21 and then lived in the feudal castle of Bourbilly. Baron de Chantal was accidentally killed by an arquebus while out shooting in 1601, left a widow at 28, with four children, the broken-hearted baroness took a vow of chastity. Her mother, step mother, sister, first two children and now her husband had died, Chantal gained a reputation as an excellent manager of the estates of her husband, as well as of her difficult father-in-law, while also providing alms and nursing care to needy neighbors. During Lent in 1604, the pious baroness met Saint Francis de Sales and they became close friends and de Sales became her spiritual director. She wanted to become a nun but he persuaded her to defer this decision, later, with his support, and that of her father and brother, and after providing for her children, Chantal left for Annecy, to start the Congregation of the Visitation. The Congregation of the Visitation was canonically established at Annecy on Trinity Sunday,6 June 1610, the order accepted women who were rejected by other orders because of poor health or age. During its first eight years, the new order also was unusual in its public outreach, the usual opposition to women in active ministry arose and Francis de Sales was obliged to make it a cloistered community following the Rule of St. Augustine. He wrote his Treatise on the Love of God for them, when people criticized her for accepting women of poor health and old age, Chantal famously said, What do you want me to do. I like sick people myself, Im on their side and her reputation for sanctity and sound management resulted in many visits by aristocratic women. The order had 13 houses by the time de Sales died, St. Vincent de Paul served as her spiritual director after de Sales death. Her favorite devotions involved the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Heart of Mary, Chantal was buried in the Annecy convent next to de Sales. The order had 164 houses by 1767, when she was canonized, Chantal outlived her son and two of her three daughters, but left extensive correspondence. Her granddaughter also became a writer, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal. She was beatified on 21 November 1751 by Pope Benedict XIV, Saint Jane Francess feast day was included in the General Roman Calendar in 1769, two years after she was canonized. Her feast was set as 21 August, in the 1969 revision of the calendar, her feast was moved to 12 December, to be closer to the day of her death, which occurred on 13 December 1641, the feast of St. Lucy
3.
Catholic religious order
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Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes. Subcategories are canons regular, monastics, mendicants, and clerks regular, original Catholic religious orders of the Middle Ages include the Order of Saint Benedict, the Carmelites, the Order of Friars Minor, the Dominican Order, and the Order of Saint Augustine. As such, also the Teutonic Order may qualify, today mainly monastic, in the past, what distinguished religious orders from other institutes was the classification of the vows that the members took in religious profession as solemn vows. According to this criterion, the last religious order founded was that of the Bethlehem Brothers in 1673. Nevertheless, in the course of the 20th century some religious institutes outside the category of orders obtained permission to make solemn vows, at least of poverty, solemn vows were originally considered indissoluble. As noted below, dispensations began to be granted in later times, the members of a religious order for men were called regulars, those belonging to a religious congregation were simply religious, a term that applied also to regulars. However, it abolished the distinction according to which solemn vows, thus members of orders were barred absolutely from marriage, and any marriage they attempted was invalid. Those who made simple vows were obliged not to marry, but if they did break their vow, after publication of the 1917 Code, many institutes with simple vows appealed to the Holy See for permission to make solemn vows. The Apostolic Constitution Sponsa Christi of 21 November 1950 made access to that permission easier for nuns, many of these latter institutes of women then petitioned for the solemn vow of poverty alone. It has accordingly dropped the language of the 1917 code and uses the term religious institute to designate all such institutes of consecrated life alike. Thus the Church no longer draws the distinction between religious orders and congregations. It applies to all such institutes the single name religious institute, a religious order is characterized by an authority structure where a superior general has jurisdiction over the orders dependent communities. An exception is the Order of St Benedict which is not an order in this technical sense, because it has a system of independent houses. However, the Constitutions governing the global independent houses and its distinct congregations were approved by the pope. The Canons Regular of Saint Augustine are in a similar to that of the Benedictines. They are organized in eight congregations, each headed by an abbot general, and the Cistercians are in thirteen congregations, each headed by an abbot general or an abbot president, but do not use the title of abbot primate. The Annuario Pontificio lists for both men and women the institutes of consecrated life and the like that are of pontifical right, for the men, it gives what it now calls the Historical-Juridical List of Precedence. The arrangement in this list dates back many decades and it is found, for instance, in the 1964 edition of the Annuario Pontificio, pp. 807–870, where the heading is States of Perfection
4.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
5.
Enclosed religious orders
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Enclosed religious orders of the Christian churches have solemn vows with a strict separation from the affairs of the external world. The term cloistered is synonymous with enclosed, in the Catholic Church enclosure is regulated by the Code of Canon Law, either the Latin code or the Oriental code, and also by subsidiary legislation. The stated purpose for such enclosure is to prevent distraction from prayer, depending upon the reason and the length of time, the proper authority can allow enclosed men or women to leave the enclosure. More commonly, cloistered individuals are temporarily released from the obligation of enclosure to participate in a religious event - a papal visit or a bishops visit. Some men and women who are cloistered may have knowledge of fields like education or health care, depending on their training during formation or the cloistered life. They can provide for the needs of their community, and, rarely, there are procedures in place for the cloistered to receive the needed utilities, communication needs, and medical needs while keeping leaving the cloister to a minimum. Benedictine monks, for instance, have often staffed parishes and been allowed to leave monastery confines. In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, once a man or woman has made solemn, perpetual religious vows, the release from these monastic vows has to be approved by the ecclesiastical authorities. Normally there is a period, called exclaustration, in which the person looks to establish a new life. This usually lasts up to six years under the current Code of Canon Law, after this period the appropriate authority, generally the Holy See, determines that the wish to leave this life is valid and grants the former monk or nun release from their vows. Anglican religious orders have different procedures for the release from perpetual vows, contemplative orders prioritise worship and prayer over economic or outreach activity. They exist in the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Eastern Orthodox traditions as well as in Buddhist settings, cenobite Convent Monasticism Religious order New Advent Encyclopaedia III ff
6.
Nun
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A nun is a member of a religious community of women, typically one living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The term nun is applicable to Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, Lutherans, Jains, Buddhists, Taoists, Hindus, Mother Teresas Missionaries of Charity, lives an active vocation of both prayer and service, often to the needy, ill, poor, and uneducated. All Buddhist traditions have nuns, although their status is different among Buddhist countries, fully ordained Buddhist nuns have more Patimokkha rules than the monks. The important vows are the same, however, as with monks, there is quite a lot of variation in nuns dress and social conventions between Buddhist cultures in Asia. Chinese nuns possess the full ordination, Tibetan nuns do not. In Thailand, a country never had a tradition of fully ordained nuns. However, some of them have played an important role in dhamma-practitioners community. There are in Thai Forest Tradition foremost nuns such as Mae Ji Kaew Sianglam, the founder of the Nunnery of Baan Huai Saai, who is believed by some to be enlightened as well as Upāsikā Kee Nanayon. At the beginning of the 21st century, some Buddhist women in Thailand have started to introduce the bhikkhuni sangha in their country as well, dhammananda Bhikkhuni, formerly the successful academic scholar Dr. Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, established a controversial monastery for the training of Buddhist nuns in Thailand. The relatively active roles of Taiwanese nuns were noted by some studies, researcher Charles Brewer Jones estimates that from 1952 to 1999, when the Buddhist Association of the ROC organized public ordination, female applicants have outnumbered males by about three to one. He adds, All my informants in the areas of Taipei and Sanhsia considered nuns at least as respectable as monks, in contrast, however, Shiu-kuen Tsung found in Taipei county that female clergy were viewed with some suspicion by society. She reports that while outsiders did not necessarily regard their vocation as unworthy of respect, wei-yi Cheng studied Luminary order in southern Taiwan. Based on studies of Luminary order, Cheng concluded that the order in Taiwan was still young and gave nuns more rooms of development. Gelongma ordination requires the presence of ten fully ordained people keeping exactly the same vows, because ten nuns are required to ordain a new one, the effort to establish the Dharmaguptaka bhikkhu tradition has taken a long time. It is permissible for a Tibetan nun to receive ordination from another living tradition. Based on this, Western nuns ordained in Tibetan tradition, like Thubten Chodron, the ordination of monks and nuns in Tibetan Buddhism distinguishes three stages, rabjung-ma, getshül-ma and gelong-ma. The clothes of the nuns in Tibet are basically the same as those of monks, hokke-ji in 747 was established by the consort of the Emperor. It took charge of provincial convents, performed ceremonies for the protection of the state, aristocratic Japanese women often became Buddhist nuns in the premodern period
7.
Salesian Sisters of Don Bosco
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The Salesian Sisters of St John Bosco or Daughters of Mary Help of Christians are the sister order of the Salesians of Don Bosco. They were founded by Saint Maria Mazzarello in 1872 to work alongside Saint John Bosco in his projects in Turin. They continue to be a teaching order worldwide, the sisters use the post nominal F. M. A. On August 5,1872 in Mornese, Alessandria, Italy, joseph Sciandra, the Bishop of Acqui, to celebrate their admission to the novitiate and their first professions. On that day St. Mary Domenica Mazzarello was also elected the first superior, a year later their first boarding school and primary school was recognized by the educational authorities of Castelletto d’Orba. On October 8,1874, the Salesian Sisters were able to open their first house in Borgo San Martino and they carried on the tradition of the Salesian Oratory, ran workshops to educated young women to help them to be self-sufficient, and taught. The work of the Salesians Sisters was not limited to a schoolroom as they participated in social works and teaching trades to young women. Their first house outside of Italy was opened in 1877 in Nice, France, november 9 of the same year Mother Mazzarello and the first missionaries were received in an audience by Pope Pius IX, a great friend and supporter of Don Bosco. Five days later the first missionary sisters departed for Uruguay, in February 1879 the motherhouse of the congregation moved from Mornese to Nizza Monferrato. The year 1880 saw the missionary expedition of the Salesian Sisters to Patagonia. In 1881, Mother Mazzarello took ill and died at Nizza Monferrato on May 14, at the time of her death there were 26 houses and 166 Sisters. In 1888, the FMA established their first house in Chile, when the Sisters arrived in Battersea, London in 1902 only one of the first group of could speak English. They set to in their supporting the educational work of the Salesians, supervising the domestic arrangements for the community. They also found time to undertake some informal education by running a club for the disadvantaged children of the area. This was the first of such clubs that continue to be run by the Sisters up. World War II brought to an end the work in Dovercourt, in 1908, the first Salesian Sisters arrived in the U. S. and settled in New Jersey. From there, Salesian youth and outreach programs spread to Canada and throughout New England, as well as parts of the country, including Florida, Louisiana, Texas. In 1920 the first four Sisters came to Ireland, three Italians and one English of Irish parents, and started their work in Limerick, the sisters run a primary school, Scoil Mhuire Banríon na hÉireann in Caherdavin, a suburb of Limerick city
8.
Annecy
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Annecy is the largest city of Haute-Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France. It lies on the tip of Lake Annecy,35 kilometers south of Geneva. Nicknamed the Pearl of French Alps in Raoul Blanchards monograph describing its location between lake and mountains, the city controls the northern entrance to the lake gorge. Due to the lack of land, its resident population has remained stagnant. However, its area, with 221,000 inhabitants, is on the 5th regional position, just behind the Geneva-Annemasse urban area. Its role increased in 1536, during the Calvinist Reformation of Geneva, st Francis de Sales gave Annecy its role of advanced citadel of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The annexation of Savoy will link the city to France in 1860, the city experienced an industrial development in the 19th century with silk manufacturing. Some of its legacy remains today within the head offices of NTN-SNR bearings, Salomon, Entremont. The municipal environmental policy managed to keep 40. 3% of green spaces, since 1960 Annecy has been the organiser of the Annecy International Animated Film Festival, hosted at the Bonlieu Cultural Centre. It has also been an educational center since the establishment of the University of Savoy in 1973. The Fier forms part of the northwestern border. The mountains around the town of Annecy are Mont Veyrier, Le Semnoz, La Tournette, nearby Annecy le Vieux was a settlement from the time of the Romans. Annecy was the court of the counts of Geneva or Genevois from the 10th century and it passed to the counts of Savoy in 1401. In 1444, it became the capital of the provinces of Genevois, Faucigny. With the advance of Calvinism, Annecy became a center for the Counter-Reformation, Francis of Sales was born in Sales, France in 1567 and served as bishop of Annecy from 1602 to 1622, his relics are preserved in the cathedral. During the French Revolution, the Savoy region was conquered by France, Annecy became attached to the department of Mont Blanc, whose capital was Chambéry. The Catholic diocese was suppressed in 1801, after the Bourbon Restoration in 1815, Annecy was returned to the King of Sardinia and the Catholic diocese restored in 1822. When Savoy was sold to France in 1860, it became the capital of the new department of Haute-Savoie, Annecy was the site of the second round of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade talks in 1949
9.
Haute-Savoie
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Haute-Savoie is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of south-eastern France, bordering both Switzerland and Italy. To the north is Lake Geneva and Switzerland, to the south and southeast are the Mont Blanc, the French entrance to the Mont Blanc Tunnel to Italy is in Haute-Savoie. It is noted for winter sports, the first Winter Olympic Games were held at Chamonix in 1924, before 1860, the territory occupied by modern Haute-Savoie and the adjoining department of Savoie had been part of the Kingdom of Sardinia since the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Annexation of the region by France was formalized in the Treaty of Turin on March 24,1860, from November 1942 to September 1943, Haute-Savoie was subjected to military occupation by Fascist Italy. The Maquis des Glières operated from Haute-Savoie, Haute-Savoie comprises four arrondissements, divided into 294 communes and 17 cantons. Haute-Savoie has the largest range of elevations of all the departments in France, the lowest point is 250 metres in the Rhône River Valley, some of the worlds best-known ski resorts are in Haute-Savoie. Its mountainous terrain makes mountain passes important to trade and economic life, some of the most important are the Col de la Forclaz and the Mont Blanc Tunnel, linking Chamonix to Courmayeur in the Aosta Valley. As of 1996,178,624 hectares of Haute-Savoie is forested, compared to 34.4 percent for the Rhone-Alpes region and 27.1 percent for France as a whole. Of the forested area 141,063 hectares is managed for timber and other forest products, national nature reserves are designated by the French government as areas where an outstanding natural heritage is present in both rare and typical areas in terms of species and geology. Management is charged to local organizations, with direction and evaluation focusing on protection for future generations. Lake Annecy is an attraction, along with the town of Évian-les-Bains, perhaps the best-known town on the French shore of Lake Geneva. Haute-Savoie is entirely within the watershed of the Rhone, there were 4,450 farmers in 1999,4,800 farmers and over 1,700 full-time farm employees at the end of 2006. In 1999, crop production was valued at €71.5 million, dairy production is a large part of the Haute-Savoie economy, earning €117.2 million in 2006 and representing 74 percent of the net animal-product worth. The average expenditure per capita in 2006 was €21,706, with the 2004–2007 rise of the euro, Swiss customer traffic decreased five or six percent. At the end of 2006, traditional small businesses represented 84 percent of businesses and 40 percent of retail space,4,301 companies were established in 2004 in Haute-Savoie, nearly 80 percent in the service sector, with a high percentage offering service to individuals. This accounted for 21.6 percent of new businesses, the most active sectors were real estate, construction, business services and the food industry. In 1999, Haute-Savoie had 2,779 industrial companies producing 13.60 percent of all business income. T, firms engaged in screw-cutting are major employers in the department. While the automotive industry is the client, firms also service the electronics, household-appliance
10.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
11.
Visitation (Christianity)
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The Visitation is the visit of Mary with Elizabeth as recorded in the Gospel of Luke, Luke 1, 39–56. It is also the name of a Christian feast day commemorating this visit, celebrated on 31 May in the West, Mary visits her relative Elizabeth, they are both pregnant. Mary is pregnant with Jesus and Elizabeth is pregnant with John the Baptist, Mary left Nazareth immediately after the Annunciation and went into the hill country. into a city of Judah to attend to her cousin Elizabeth. There are several possibilities as to exactly which city this was, including Hebron, south of Jerusalem, the journey from Nazareth to Hebron is about 130 kilometres in a direct line, probably up to half as far again by road, depending on the route taken. Elizabeth was in the month before Mary came. Mary stayed three months, and most scholars hold she stayed for the birth of John, the apparition of the angel, mentioned in Matthew 1, 19–25, may have taken place then to end the tormenting doubts of Joseph regarding Marys maternity. In the Gospel of Luke, the accounts of the Annunciation and Visitation are constructed using eight points of literary parallelism to compare Mary to the Ark of the Covenant. In Catholicism, it is held that the purpose of this visit was to bring divine grace to both Elizabeth and her unborn child. Even though he was still in his mothers womb, John became aware of the presence of Christ, Elizabeth also responded and recognised the presence of Jesus, and thus Mary exercised her function as mediatrix between God and man for the first time. And she spoke out with a voice, and said, Blessed thou among women. And whence this to me, that the mother of my Lord should come to me, for, lo, as soon as the voice of thy salutation sounded in mine ears, the babe leaped in my womb for joy. And blessed she that believed, for there shall be a performance of those things which were told her from the Lord, in response to Elizabeth, Mary proclaims the Magnificat, Luke 1, 46–55, the canticle that has traditionally been reserved for this feast day. In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, the Visitation is the second Joyful Mystery of the Rosary, the theme of the Feast of the Visitation centers on Mary responding to the prompting of the Holy Spirit to set out on a mission of charity. This feast is of medieval origin and it was kept by the Order of Friars Minor before 1263 when Saint Bonaventure recommended it and the Franciscan chapter adopted it, and the Franciscan Breviary spread it to many churches. In 1389 Pope Urban VI, hoping thereby to obtain an end to the Great Western Schism, inserted it in the Roman Calendar, in the Tridentine Calendar, it was a Double. When that Missal of Pope Pius V was replaced by that of Pope Clement VIII in 1604 and it remained so until Pope John XXIII reclassified it as a Second-Class Feast in 1962. It continued to be assigned to 2 July, the day after the end of the following the feast of the birth of John the Baptist. The Catholic Church in Germany has, with the consent of the Holy See, July 2 is observed also by Traditionalist Catholics who use a pre-1970 calendar, and by Anglicans who use the 1662 Book of Common Prayer
12.
Pope Paul V
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Pope Paul V, born Camillo Borghese, was Pope from 16 May 1605 to his death in 1621. He is best remembered today as the Pope who persecuted Galileo Galilei, Camillo Borghese was born on 17 September 1550 into the noble Borghese family of Siena which had recently fled to Rome, thus the reason as to why ROMANUS appears in most of his inscriptions. He began his career as an educated at Perugia and then in Padua. In June 1596 he was made the Cardinal-Priest of SantEusebio and the Cardinal Vicar of Rome by Pope Clement VIII, during this time, he opted for other titular churches like San Crisogono and Santi Giovanni e Paolo. Clement VIII also bestowed upon him episcopal consecration in 1597 after his appointment as Bishop of Jesi, in character he was very stern and unyielding, a lawyer rather than diplomat, who defended the privileges of the Church to his utmost. His first act was to send home to their sees the bishops who were sojourning in Rome, Paul met with Galileo Galilei in 1616 after Cardinal Bellarmine had, on his orders, warned Galileo not to hold or defend the heliocentric ideas of Copernicus. Whether there was also an not to teach those ideas in any way has been a matter for controversy. Paul V canonised Charles Borromeo on 1 November 1610 and Frances of Rome on 29 May 1608 and he also canonized Pompejanus in 1615 and canonized Cardinal Albert de Louvain on 9 August 1621. He also beatified a number of individuals which included Ignatius Loyola, Philip Neri, Theresa of Avila, and Francis Xavier. Venice passed two laws obnoxious to Paul, one forbidding the alienation of real estate in favour of the clergy, two priests charged by the Venetian state with cruelty, wholesale poisoning, murder and licentiousness, were arrested by the Senate and put in dungeons for trial. Having been found guilty, they were committed to prison, Paul V insisted that they be released to the Church. He demanded the release of the priests as not being amenable to the secular law, when this was refused, the Pope threatened an interdict on account of the property laws and the imprisonment of ecclesiastics, which threat was presented to the Senate on Christmas 1605. The Venetian position was defended by a canon lawyer, Paolo Sarpi. In April 1606 the Pope excommunicated the entire government of Venice, Father Sarpi strongly advised the Venetian government to refuse to receive the Popes interdict, and to reason with him while opposing force by force. The rest of the Catholic clergy sided with the city, with the exception of the Jesuits, the Theatines, the dissenting clergy were forthwith expelled from Venetian territories. Masses continued to be said in Venice, and the feast of Corpus Christi was celebrated with displays of pomp and magnificence. Within a year the disagreement was mediated by France and Spain, the Most Serene Republic refused to retract the laws, but asserted that Venice would conduct herself with her accustomed piety. The Jesuits, which Venice considered subversive Papal agents, remained banned, in September 1607, after unsuccessfully attempting to lure Father Sarpi to Rome, the Pope responded by putting out a contract on his life
13.
Pope Urban VIII
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Pope Urban VIII, reigned as Pope from 6 August 1623 to his death in 1644. He expanded the territory by force of arms and advantageous politicking, and was also a prominent patron of the arts. However, the debts incurred during his pontificate greatly weakened his successors. He was also involved in a controversy with Galileo and his theory on heliocentrism during his reign and he is the most recent pope to date to take the pontifical name of Urban upon being elected as pope. He was born Maffeo Barberini in April 1568 to Antonio Barberini, a Florentine nobleman and his father died when he was only three years old and his mother took him to Rome, where he was put in the charge of his uncle, Francesco Barberini, an apostolic protonotary. At the age of 16 he became his uncles heir and he was educated by the Society of Jesus, and received a doctorate of law from the University of Pisa in 1589. In 1601, Barberini, through the influence of his uncle, was able to secure from Pope Clement VIII appointment as a legate to the court of King Henry IV of France. In 1604, the pope appointed him as the Archbishop of Nazareth. At the death of his uncle, he inherited his riches, on 6 August 1623, at the papal conclave following the death of Pope Gregory XV, Barberini was chosen as Gregory XVs successor and took the name Urban VIII. Upon Pope Urban VIIIs election, Zeno, the Venetian envoy, wrote the description of him. His Holiness is tall, dark, with features and black hair turning grey. He is exceptionally elegant and refined in all details of his dress, has a graceful and aristocratic bearing and he is an excellent speaker and debater, writes verses and patronises poets and men of letters. Urban VIIIs papacy covered 21 years of the Thirty Years War, despite an early friendship and encouragement for his teachings, Urban VIII was responsible for summoning the scientist and astronomer Galileo to Rome in 1633 to recant his work. Urban VIII practiced nepotism on a scale, various members of his family were enormously enriched by him. He elevated his brother Antonio Marcello Barberini and then his nephews Francesco Barberini and he also bestowed upon their brother, Taddeo Barberini, the titles Prince of Palestrina, Gonfalonier of the Church, Prefect of Rome and Commander of SantAngelo. Historian Leopold von Ranke estimated that during his reign, Urban VIIIs immediate family amassed 105 million scudi in personal wealth, Urban VIII was a skilled writer of Latin verse, and a collection of Scriptural paraphrases as well as original hymns of his composition have been frequently reprinted. The 1638 papal bull Commissum Nobis protected the existence of Jesuit missions in South America by forbidding the enslavement of natives who were at the Jesuit Reductions. At the same time, Urban VIII repealed the Jesuit monopoly on missionary work in China and Japan, opening these countries to missionaries of other orders and missionary societies
14.
Spiritual gift
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In Christianity, a spiritual gift or charism is an endowment which may be given by the Holy Spirit. These are the graces which individual Christians need to fulfill the mission of the Church. In the narrowest sense, it is a term for the extraordinary graces given to individual Christians for the good of others. To these are added the gifts of apostles, prophets, teachers, helps and these gifts are given by the Holy Spirit to individuals, but their purpose is to build up the entire Church. They are described in the New Testament, primarily in 1 Corinthians 12, Romans 12,1 Peter 4 also touches on the spiritual gifts. The charismata in this narrowest sense are distinguished from the graces given for personal sanctification, such as the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit, the gifts are related to both seemingly natural abilities and seemingly more miraculous abilities, empowered by the Holy Spirit. The two major opposing theological positions on their nature is that they ceased long ago or that they continue, the New Testament contains several lists of spiritual gifts, most authored by St. Paul. While each list is unique, there is overlap, Christians believe that the charismata were foretold by the Prophet Joel and promised by Christ. This promise was fulfilled on the Day of Pentecost and elsewhere as the church spread, in order to correct abuses concerning the spiritual gifts at Corinth, Paul devoted much attention to spiritual gifts in his First Epistle to the Corinthians. In 1 Corinthians 12, two Greek terms are translated as spiritual gifts, in verse 1, the word pneumatika is used. In verse 4, charisma is used and this word is derived from the word charis, which means grace. In verses 5 and 6, the words diakonia and energemata are used in describing the nature of the spiritual gifts, in verse 7, the term manifestation of the Spirit is used. From these scriptural passages, Christians understand the spiritual gifts to be enablements or capacities that are bestowed upon individuals. Because they are given by God, these cannot be earned or merited. Though worked through individuals, these are operations or manifestations of the Holy Spirit—not of the gifted person and they are to be used for the benefit of others, and in a sense they are granted to the church as a whole more than they are given to individuals. There is diversity in their individual will not possess all of the gifts. The purpose of the gifts is to edify, exhort. It is generally acknowledged that Paul did not list all of the gifts of the Spirit, the gifts have at times been organized into distinct categories based on their similarities and differences to other gifts
15.
Temple du Marais
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It was originally built as a Catholic convent by the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary, whose sisters were commonly called the Visitandines. The church was closed in the French Revolution and later given to a Protestant congregation which continues its ministry to the present. The closest métro station is Bastille The Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary was founded in 1610 by Saint Francis de Sales and it started a convent in Paris in 1619 which built the current church and the crest of the order still surmounts the rose window above the entrance. The building was designed by François Mansart in 1632, in the Baroque style, the churchs benefactor, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, an admirer of the Pantheon in Rome, desired a centralized plan. The buildings construction was overseen by the master mason contractor Michel Villedo, Saint Vincent de Paul served as the spiritual director of the convent for twenty-eight years. The church crypt, finished in 1665, was the mausoleum of Nicolas Fouquet, Superintendent of Finances for Louis XIV. The church is home to the tomb of Henri, Marquis de Sévigné. In 1790 during the French Revolution the convent was seized, its furniture sold, in 1792 the sisters were expelled and the Society of Friends of the Law, led by the courtesan Theroigne de Mericourt, used the chapel for meetings. In 1796 the buildings were sold and all were demolished apart from the chapel during the creation of the Rue Castex in 1805. The Revolution left its mark on the chapel in the form of a Phrygian cap above a door, after the Revolution the sisters reconstituted their convent as the Monastère de la Visitation at 68 avenue Denfert-Rochereau were it continues to the present day. The remains of the patron of the convent, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, the church was home to the famed city planner Georges-Eugène Haussmann and architect Victor Baltard during their student days at Collège Henri IV. While Baltard was a Lutheran he went with his more radical Protestant peers to the doctrinally stricter Calvinist church, in 1830 the church held the state funeral for Benjamin Constant. The building was damaged in May,1871 by fierce fighting at a barricade directly in front of the church during the Paris Commune, restoration work was undertaken in 1874 by Marcellin Varcollier and the statues on the pediment of charity and religion were carved by Ernest-Eugène Hiolle. The churchs organ was built by Joseph Merklin in 1895 with additional work by Haerpfer in 1960, elisée Lacheret became the pastor of the church in 1902 moving from the more theologically liberal lOratoire to the more evangelical Temple du Marais. As president of the permanent commission of the Reformed Church he played an important role during the debate led to the Laïcité policy that separated church from state in France in 1905. A plaque in the church commemorates his role in assuring the free practice of religion as well as in organizing the Eglises Réformées Evangéliques, the evangelical wing of the Reformed church. During the World Wars the church crypt was used as a shelter from bombardment, there are French services at 10, 30am on Sundays, an African community service at 1, 00pm, a Japanese service at 4, 00pm, and an Arabic service at 6, 00pm. The congregation also holds many activities throughout the week including prayer, the church is open to tourists on Saturday afternoons from 3, 30-5, 30pm and volunteers provide tours
16.
Braga
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Braga is a city and a municipality in the northwestern Portuguese district of Braga, in the historical and cultural Minho Province. The city has 137,000 inhabitants, and the municipality and its agglomerated urban area extends from the Cávado River to the Este River. The city was the European Youth Capital in 2012 and it is host to the archdiocese, the oldest in Portugal. Under the Roman Empire, known as Bracara Augusta, the settlement was centre of the province of Gallaecia, Braga is a major hub for inland Northern Portugal. Human occupation of the region of Braga dates back thousands of years, during the Iron Age, the Castro culture extended into the northwest, characterized by Bracari peoples who occupied the high ground in strategically located fortified settlements. The region became the domain of the Callaici Bracarii, or Bracarenses, the Romans began their conquest of the region around 136 BC, and finished it during the reign of Emperor Augustus. The city of Bracara Augusta developed greatly during the 1st century, during the Germanic Invasions of the Iberian Peninsula, the area was conquered by the Suebi, a Germanic people from Central Europe. In 410, the Suebi established a Kingdom in northwest Iberia, which they maintained as Gallaecia, about 584, the Visigothic conquerors of Hispania took control of Gallaecia. They renounced the Arian and Priscillianist hearesies during two synods held here in the 6th century, as a consequence, the archbishops of Braga later claimed the title of Primate of Portugal, then a county, and for a long period, claimed supremacy over the entire Hispanic church. Yet, their authority was never accepted throughout Hispania, Braga had an important role in the Christianization of the Iberian Peninsula. The first known bishop of Braga, Paternus, lived at the end of the 4th century, at the time, Martin also founded an important monastery in Dumio, and it was in Braga that Archbishopric of Braga held their councils. The transition from Visigothic reigns to the Muslim conquest of Iberia was very obscure, representing a period of transition, as a consequence, the bishopric was restored in 1070, the first new bishop, Pedro, started rebuilding the Cathedral. Between 1093 and 1147, Braga became the seat of the Portuguese court. In the early 12th century, Count Henry of Portugal and bishop Geraldo de Moissac reclaimed the seat for Braga. The medieval city developed around the cathedral, with the authority in the city retained by the archbishop. In the 16th century, due to its distance from the coast and provincial status and he expanded and remodelled the cathedral by adding a new chapel in the Manueline style, and generally turning the mediaeval town into a Renaissance city. With the invasion of French troops, during the Peninsular Wars the city was relegated, once again, but, by the second half of that century, with influence from Portuguese immigrants living in Brazil, new money and tastes resulted in improvements to architecture and infrastructures. The topography in the municipality is characterized by valleys, interspersed by mountainous spaces
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Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
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Aves (Santo Tirso)
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Aves is an industrial town and parish in northern Portugal. The population in 2011 was 8,458, in an area of 6.16 km². It is located in the municipality of Santo Tirso,6 km to the northeast of the municipality seat, Aves is nowadays, after Santo Tirso itself, the most important town in the municipality of Santo Tirso. The local football team of Clube Desportivo das Aves was promoted to the Portuguese Liga in 2006
19.
Batalha, Portugal
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Batalha is a town and a municipality in Leiria District, Pinhal Litoral Subregion, Centro Region, Portugal. The municipality population in 2011 was 15,805, in an area of 103.42 square kilometres, the town proper has about 7,500 inhabitants. The municipality is limited to the North and West by the municipality of Leiria, to the East by Ourém, to the Southeast by Alcanena, the Portuguese professor and sociologist Moisés Espírito Santo was born there
20.
Scapular of the Sacred Heart
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Margaret Mary Alacoque, a Visitation Sister in Paray-le-Monial, France, claimed to have experienced visions of Jesus Christ during which he showed her his Sacred Heart. During the 18th Century, a Visitation sister, Venerable Ana Magdalena Rémuzat worked hard to spread these badges and they were popular as a protection during the plague of Marseilles and also during the persecutions of the Catholics during the French Revolution. Marie Leszczyńska, wife of King Louis XV also enthusiastically promoted this Badge, Pope Benedict XIV sent a gift of numerous red taffeta Badges of the Sacred Heart with gold embroidery, for her wedding in 1748. In 1872 Pope Pius IX granted an indulgence for the wearing this badge, on the night of 14 February 1876, as she lay in Pellevoisin dying of pulmonary tuberculosis, Estelle Faguette, a domestic servant, reportedly saw the Virgin Mary. Four days later, during the apparition, Estelle seemed to be healed instantaneously. Altogether she experienced fifteen apparitions in the course of 1876, on 9 September, the apparition drew attention to a small piece of white cloth, a scapular, resting over her chest. Estelle had seen it there before, as white cloth. The following day the lady appeared again, saying she had come to people to pray. The final and culminating vision took place on Friday 8 December 1876 and you will go yourself to the prelate and will present to him this copy that you have made. Tell him to do everything within his power to help you, and they should all strive to make reparation for the outrages my Son is subjected to in the sacrament of His love. See the graces that will be poured forth on those who wear it with confidence. Estelle asked the lady what design should appear on the panel of the scapular. The answer came, I reserve it for myself and you will submit your idea and the Church will decide. Immediately following this last apparition, Estelle sought and was granted an audience with the then Archbishop of Bourges, by 12 December 1876 she had received his permission to make and distribute copies of the Scapular of the Sacred Heart. This formal recognition was given on 4 April 1900, in July 1900 Pope Leo XIII, influenced by Sister Mary of the Divine Heart letters, granted many indulgences for the pious wearing of this scapular. On 22 November 1922, Pope Pius XI granted to the clergy of Pellevoisin and directors of the fraternity. On 27 August 1986, an imprimatur was granted for a short English-language publication by Barbara Beaumont, Pellevoisin, Our Lady reveals the devotion of the Sacred Heart Scapular
21.
Scapular
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The scapular is a Christian garment suspended from the shoulders. There are two types of scapular, the monastic and devotional scapular, although both forms may simply be referred to as scapular, as an object of popular piety, it serves to remind the wearer of their commitment to live a Christian life. The monastic scapular appeared first, perhaps as early as the 7th century in the Order of Saint Benedict and it is a somewhat large length of cloth suspended both front and back from the shoulders of the wearer, often reaching to the knees. It may vary in shape, color, size and style, monastic scapulars originated as aprons worn by medieval monks, and were later extended to habits for members of religious organizations, orders or confraternities. Monastic scapulars now form part of the habit of monks and nuns in many Christian orders, the devotional scapular is a much smaller item and evolved from the monastic scapular. These may also be worn by individuals who are not members of a monastic order, the Anglican Communion considers them sacramentals. The devotional scapular typically consists of two pieces of cloth, wood or laminated paper, a few inches in size. These are joined by two bands of cloth and the places one square on the chest, rests the bands one on each shoulder. In many cases, both forms of the scapular come with a set of promises for the faithful who wear them, some of the promises are rooted in tradition, and others have been formally approved by religious leaders. For Roman Catholics, for instance, over the centuries several popes have approved specific indulgences for scapulars, the scapular may have emerged from an apron-like piece of cloth worn by monks. Item 55 of the Rule of Saint Benedict, dating to the 7th century refers to the use of the scapular, in the Western Church the key elements of a monks habit eventually became the tunic, the cincture, the scapular and the hood. A nuns costume included the tunic, the scapular and the head veil, today, the monastic scapular is part of the garb, the habit, of many Christian religious orders, of both monks and nuns. It is an outer garment about the width of the chest and it hangs down in the front and back almost to the feet, but is open on the sides. It is related to the worn in the Eastern tradition. Historically, the scapular was at times referred to as scutum, as it was laid over the head. A specific aspect of the use of the monastic scapular from its earliest days was obedience, the term yoke of Christ signified obedience and removing a scapular was like removing the yoke of Christ, i. e. rebelling against authority. For instance, the Carmelite constitution of 1281 prescribed that the Scapular should be worn to bed under penalty of serious fault, and the constitution of 1369 included automatic excommunication for a Carmelite saying mass without a scapular. In some cases the monastic scapular was used to distinguish the rank or level of the wearer within a religious order, in these cases, the great habit was simply distinguished from the little habit by the addition of a scapular decorated with the instruments of the Passion
22.
Margaret Mary Alacoque
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St. Margaret Mary Alacoque, V. H. M. was a French Roman Catholic nun and mystic, who promoted devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus in its modern form. She worked to prove the genuineness of her vocation and her visions of Jesus and she was initially rebuffed by her mother superior and was unable to convince theologians of the validity of her visions. A noted exception was Saint Claude de la Colombière, who supported her, the devotion to the Sacred Heart was officially recognized 75 years after Alacoques death. Alacoque was born in 1647 in LHautecour, now part of the commune of Verosvres, then in the Duchy of Burgundy, the daughter of Claude and Philiberte Lamyn Alacoque. From early childhood, Margaret was described as showing intense love for the Blessed Sacrament, after her First Communion at the age of nine, she practised in secret severe corporal mortification, until rheumatic fever confined her to bed for four years. At the end of period, having made a vow to the Blessed Virgin to consecrate herself to religious life. In recognition of this favor, she added the name Mary to her name of Margaret. According to her account of her life, she had visions of Jesus Christ. Alacoque lost her father at an age, and the familys assets were held by a relative who refused to hand them over. During this time, her only consolation were frequent visits to pray before the Blessed Sacrament in the local church. When she was 17, however, the family regained their fortune and her mother encouraged her to go in society, in the hopes of her finding a suitable husband. Out of obedience, and believing that her vow was no longer binding, she began to accompany her brothers in the social events of her society, attending dances. One night, after returning home from a ball for Carnival dressed in her finery, she experienced a vision of Christ, scourged and bloody. As a result, she determined to fulfill her vow and entered, when almost 24 years of age, Alacoque was subjected to many trials to prove the genuineness of her vocation. She was admitted to wearing the habit on 25 August 1671, but was not allowed to make her religious profession on the same date of the following year. A fellow novice described Margaret Mary as humble, simple and frank, finally, she was admitted to profession on 6 November 1672. It is said that she was assigned to the infirmary and was not very skillful at her tasks, in this monastery Alacoque received several private revelations of the Sacred Heart, the first on 27 December 1673, and the final one 18 months later. She stated that in her vision she was instructed to spend an hour every Thursday night to meditate on Jesus Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, the Holy Hour practice later became widespread among Catholics
23.
Eurasburg
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Eurasburg is a municipality in Oberbayern. It is situated about 40 kilometres south of the Bavarian state capital, Munich, since the redistricting reforms of 1978, the municipality of Eurasburg has had an area of 40.9 square kilometres, which includes 52 communities. The two largest communities are Eurasburg and Beuerberg, the municipality has a population of about 4,400. The Irings established their fiefdom in the Loisach valley and it covered an area from Herrenhausen to Lake Starnberg and from Wolfratshausen to the fief belonging to Benediktbeuern Abbey. The castle built by the Irings, Iringsburg, gave the community its name, albert von Iringsburg, as a follower of Emperor Henry IV, was anathematized by Pope Gregory VII. To atone for her father and husband, Berta von Iringsburg and her sons Otto and Eberhard founded an Augustine monastery in 1121, the abbey administered all church possessions in the whole fiefdom. Albert VI of Bavaria tore down the old Iringsburg in 1626, the manor house which stands today was built in the late Renaissance style according to the design of Peter Candid. The manor house burned down in 1976 and it was rebuilt in the 1980s and subsequently subdivided into private apartments. S. Armys 522nd Field Artillery Battalion of segregated Nisei troops rescued them on May 2,1945, Eurasburg is also home to Beuerberg Abbey, founded in about 1121 and renovated in the 18th century, and containing architecture from the 12th to the 18th centuries. It was dissolved in the secularisation of 1803, today, the premises are occupied by the Visitandines. Eurasburg is twinned with, Rybnik in Poland Notes Eurasburg Official Site
24.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
25.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
26.
Gyeonggi Province
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Gyeonggi-do is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, Gyeonggi means the surrounding capital. Thus Gyeonggi-do can be translated as province surrounding Seoul, seoul—South Koreas largest city and national capital—is in the heart of the province but has been separately administered as a provincial-level special city since 1946. Incheon—South Koreas third largest city—is on the coast of the province and has been administered as a provincial-level metropolitan city since 1981. The three jurisdictions collectively cover 11,730 km2, with a population of 25.6 million—amounting to over half of the entire population of South Korea. Gyeonggi-do has been an important area since 18 BCE, when Korea was divided into three nations during the Three Kingdoms period. Afterward, the current location of Gyeonggi-do, one of the nine states of Later Silla, was called Hansanju, the Gyeonggi region started to rise as the central region of Goryeo as King Taejo of Goryeo set up the capital in Gaesong. Since 1018, this area has been officially called Gyeonggi, since the period of King Taejong and Sejong the Great, the Gyeonggi region has been very similar to the current administrative area of Gyeonggi-do. In 1895 the 23-Bu system, which reorganized administrative areas, was effected, the Gyeonggi region was divided into Hanseong, Incheon, Chungju, Gongju, and Kaesong. During the Japanese colonial period Hanseong-bu was incorporated into Gyeonggi-do, on October 1,1910, it was renamed Keijo and a provincial government was placed in Keijo according to the reorganization of administrative districts. After liberation and the foundation of two Korean governments, Gyeonggi-do and its capital, Seoul, were separated with partial regions of Gyeonggi-do being incorporated into Seoul thereafter. Additionally, Kaesong became North Korean territory, the city to change control after the countries were divided at the 38th parallel. In 1967 the seat of the Gyeonggi provincial government was transferred from Seoul to Suwon, after Incheon separated from Gyeonggi-do in 1981, Gyeonggi regions such as Ongjin County and Ganghwa County were incorporated into Incheon in 1995. Gyeonggi-do is the central region of the Korean Peninsula, which is vertically situated in Northeast Asia and is between east longitude of 126 and 127, and north latitude of 36 and 38. Its dimension is 10% of Korea’s territory,10,171 square kilometres and its provincial government is in Suwon, but some of its government buildings are in Uijeongbu for the administrative conveniences of the northern region. The climate of Gyeonggi-do is the climate, which has a severe differentiation of temperature between summer and winter, and has distinctions of four seasons. Spring is warm, summer is hot and humid, autumn is cool, the annual average temperature is between 11–13 °C, where the temperature in the mountainous areas to the northeast is lower and the coastal areas to the southwest is higher. For January’s average temperature, the Gyeonggi Bay is −4 °C, the Namhangang Basin is −4 – −6 °C, and it becomes colder and higher in temperature differentiation from coastal to inland areas
27.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
28.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
29.
Visitation Academy of Frederick
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The Visitation Academy of Frederick is a private, all-girls, Roman Catholic school located in the Frederick Historic District in Frederick, Frederick County, Maryland. It is located in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore, in 1823 Father John McElroy began negotiations with the Sisters of Charity for the establishment of a school for girls in Frederick, Maryland. In 1824, the St. Johns Benevolent Female Free School was founded by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Joseph at 200 East Second Street, Frederick, Maryland. The Sisters ran the school for 22 years until they withdrew from Frederick in order to join the congregation of the Sisters of Charity of Saint Joseph at Emmitsburg, Maryland. Before departing, it was arranged that Visitation Sisters from Georgetown, on September 11,1846 eleven Visitation Sisters arrived in Frederick, Maryland and founded the Visitation Academy. The Visitation Academy was not untouched by the American Civil War, during the period leading up to the start of the war, many students were recalled to their homes. Throughout the war no single event had a lasting effect on the Visitation Academy than the Battle of Antietam. In the hours and days that followed the battle fought on September 17,1862, casualties were moved from Sharpsburg to Frederick, the number of casualties quickly overwhelmed the single hospital, and 19 other buildings including the Visitation Academy, were quickly converted into Asylums for the sick. This unfortunate event saw the return of the Sisters of Charity, from Emmitsburg, Maryland, during the chaos, daily instruction continued for the 60 remaining students. When established in 1846, the Visitation Academy consisted of a large three-story building sitting on a 5,580 square foot plot of land, the sisters purchased an additional 3 acres surrounding the original building in order to expand the school and construct an official monastery with cloistered gardens. 1847 Expansion – Due to a increase in attendance, the south wing was added to the existing building. 1851 Expansion - An east wing was added to the main building, the east wing housed a chapel and the monastery proper. 1860 Expansion – A Hall was added to the south wing, added in the 1851 expansion, the Corinthian style chapel physically separates the monastery from the school. The main altar is constructed of marble and an oil painting depicting the The Presentation in the Temple is hung above the altar, two stained glass windows created by Franz Mayer & Co. of Munich, Germany frame the altar. The windows depict the founders of the Visitation Order, the left window is an image of St. Francis de Sales and the right window is an image of St. Jane de Chantal. In the spring of 2005 the Visitation Monastery closed its doors as an act delivered from the Vatican, the remaining 3 Visitation Sisters were transferred to the Monastery of the Visitation of Holy Mary Monte Maria in Rockville, Virginia. When the Sisters of the Visitation arrived at the school in 1846 they found 10 boarders waiting for them, boarders were housed in a dormitory located in the south wing. In the early years boarders arrived from almost every state in the Union, towards the end of their existence at the Visitation Academy, they came primarily from Mexico and South America, in many cases attending for only one year to learn English
30.
Leonard Neale
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Leonard Neale, S. J. became the first Roman Catholic bishop to be ordained in the United States. He served as the second Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore and he devoted considerable time to the establishment of the Visitation nuns to provide education to the girls of his diocese, and also served as President of Georgetown College. Neale was born near Port Tobacco, then in the British Province of Maryland, on October 15,1746 to William, six of their seven sons became Jesuits. Neale attended Bohemia Manor School near his home in Maryland, at the age of twelve he was sent to the College of Saint-Omer, in northern France, and later continued his studies in Bruges and Liège. Neale became a member of the Society of Jesus, and after his ordination on June 5,1777, he taught in colleges and officiated as pastor in different places in Europe. He was teaching in the Jesuit college of Bruges, then in the Austrian Netherlands, when that institution was seized by the Austrian imperial government, and along with the other Jesuits was expelled. He moved to England, where he had charge of a small congregation, at length his health was almost ruined by the inclemency of the climate and the severity of his labors. He arrived in Maryland in April, associating himself with his Jesuit colleagues, in June 1783, Neale attended a meeting of the Roman Catholic clergy of Maryland at Whitemarsh and took an active part in its deliberations. He was stationed at St. Thomas Manor among his relatives until 1793 and he then went to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and tended to victims of a yellow fever epidemic, even though his own health was in a delicate state. Ten percent of the died, leaving many orphaned children. Neale established the first Catholic orphanage in the city to care for them and he became pastor of St. Marys in Philadelphia. Vigilant in his attentions to the sick and dying, on the reappearance of yellow-fever in 1797 and 1798 he resumed his former exertions until he was stricken by the disease, while he was in Philadelphia Bishop Carroll appointed him vicar-general for Pennsylvania and the other northern states. In 1799, Neale was appointed to succeed Louis William Valentine Dubourg and he acted in the dual capacity of President and tutor for several years. During his tenure, the institution was developed from an academy into a college in 1801. In 1799, Neale founded the Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School, under the direction of the Visitation nuns, both the school and the Georgetown Visitation Monastery were still active more than 200 years later. Carroll had some time previous to this applied to Rome to name Neale as his co-adjutor bishop, Neale was consecrated a bishop by Carroll in 1800 in the old St. Peters Pro-Cathedral at the northwestern corner of West Saratoga Street and North Charles Street. As Carroll had been ordained bishop in England, this was the first ordination of a Roman Catholic Bishop in the United States, Neale however, remained as the President of Georgetown College until 1806. The Pro-Cathedral, with its rectory, school and surrounding cemetery
31.
Georgetown University
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Georgetown University is a private research university in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. Georgetowns main campus is located on a hill above the Potomac River, the campus is identifiable by its flagship Healy Hall, which is a National Historic Landmark. Georgetown offers degree programs in disciplines, enrolling an average of 7,500 undergraduate and 10,000 post-graduate students from more than 130 countries. The university is known for preparing leaders for careers in government. As of 2015, Georgetown produced more diplomats for the U. S, Foreign Service than any other school in the country, and has ranked second in the U. S. by the average number of graduates serving in the U. S. Congress. Georgetown is the oldest Catholic and Jesuit-affiliated institution of education in the United States. The Jesuits have participated in the academic life, both as scholars and as administrators, since 1805, however, the university has always been governed independently of the church. At present, the majority of Georgetown students are not Catholic, Georgetown is home to the countrys largest student-run business, as well as the largest student-run financial institution. Jesuit settlers from England founded the Province of Maryland in 1634, during most of the remainder of Marylands colonial period, Jesuits conducted Catholic schools clandestinely. It was not until after the end of the American Revolution that plans to establish a permanent Catholic institution for education in the United States were realized, Carroll began meetings of local clergy in 1783 near Annapolis, Maryland, where they orchestrated the development of a new university. On January 23,1789, Carroll finalized the purchase of the property in Georgetown on which Dahlgren Quadrangle was later built, future Congressman William Gaston was enrolled as the schools first student on November 22,1791, and instruction began on January 2,1792. During its early years, Georgetown College suffered from financial strain. The Maryland Society of Jesus began its restoration in 1805, and Jesuit affiliation, in the form of teachers and administrators, the school relied on private sources of funding and the limited profits from local lands which had been donated to the Jesuits. To raise money for Georgetown and other schools in 1838, Maryland Jesuits conducted a sale of some 272 slaves to two Deep South plantations from their six in Maryland, ending their slaveholding. In 1844, the received a corporate charter, under the name The President and Directors of Georgetown College. In response to the demand for an option for Roman Catholic students. The U. S. Civil War greatly affected Georgetown as 1,141 students and alumni enlisted in one army or the other, by the time of President Abraham Lincolns May 1861 visit to campus,1,400 troops were living in temporary quarters there. Due to the number of lives lost in the war, enrollment levels remained low until well after the war, only seven students graduated in 1869, down from over 300 in the previous decade
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Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School
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This article is about an establishment in Washington, D. C. For the establishment with an historic name located in Alabama. Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School is a private Roman Catholic college-preparatory school for located in the historic Washington. It is located within the Archdiocese of Washington, Georgetown Visitation Monastery was founded at the request of Archbishop Leonard Neale, president of Georgetown College, with Teresa Lalor. The Visitation order is Salesian, basing its spirituality on the teachings of Saint Francis de Sales and Saint Jane Frances de Chantal. One of St. Francis’s central teachings is, “Be who you are and be that well. ”A second teaching still imparted to the students of Visitation is, “Nothing is so strong as gentleness and nothing so gentle as real strength. The monastery and school at Georgetown Visitation have been participants in the history of Washington. The sisters operated the Georgetown Academy for Young Ladies alongside free classes on Saturdays for girls of all races, at a time when it was still illegal to teach slaves to read, both free blacks and slaves learned at the Visitation monastery. During the War of 1812, the Visitation campus was used as a hospital for soldiers wounded when the British set fire to the city of Washington. On July 8–9,1993, a fire destroyed the main academic building of the campus, Founders Hall. Trailers were brought in to serve as classrooms in time for the start of the 1994 academic year. Founders Hall was restored and rededicated on May 5,1995, modern facilities are located side-by-side with historic buildings boasting a myriad of architectural styles, ranging from Victorian to Neo-Gothic. Located on more than 45 acres of land in the heart of Georgetown, Washington, DC, the Visitation campus offers its students state-of-the art academic, sports, students enroll in a wide variety of Advanced Placement courses and 100 percent of Visitation students attend college. Students play on a variety of athletic teams, including lacrosse, field hockey, soccer, tennis, basketball, track, cross country, swimming and diving. The Visitation Masqueraders mount musical and theatrical productions each year in the Catharine E. Nolan Center for the Performing Arts, there are also many clubs and publications at the school. Student publications include the student newspaper, The Wicket, the Green Gate yearbook. Students also participate in the Think Pink Society, Model United Nations Club, Kaleidoscope Club, Peer Educators Club, each graduate performs at least eighty hours of community service, but many students offer hundreds of hours of their time throughout their four years at Visitation. Community service trips take place domestically and abroad, recent trips have been to Peru, Camden, New Jersey, the poorest city in America, St. Francis Inn in Philadelphia, and an Indian Reservation in South Dakota
33.
Visitation Academy of St. Louis
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Visitation Academy of St. Louis is a private, all-girls, Roman Catholic high school in St. Louis, Missouri. It is located in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Saint Louis, Visitation Academy was established in Kaskaskia, Illinois in 1833 by a group of sisters from the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary. The group originated from the Georgetown Visitation Monastery in Washington, DC, the school moved to St. Louis in 1844, in part due to flooding in Kaskaskia. The school moved again in 1892 and moved more to their current location in 1962. Visitation Academy is divided into three parts, the Lower School, the Middle School, the Upper School, the Lower School comprises preschool through fifth grade, The Middle School is for 6th through 8th grade, the Upper School is for 9th through twelfth grade. The school is co-educational in the preschool, which uses the Montessori method, the Lower School is the only all-girls school in the St. Louis region. The school is known for its small size, the Lower School has approximately 200 students, the Upper School approximately 500. Visitation is known regionally for its rigorous academics, students participate in the Advanced Placement program and in St. Louis Universitys 1818 college credit program. The school offers classes in Latin, Spanish, and French, Lower School students receive instruction in both French and Spanish. In seventh grade, all girls take Latin, in grade, they choose to pursue either Spanish, Latin. The Lower School competes in the Catholic Youth Council of St. Louis in soccer, basketball, the Upper School participates in the Missouri State High School Activities Association. Sports for fall include golf, tennis, softball, cross country, and field hockey, winter sports include swimming, diving, racquetball, basketball, and cheerleading. In the spring, lacrosse, track and field, and soccer are played, the Upper School stages several plays throughout the school year, including musicals, dramas, and student-directed plays. The music program in the Upper School includes a choir, a handbell choir. Two concerts are staged each year, one in the spring, the Lower School also holds Christmas and Spring concerts. The school has an art gallery where student work is displayed and, sometimes, art shows are also held in conjunction with the Upper School Spring and Christmas Concerts. S
34.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
35.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
36.
Mount de Chantal Visitation Academy
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Mount de Chantal Visitation Academy was a private Catholic all-girls school in the city of Wheeling in the U. S. state of West Virginia. It was founded in 1848 as the Wheeling Female Academy in downtown Wheeling and in 1865 moved to its final location, while grades five through twelve were all female, Mount de Chantals Montessori and Elementary schools were co-ed. They were members of the Ohio Valley Athletic Conference, the school building was built in 1864-1865. The original structure was composed of three major parts connected by two recessed wings, the building was constructed of brick, on a limestone foundation, with a slate covered gable roof. A two-storied brick porch, added about 1910, extended the entire width, the Fine Arts addition was built in 1906, the laundry building in 1908, and living quarters for the Sisters in 1972. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, the school ceased operations on May 31,2008 with the nuns being transferred to Georgetown Visitation in Washington D. C. Wheeling Hospital announced they were purchasing the building on April 13,2010, no plans were announced and several historic societies were looking into preservation efforts but nothing was ever solidified. Demolition plans were announced and finalized in November 2011, several items left behind by the nuns were auctioned off and razing efforts commenced on November 7,2011. No plans have been announced for the site, although the grounds are currently being used as fields for the local Catholic High Schools. Archived from the original on September 17,2012, civil War-era school in West Virginia is left to only memory
37.
First Friday Devotions
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The First Friday Devotions are a set of Catholic devotions to especially recognize the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and through it offer reparations for sins. The devotion consists of several practices that are performed on the first Fridays of nine consecutive months, on these days, a person is to attend Holy Mass and receive communion. If the need arises in order to receive communion in a state of grace, in many Catholic communities the practice of the Holy Hour of meditation during the Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament during the First Fridays is encouraged. I will give all of the graces necessary for their state of life. I will establish peace in their houses, I will comfort them in all their afflictions. I will be their strength during life and above all during death, I will bestow a large blessing upon all their undertakings. Sinners shall find in My Heart the source and the ocean of mercy. Fervent souls shall quickly mount to high perfection, I will bless every place where a picture of my heart shall be set up and honored. I will give to priests the gift of touching the most hardened hearts and those who shall promote this devotion shall have their names written in My Heart, never to be blotted out. Sacred Heart of Jesus Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque Blessed Mary of the Divine Heart A support community for those wanting to complete the First Friday Devotion
38.
Pope John Paul II
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Pope Saint John Paul II, born Karol Józef Wojtyła, was Pope from 1978 to 2005. He is called by some Catholics Saint John Paul the Great and he was elected by the second Papal conclave of 1978, which was called after Pope John Paul I, who had been elected in August after the death of Pope Paul VI, died after thirty-three days. Cardinal Wojtyła was elected on the day of the conclave. John Paul II is recognised as helping to end Communist rule in his native Poland, John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Churchs relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He upheld the Churchs teachings on such matters as artificial contraception and the ordination of women and he was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the worlds bishops, a key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church. His wish was to place his Church at the heart of a new alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims. He was the second longest-serving pope in history after Pope Pius IX. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI, John Paul IIs cause for canonisation commenced in 2005 one month after his death with the traditional five-year waiting period waived. A second miracle attributed to John Paul IIs intercession was approved on 2 July 2013, John Paul II was canonised on 27 April 2014, together with Pope John XXIII. On 11 September 2014, Pope Francis added John Paul IIs optional memorial feast day to the worldwide General Roman Calendar of saints, in response to worldwide requests. It is traditional to celebrate saints feast days on the anniversary of their deaths, Karol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of Wadowice. He was the youngest of three born to Karol Wojtyła, an ethnic Pole, and Emilia Kaczorowska, whose mothers maiden surname was Scholz. Emilia, who was a schoolteacher, died in childbirth in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old and his elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmunds work as a physician led to his death from scarlet fever. As a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing football as goalkeeper, during his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with Wadowices large Jewish community. School football games were organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. I remember that at least a third of my classmates at school in Wadowice were Jews
39.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
