1.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
2.
Grade (slope)
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The grade of a physical feature, landform or constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of tilt, often slope is calculated as a ratio of rise to run, or as a fraction in which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance. The grades or slopes of existing physical features such as canyons and hillsides, stream and river banks, grades are typically specified for new linear constructions. The grade may refer to the slope or the perpendicular cross slope. There are several ways to express slope, as an angle of inclination to the horizontal, as a percentage, the formula for which is 100 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. In the U. S. this percentage grade is the most commonly used unit for communicating slopes in transportation, surveying, construction, and civil engineering. As a per mille figure, the formula for which is 1000 rise run which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000 and this is commonly used in Europe to denote the incline of a railway. As a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run, for example, a slope that has a rise of 5 feet for every 100 feet of run would have a slope ratio of 1 in 20. This is generally the method used to describe railway grades in Australia, any of these may be used. Grade is usually expressed as a percentage, but this is converted to the angle α from horizontal or the other expressions. Slope may still be expressed when the run is not known. This is not the way to specify slope, it follows the sine function rather than the tangent function. But in practice the way to calculate slope is to measure the distance along the slope and the vertical rise. When the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal displacement makes only an insignificant difference, Railway gradients are usually expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along the track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant, the tangent is used. In any case, the identity holds for all inclinations up to 90 degrees, tan α = sin α1 − sin 2 α In Europe. Grades are related using the equations with symbols from the figure at top
3.
Leonhard Euler
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He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, Euler was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century, and is held to be one of the greatest in history. He is also considered to be the most prolific mathematician of all time. His collected works fill 60 to 80 quarto volumes, more than anybody in the field and he spent most of his adult life in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, then the capital of Prussia. A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Eulers influence on mathematics, Read Euler, read Euler, Leonhard Euler was born on 15 April 1707, in Basel, Switzerland to Paul III Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and Marguerite née Brucker, a pastors daughter. He had two sisters, Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena, and a younger brother Johann Heinrich. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, Paul Euler was a friend of the Bernoulli family, Johann Bernoulli was then regarded as Europes foremost mathematician, and would eventually be the most important influence on young Leonhard. Eulers formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. In 1720, aged thirteen, he enrolled at the University of Basel, during that time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupils incredible talent for mathematics. In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono, at that time, he was unsuccessfully attempting to obtain a position at the University of Basel. In 1727, he first entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, Pierre Bouguer, who became known as the father of naval architecture, won and Euler took second place. Euler later won this annual prize twelve times, around this time Johann Bernoullis two sons, Daniel and Nicolaus, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to Saint Petersburg while he applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel. Euler arrived in Saint Petersburg on 17 May 1727 and he was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled life in Saint Petersburg. He also took on a job as a medic in the Russian Navy. The Academy at Saint Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia, as a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler
4.
Symmetry
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Symmetry in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, symmetry has a precise definition, that an object is invariant to any of various transformations. Although these two meanings of symmetry can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are discussed together. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry, a geometric shape or object is symmetric if it can be divided into two or more identical pieces that are arranged in an organized fashion. This means that an object is symmetric if there is a transformation that moves individual pieces of the object, an object has rotational symmetry if the object can be rotated about a fixed point without changing the overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be translated without changing its overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be simultaneously translated and rotated in three-dimensional space along a line known as a screw axis. An object has symmetry if it does not change shape when it is expanded or contracted. Fractals also exhibit a form of symmetry, where small portions of the fractal are similar in shape to large portions. Other symmetries include glide reflection symmetry and rotoreflection symmetry, a dyadic relation R is symmetric if and only if, whenever its true that Rab, its true that Rba. Thus, is the age as is symmetrical, for if Paul is the same age as Mary. Symmetric binary logical connectives are and, or, biconditional, nand, xor, the set of operations that preserve a given property of the object form a group. In general, every kind of structure in mathematics will have its own kind of symmetry, examples include even and odd functions in calculus, the symmetric group in abstract algebra, symmetric matrices in linear algebra, and the Galois group in Galois theory. In statistics, it appears as symmetric probability distributions, and as skewness, symmetry in physics has been generalized to mean invariance—that is, lack of change—under any kind of transformation, for example arbitrary coordinate transformations. This concept has one of the most powerful tools of theoretical physics. See Noethers theorem, and also, Wigners classification, which says that the symmetries of the laws of physics determine the properties of the found in nature. Important symmetries in physics include continuous symmetries and discrete symmetries of spacetime, internal symmetries of particles, in biology, the notion of symmetry is mostly used explicitly to describe body shapes. Bilateral animals, including humans, are more or less symmetric with respect to the plane which divides the body into left
5.
Euler's rotation theorem
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It also means that the composition of two rotations is also a rotation. Therefore the set of rotations has a structure, known as a rotation group. The theorem is named after Leonhard Euler, who proved it in 1775 by means of spherical geometry, the axis of rotation is known as an Euler axis, typically represented by a unit vector e ^. Its product by the angle is known as an axis-angle. The extension of the theorem to kinematics yields the concept of instant axis of rotation, in linear algebra terms, the theorem states that, in 3D space, any two Cartesian coordinate systems with a common origin are related by a rotation about some fixed axis. The eigenvector corresponding to this eigenvalue is the axis of rotation connecting the two systems, Euler states the theorem as follows, Theorema. Quomodocunque sphaera circa centrum suum conuertatur, semper assignari potest diameter, or, When a sphere is moved around its centre it is always possible to find a diameter whose direction in the displaced position is the same as in the initial position. Eulers original proof was made using spherical geometry and therefore whenever he speaks about triangles they must be understood as spherical triangles, to arrive at a proof, Euler analyses what the situation would look like if the theorem were true. Then he considers a great circle that does not contain O, and its image after rotation. He labels a point on their intersection as point A, now A is on the initial circle, so its image will be on the transported circle. He labels that image as point a, since A is also on the transported circle, it is the image of another point that was on the initial circle and he labels that preimage as ɑ. Then he considers the two arcs joining ɑ and a to A and these arcs have the same length because arc ɑA is mapped onto arc Aa. Also, since O is a point, triangle ɑOA is mapped onto triangle AOa, so these triangles are isosceles. Lets construct a point that could be invariant using the previous considerations and we start with the blue great circle and its image under the transformation, which is the red great circle as in the Figure 1. Let point A be a point of intersection of those circles, otherwise we label A’s image as a and its preimage as ɑ, and connect these two points to A with arcs ɑA and Aa. These arcs have the same length, then since ɑA = Aa and O is on the bisector of angle ɑAa, we also have ɑO = aO. Now lets suppose that O is the image of O, then we know angle ɑAO = angle AaO and orientation is preserved*, so O must be interior to angle ɑAa. Now AO is transformed to aO, so AO = aO, since AO is also the same length as aO, angle AaO = angle aAO
6.
Strike and dip
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Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike line of a bed, fault, or other feature, is a line representing the intersection of that feature with a horizontal plane. On a geologic map, this is represented with a straight line segment oriented parallel to the strike line. One technique is to take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike. The map symbol is a line attached and at right angles to the strike symbol pointing in the direction which the planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is generally included on a map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat are shown like the vertical beds, both vertical and flat beds do not have a number written with them. Another way of representing strike and dip is by dip and dip direction, the dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal, which is 90° off the strike angle. For example, a bed dipping 30° to the South, would have an East-West strike, but would be written as 30/180 using the dip and dip direction method. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass, compass-clinometers which measure dip and dip direction in a single operation are often called stratum or Klar compasses after a German professor. Smartphone apps are also now available, that use of the internal accelerometer to provide orientation measurements. Combined with the GPS functionality of devices, this allows readings to be recorded. Any planar feature can be described by strike and dip and this includes sedimentary bedding, faults and fractures, cuestas, igneous dikes and sills, metamorphic foliation and any other planar feature in the Earth. Linear features are measured very similar methods, where plunge is the dip angle. Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a plane that is not perpendicular to the strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using trigonometry if you know the strike, Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are drawn at some angle not perpendicular to strike. New York, J. Wiley and Sons, tarbuck, Edward J. Lutgens, Frederick K. 0-13-092025-8 Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology. Upper Saddle River, N. J. Pearson Prentice Hall, digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization
7.
Rotation
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A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center of rotation. A three-dimensional object always rotates around a line called a rotation axis. If the axis passes through the center of mass, the body is said to rotate upon itself. A rotation about a point, e. g. the Earth about the Sun, is called a revolution or orbital revolution. The axis is called a pole, mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations within both two and three dimensions All rigid body movements are rotations, translations, or combinations of the two, a rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion, the axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lies external of the body in question then the body is said to orbit, there is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and an “orbit” and or spin. The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lies and this distinction can be demonstrated for both “rigid” and “non rigid” bodies. If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a rotation around the same point/axis. The reverse of a rotation is also a rotation, thus, the rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, Rotations around the x, y and z axes are called principal rotations. Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around the x axis, followed by a rotation around the y axis and that is to say, any spatial rotation can be decomposed into a combination of principal rotations. In flight dynamics, the rotations are known as yaw, pitch. This terminology is used in computer graphics. In astronomy, rotation is an observed phenomenon. Stars, planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes, the rotation rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by tracking active surface features and this rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer one is to the equator
8.
Rotational symmetry
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Rotational symmetry, also known as radial symmetry in biology, is the property a shape has when it looks the same after some rotation by a partial turn. An objects degree of symmetry is the number of distinct orientations in which it looks the same. Formally the rotational symmetry is symmetry with respect to some or all rotations in m-dimensional Euclidean space, rotations are direct isometries, i. e. isometries preserving orientation. With the modified notion of symmetry for vector fields the symmetry group can also be E+, for symmetry with respect to rotations about a point we can take that point as origin. These rotations form the orthogonal group SO, the group of m×m orthogonal matrices with determinant 1. For m =3 this is the rotation group SO, for chiral objects it is the same as the full symmetry group. Laws of physics are SO-invariant if they do not distinguish different directions in space, because of Noethers theorem, rotational symmetry of a physical system is equivalent to the angular momentum conservation law. Note that 1-fold symmetry is no symmetry, the notation for n-fold symmetry is Cn or simply n. The actual symmetry group is specified by the point or axis of symmetry, for each point or axis of symmetry, the abstract group type is cyclic group of order n, Zn. The fundamental domain is a sector of 360°/n, if there is e. g. rotational symmetry with respect to an angle of 100°, then also with respect to one of 20°, the greatest common divisor of 100° and 360°. A typical 3D object with rotational symmetry but no mirror symmetry is a propeller and this is the rotation group of a regular prism, or regular bipyramid. 4×3-fold and 3×2-fold axes, the rotation group T of order 12 of a regular tetrahedron, the group is isomorphic to alternating group A4. 3×4-fold, 4×3-fold, and 6×2-fold axes, the rotation group O of order 24 of a cube, the group is isomorphic to symmetric group S4. 6×5-fold, 10×3-fold, and 15×2-fold axes, the rotation group I of order 60 of a dodecahedron, the group is isomorphic to alternating group A5. The group contains 10 versions of D3 and 6 versions of D5, in the case of the Platonic solids, the 2-fold axes are through the midpoints of opposite edges, the number of them is half the number of edges. Rotational symmetry with respect to any angle is, in two dimensions, circular symmetry, the fundamental domain is a half-line. In three dimensions we can distinguish cylindrical symmetry and spherical symmetry and that is, no dependence on the angle using cylindrical coordinates and no dependence on either angle using spherical coordinates. The fundamental domain is a half-plane through the axis, and a radial half-line, axisymmetric or axisymmetrical are adjectives which refer to an object having cylindrical symmetry, or axisymmetry
9.
Euler angles
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The Euler angles are three angles introduced by Leonhard Euler to describe the orientation of a rigid body with respect to a fixed coordinate system. They can also represent the orientation of a frame of reference in physics or the orientation of a general basis in 3-dimensional linear algebra. Any orientation can be achieved by composing three elemental rotations, i. e. rotations about the axes of a coordinate system, Euler angles can be defined by three of these rotations. They can also be defined by geometry and the geometrical definition demonstrates that three rotations are always sufficient to reach any frame. The three elemental rotations may be extrinsic, or intrinsic, Euler angles are typically denoted as α, β, γ, or φ, θ, ψ. Different authors may use different sets of rotation axes to define Euler angles, therefore, any discussion employing Euler angles should always be preceded by their definition. Tait–Bryan angles are also called Cardan angles, nautical angles, heading, elevation, and bank, or yaw, pitch, sometimes, both kinds of sequences are called Euler angles. In that case, the sequences of the first group are called proper or classic Euler angles, the axes of the original frame are denoted as x, y, z and the axes of the rotated frame are denoted as X, Y, Z. The geometrical definition begins defining the line of nodes as the intersection of the planes xy, using it, the three Euler angles can be defined as follows, α is the angle between the x axis and the N axis. β is the angle between the z axis and the Z axis, γ is the angle between the N axis and the X axis. Euler angles between two frames are defined only if both frames have the same handedness. Intrinsic rotations are elemental rotations occur about the axes of a coordinate system XYZ attached to a moving body. Therefore, they change their orientation after each elemental rotation, the XYZ system rotates, while xyz is fixed. Starting with XYZ overlapping xyz, a composition of three intrinsic rotations can be used to any target orientation for XYZ. Euler angles can be defined by intrinsic rotations, the rotated frame XYZ may be imagined to be initially aligned with xyz, before undergoing the three elemental rotations represented by Euler angles. Hence, N can be simply denoted x’, moreover, since the third elemental rotation occurs about Z, it does not change the orientation of Z. Extrinsic rotations are elemental rotations occur about the axes of the fixed coordinate system xyz. The XYZ system rotates, while xyz is fixed, starting with XYZ overlapping xyz, a composition of three extrinsic rotations can be used to reach any target orientation for XYZ
10.
Plane (geometry)
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In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. A plane is the analogue of a point, a line. When working exclusively in two-dimensional Euclidean space, the article is used, so. Many fundamental tasks in mathematics, geometry, trigonometry, graph theory and graphing are performed in a space, or in other words. Euclid set forth the first great landmark of mathematical thought, a treatment of geometry. He selected a small core of undefined terms and postulates which he used to prove various geometrical statements. Although the plane in its sense is not directly given a definition anywhere in the Elements. In his work Euclid never makes use of numbers to measure length, angle, in this way the Euclidean plane is not quite the same as the Cartesian plane. This section is concerned with planes embedded in three dimensions, specifically, in R3. In a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, a plane is determined by any of the following. A line and a point not on that line, a line is either parallel to a plane, intersects it at a single point, or is contained in the plane. Two distinct lines perpendicular to the plane must be parallel to each other. Two distinct planes perpendicular to the line must be parallel to each other. Specifically, let r0 be the vector of some point P0 =. The plane determined by the point P0 and the vector n consists of those points P, with position vector r, such that the vector drawn from P0 to P is perpendicular to n. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the plane can be described as the set of all points r such that n ⋅ =0. Expanded this becomes a + b + c =0, which is the form of the equation of a plane. This is just a linear equation a x + b y + c z + d =0 and this familiar equation for a plane is called the general form of the equation of the plane
11.
Orientation (vector space)
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In linear algebra, the notion of orientation makes sense in arbitrary finite dimension. In this setting, the orientation of a basis is a kind of asymmetry that makes a reflection impossible to replicate by means of a simple rotation. As a result, in the three-dimensional Euclidean space, the two possible basis orientations are called right-handed and left-handed, the orientation on a real vector space is the arbitrary choice of which ordered bases are positively oriented and which are negatively oriented. In the three-dimensional Euclidean space, right-handed bases are typically declared to be positively oriented, a vector space with an orientation selected is called an oriented vector space, while one not having an orientation selected, is called unoriented. Let V be a real vector space and let b1. It is a result in linear algebra that there exists a unique linear transformation A, V → V that takes b1 to b2. The bases b1 and b2 are said to have the same orientation if A has positive determinant, the property of having the same orientation defines an equivalence relation on the set of all ordered bases for V. If V is non-zero, there are two equivalence classes determined by this relation. An orientation on V is an assignment of +1 to one equivalence class, every ordered basis lives in one equivalence class or another. Thus any choice of an ordered basis for V determines an orientation. For example, the basis on Rn provides a standard orientation on Rn. Any choice of an isomorphism between V and Rn will then provide an orientation on V. The ordering of elements in a basis is crucial, two bases with a different ordering will differ by some permutation. They will have the same/opposite orientations according to whether the signature of this permutation is ±1 and this is because the determinant of a permutation matrix is equal to the signature of the associated permutation. Similarly, let A be a linear mapping of vector space Rn to Rn. This mapping is orientation-preserving if its determinant is positive, a zero-dimensional vector space has only a single point, the zero vector. Consequently, the basis of a zero-dimensional vector space is the empty set ∅. Therefore, there is an equivalence class of ordered bases, namely
12.
Line segment
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In geometry, a line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by two distinct end points, and contains every point on the line between its endpoints. A closed line segment includes both endpoints, while a line segment excludes both endpoints, a half-open line segment includes exactly one of the endpoints. Examples of line include the sides of a triangle or square. More generally, when both of the end points are vertices of a polygon or polyhedron, the line segment is either an edge if they are adjacent vertices. When the end points both lie on a such as a circle, a line segment is called a chord. Sometimes one needs to distinguish between open and closed line segments, thus, the line segment can be expressed as a convex combination of the segments two end points. In geometry, it is defined that a point B is between two other points A and C, if the distance AB added to the distance BC is equal to the distance AC. Thus in R2 the line segment with endpoints A = and C = is the collection of points. A line segment is a connected, non-empty set, if V is a topological vector space, then a closed line segment is a closed set in V. However, an open line segment is an open set in V if and only if V is one-dimensional. More generally than above, the concept of a segment can be defined in an ordered geometry. A pair of segments can be any one of the following, intersecting, parallel, skew. The last possibility is a way that line segments differ from lines, in an axiomatic treatment of geometry, the notion of betweenness is either assumed to satisfy a certain number of axioms, or else be defined in terms of an isometry of a line. Segments play an important role in other theories, for example, a set is convex if the segment that joins any two points of the set is contained in the set. This is important because it transforms some of the analysis of sets to the analysis of a line segment. The Segment Addition Postulate can be used to add congruent segment or segments with equal lengths and consequently substitute other segments into another statement to make segments congruent. A line segment can be viewed as a case of an ellipse in which the semiminor axis goes to zero, the foci go to the endpoints. A complete orbit of this ellipse traverses the line segment twice, as a degenerate orbit this is a radial elliptic trajectory. In addition to appearing as the edges and diagonals of polygons and polyhedra, some very frequently considered segments in a triangle include the three altitudes, the three medians, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides, and the internal angle bisectors
