1.
Thornton Wilder
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Thornton Niven Wilder was an American playwright and novelist. He won three Pulitzer Prizes—for the novel The Bridge of San Luis Rey and for the two plays Our Town and The Skin of Our Teeth — and a U. S. National Book Award for the novel The Eighth Day. Wilder was born in Madison, Wisconsin, the son of Amos Parker Wilder, an editor and U. S. diplomat. All of the Wilder children spent part of their childhood in China and his older brother, Amos Niven Wilder, was Hollis Professor of Divinity at the Harvard Divinity School, a noted poet, and instrumental in developing the field of theopoetics. His sister, Isabel, was an accomplished writer, both of his other sisters, Charlotte Wilder, a poet, and Janet Wilder Dakin, a zoologist, attended Mount Holyoke College. Wilder began writing plays while at The Thacher School in Ojai, California, according to a classmate, We left him alone, just left him alone. And he would retire at the library, his hideaway, learning to distance himself from humiliation and his family lived for a time in China, where his sister Janet was born in 1910. He attended the English China Inland Mission Chefoo School at Yantai but returned with his mother, Thornton also attended Creekside Middle School in Berkeley, and graduated from Berkeley High School in 1915. He earned his Master of Arts degree in French literature from Princeton University in 1926, after graduating, Wilder studied in archaeology and Italian in Rome, Italy, and then taught French at the Lawrenceville School in Lawrenceville, New Jersey beginning in 1921. His first novel, The Cabala, was published in 1926, in 1927, The Bridge of San Luis Rey brought him commercial success, and his first Pulitzer Prize. He resigned from the Lawrenceville School in 1928, from 1930 to 1937 he taught at the University of Chicago, during which time he published his translation of André Obeys own adaptation of the tale, Le Viol de Lucrece under the title Lucrece. In 1938 he won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for his play Our Town, world War II saw him rise to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the U. S. Army Air Force Intelligence, first in Africa, then in Italy until 1945. He received several awards for his military service and he went on to be a visiting professor at Harvard University, where he served for a year as the Charles Eliot Norton professor. In 1968 he won the National Book Award for his novel The Eighth Day, also, Alfred Hitchcock, whom he admired, asked him to write the screenplay to his thriller, Shadow of a Doubt. He completed the first draft of the screenplay for Hitchcock, the Bridge of San Luis Rey tells the story of several unrelated people who happen to be on a bridge in Peru when it collapses, killing them. Philosophically, the book explores the question of why unfortunate events occur to people who seem innocent or undeserving. It won the Pulitzer Prize in 1928, and in 1998 it was selected by the board of the American Modern Library as one of the 100 best novels of the twentieth century. The book was quoted by British Prime Minister Tony Blair during the service for victims of the September 11 attacks in 2001
2.
McCarter Theatre
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McCarter Theatre is a not-for-profit, professional company on the campus of Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey. It is one of the most active centers in the nation, offering over 200 performances of theater, dance, music. Over 200,000 people come to McCarter each season, the theater creates, develops and produces new work for the stage, produces classical theatrical repertoire, and hosts performing artists. One of its stars was Joshua Logan, a junior, during the 1930s, McCarter gained popularity as a pre-Broadway showcase, due to its large seating capacity, its 40-foot proscenium stage, and its short distance from New York. Although not built as a hall, McCarter played host for almost a half-century to the Princeton University Concerts before they moved to Richardson Auditorium. The first dancer was Ruth St. Denis, who appeared in an evening on March 7,1930 and returned that same fall with Ted Shawn. In the post World War II years, Broadway producers cut costs by having extended preview periods in New York City rather than out-of-town try outs, thus, the number of touring Broadway shows declined. In the late 1950s, Princeton University appointed a Faculty Advisory Committee to determine the best use of the building, noted director Milton Lyon was hired in 1960 as consultant to the Faculty Advisory Committee and in time was appointed the first Executive Producer of the McCarter Theatre Company. Lyons vision was to create a theater which should reflect the outlook of the University, and thus become an asset to the University. Lyon proposed to the University that McCarter become a rather than a booking theater. His plans included the formation of a company to perform plays and he instantly formed such a company by hiring APA for the inaugural theater season, 1960-61. Under the artistic direction of Ellis Rabb, actors in the APA company included Rosemary Harris, Donald Moffat, Frances Sternhagen, in 1973, Princeton University transferred its direct operation of McCarter to the McCarter Theatre Company, which was separately incorporated at that time. McCarter commissioned the production and premiered the performance of Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike by Christopher Durang, in 1990s McCarter unwent major renovations and expansions including construction of a smaller second theater adjacent to the main auditorium, allowing two productions to be mounted simultaneously. At the core of McCarter’s programming is the Theater Series, which is built around the commitment to new work and to exploring and re-imagining classic works from the American and world canon. Many, including Having Our Say, Anna in the Tropics, Crowns, Valley Song, the theater series also hosts touring shows that fit into the commitment of the theater, such as Mary Zimmermans The Odyssey. Two of its 2006-2007 productions, Translations and Radio Golf moved to Broadway where they were nominated for Tony Awards
3.
Princeton, New Jersey
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As of the 2010 United States Census, the municipalitys population was 28,572, reflecting the former townships population of 16,265, along with the 12,307 in the former borough. Princeton was founded before the American Revolution and is best known as the location of Princeton University, Princeton is roughly equidistant from New York City and Philadelphia. It is close to major highways that serve both cities, and receives major television and radio broadcasts from each. It is also close to Trenton, New Jerseys capital city, the governor of New Jerseys official residence has been in Princeton since 1945, when Morven in the borough became the first Governors mansion. It was later replaced by the larger Drumthwacket, a mansion located in the former Township. Morven became a property of the New Jersey Historical Society. Princeton was ranked 15th of the top 100 towns in the United States to Live, although residents of Princeton traditionally have a strong community-wide identity, the community had been composed of two separate municipalities, a township and a borough. The central borough was completely surrounded by the township, the Borough contained Nassau Street, the main commercial street, most of the University campus, and incorporated most of the urban area until the postwar suburbanization. The Borough and Township had roughly equal populations, the Lenni Lenape Native Americans were the earliest identifiable inhabitants of the Princeton area. Europeans founded their settlement in the part of the 17th century. The first European to find his home in the boundaries of the town was Henry Greenland. He built his house in 1683 along with a tavern, in this drinking hole representatives of West Jersey and East Jersey met to set boundaries for the location of the township. Originally, Princeton was known only as part of nearby Stony Brook, James Leonard first referred to the town as Princetown, when describing the location of his large estate in his diary. The town bore a variety of names subsequently, including, Princetown, Princes Town, although there is no official documentary backing, the town is considered to be named after King William III, Prince William of Orange of the House of Nassau. Another theory suggests that the name came from a large land-owner named Henry Prince, a royal prince seems a more likely eponym for the settlement, as three nearby towns had similar names, Kingston, Queenstown and Princessville. When Richard Stockton, one of the founders of the township, died in 1709 he left his estate to his sons, who helped to expand property, based on the 1880 United States Census, the population of the town comprised 3,209 persons. Local population has expanded from the nineteenth century, according to the 2010 Census, Princeton Borough had 12,307 inhabitants, while Princeton Township had 16,265. Aside from housing the university of the name, the settlement suffered the revolutionary Battle of Princeton on its soil
4.
Three act structure
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The three-act structure is a model used in screenwriting that divides a fictional narrative into three parts, often called the Setup, the Confrontation and the Resolution. The first act is used for exposition, to establish the main characters, their relationships. The dramatic question should be framed in terms of the call to action. This is known as the incident, or catalyst. As an example, the incident in the 1972 film The Godfather is when Vito Corleone is attacked. Part of the protagonists seem unable to resolve their problems is because they do not yet have the skills to deal with the forces of antagonism that confront them. This is referred to as development or a character arc. This cannot be achieved alone and they are aided and abetted by mentors. The third act features the resolution of the story and its subplots. com What’s Right With The Three Act Structure by Yves Lavandier, author of Writing Drama
5.
Playwright
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A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes plays. The term is not a variant spelling of playwrite, but something quite distinct, hence the prefix and the suffix combine to indicate someone who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form - someone who crafts plays. The homophone with write is in this case entirely coincidental, the term playwright appears to have been coined by Ben Jonson in his Epigram 49, To Playwright, as an insult, to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson described himself as a poet, not a playwright, since plays during that time were written in meter and this view was held as late as the early 19th century. The term playwright later lost this negative connotation, the earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These early plays were written for annual Athenian competitions among playwrights held around the 5th century BC, such notables as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes established forms still relied on by their modern counterparts. For the ancient Greeks, playwriting involved poïesis, the act of making and this is the source of the English word poet. In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle wrote his Poetics, the first play-writing manual, in this famous text, Aristotle established the principle of action or praxis as the basis for all drama. He then included a hierarchy of elements for the beginning with plot, character, thought, diction, music. The ends of drama were plot, character, and thought, the means of drama were language and music, since the myths, upon which Greek tragedy were based, were widely known, plot had to do with the arrangement and selection of existing material. Character was equated with choice as rather than psychology, so that character was determined by action, in tragedy, the notion of ethical choice determined the character of the individual. Thought had more to do and the imitation of an action that is serious, thus, he developed his notion of hamartia, or tragic flaw, an error in judgment by the main character or protagonist. It provides the basis for the play, a term still held as the sine qua non of dramaturgy. The Poetics, while very brief and highly condensed, is studied today. Perhaps the most Aristotelian of contemporary playwrights is David Mamet, who embraces the idea of character as agent of the action, and emphasizes causality in the structure of his plays. His recently revived, Speed-the-Plow, is quintessentially Aristotelian, in that it observes the unities and builds its plot through a causal stream of discoveries and reversals. The Italian Renaissance brought about a stricter interpretation of Aristotle, as this long-lost work came to light in the late 15th century. The neoclassical ideal, which was to reach its apogee in France during the 17th century, dwelled upon the unities, of action, place, and time
6.
Stage management
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Stage management is the practice of organizing and coordinating a theatrical production. It encompasses a variety of activities, including organizing the production, Stage management is a sub-discipline of stagecraft. Stage managers may use a Stage Managers book to help organize the production, a stage manager is one who has overall responsibility for stage management and the smooth execution of a production. Between the Renaissance and the 16th century, actors and playwrights took upon themselves the handling of finances, general directorial duties, and stage management. Stage management first emerged as a role in the 17th century during Shakespeares and Molières time. This was the first time a person other than actors and playwright was hired to direct or manage the stage, many playwrights, directors and actors had as their first job in the theatre work as an assistant stage manager. One is very aware that everything depends on the delivery of the cue at exactly the right microsecond. One stands there, knees bent, breathing heavily. The responsibilities and duties of stage management vary depending on the setting of a production, most broadly, it is the stage managers responsibility to ensure that the directors artistic choices are realized in actual performance. As the lighting, sound, and set change cues are developed, the stage manager maintains a prompt book, sometimes called the book or the bible, which contains all cues, technical notes, blocking and other information pertinent to the show. Stage managers are responsible for helping establish a shows rehearsal schedule, the stage manager typically documents each rehearsal in a rehearsal report. Once the house opens for a performance, the stage manager controls all aspects of the performance by calling the cues for all transitions and acting as communications hub for the cast and crew. After a show opens, the manager is also responsible for calling brush-up, put in. The stage manager ensures that lighting and sound cues are acted upon at the time by issuing verbal standby. Each cue call begins with the word standby to indicate that an action is imminent and, in response, occasionally, after a long pause or break in the productions action, the stage manager will give a warning cue. This warns the technicians that the cue is approaching. At the appropriate time, the manager will prompt immediate execution of the action by saying go. In the United States, Stage Manager is a title that may be applied to anyone who performs stage management functions
7.
Pulitzer Prize for Drama
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The Pulitzer Prize for Drama is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It is one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes and it recognizes a theatrical work staged in the U. S. during the preceding calendar year. The drama jury, which consists of one academic and four critics, attends plays in New York, in 1955 Joseph Pulitzer, Jr. Edward Albees Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf. was selected for the 1963 Pulitzer Prize for Drama by that awards committee. However, the selection was overruled by the awards advisory board. Had Albee been awarded, he would be tied with Eugene ONeill for the most Pulitzer Prizes for Drama, in its first 98 years to 2013, the Drama Pulitzer was awarded 82 times, none were given in 15 years and it was never split. Many of the prizes were won by people for their collaboration. * Star marks winners of the annual Tony Award for Best Play or Best Musical,1917, no award 1918, Why Marry. – Jesse Lynch Williams 1919, no award Nine musicals have won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama and they are, George and Ira Gershwins Of Thee I Sing, Rodgers and Hammersteins South Pacific, Bock & Harnicks Fiorello. Of Thee I Sing, Sunday in the Park with George, however, Of Thee I Sing opened when the Tony Awards did not exist, and Next to Normal won the Tony Award for Best Original Score and the Tony Award for Best Orchestrations. The award goes to the playwright, although production of the play is taken into account. In the case of a musical being awarded the prize, the composer, lyricist, the reason given was that the Pulitzer Prize for Drama is a dramatic award, and not a musical one. Additionally, since 1983, when the identity of finalists was first disclosed and they are, Lee Breuer and Bob Telsons The Gospel at Colonus, Lin-Manuel Miranda and Quiara Alegría Hudes In the Heights, and Jeanine Tesori and Lisa Krons Fun Home. The latter two shows, however, each won the Tony Award for Best Musical, ¹All listed dates are Prize years. Generally, the musical in question opened in New York during either the preceding year or the preceding Broadway season. Eugene ONeill won the Pulitzer for Drama four times, three in the 1920s, several people have won two or three. Media related to Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Frank Craven
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Frank Craven was an American stage and film actor, playwright, and screenwriter, best known for originating the role of the Stage Manager in Thornton Wilders Our Town. Craven was an actor who often portrayed wry, small-town figures. His first film role was in We Americans, and he appeared in State Fair, Penrod and Sam, Jack London and he wrote numerous screenplays, most notably for the Laurel and Hardy film Sons of the Desert. His IMDB biography credits him with 16 writing credits and 2 directing credits, in 1938, Craven played the Stage Manager in Our Town on Broadway, and reprised the role in the 1940 film version of the play. His son John Craven starred as George Gibbs in the stage version, Craven died in 1945, shortly after finishing his work in Colonel Effinghams Raid
9.
Ice cream float
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An ice cream float or soda, coke float, root beer float or spider, is a beverage that consists of ice cream in either a soft drink or in a mixture of flavored syrup and carbonated water. The ice cream float was invented by Robert McCay Green in Philadelphia, PA, after some experimenting, he decided to combine ice cream and soda water. During the celebration, he sold ice cream with soda water. The new treat was a sensation and soon other soda fountains began selling ice cream floats, Greens will instructed that Originator of the Ice Cream Soda was to be engraved on his tombstone. There are at least three other claimants for the invention of ice cream float, Fred Sanders, Philip Mohr, Guy is said to have absent-mindedly mixed ice cream and soda in 1872, much to his customers delight. Regardless of its origins, the quickly became very popular, to such a degree that it was almost socially obligatory among teens. According to some accounts, it was banned, either entirely or on days, by some local governments, giving rise to a substitute treat. Many soda fountains had to figure out a way to turn a profit on Sundays when selling their product was considered illegal, the solution was to serve ice cream on these days, as it is merely a food product and not a controlled substance. Soda fountains then coined the term Sundaes for the ice cream concoctions that they served on sodas day of rest, in Australia and New Zealand, an ice cream float is known as a spider because once the fizzy hits the ice cream it forms a spider web like reaction. In Mexico, it is known as Helado flotante or flotante, in El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica and Colombia its called Vaca Negra, while in Puerto Rico is referred to as a black out. In the United States, an ice cream soda typically refers to the drink containing soda water, syrup, variations of ice cream floats are as countless as the varieties of drinks and the flavors of ice cream, but some have become more prominent than others. Some of the most popular are described below, This ice cream soda starts with approximately 1 oz of chocolate syrup, unflavored carbonated water is added until the glass is filled and the resulting foam rises above the top of the glass. The final touch is a topping of whipped cream and usually and this variation of ice cream soda was available at local soda fountains and nationally, at Dairy Queen stores for many years. A similar soda made with chocolate syrup but vanilla ice cream is called a black. Also known as a cow or brown cow, the root beer float is traditionally made with vanilla ice cream and root beer. In the United States and Canada, the chain A&W Restaurants are well known for their root beer floats, the definition of a black cow varies by region. For instance in some localities, a root beer float has strictly vanilla ice cream, in some places a black cow or a brown cow was made with cola instead of root beer. In some areas, for example, Northeastern Wisconsin, black cow is said to mean a root beer float where the ice cream, in 2008, the Dr Pepper Snapple Group introduced its Float beverage line
10.
Minister (Christianity)
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The term is taken from Latin minister, which itself was derived from minus. In Catholic churches, the concept of a priesthood is emphasised, many ministers are styled as The Reverend, however some use Pastor as a title, and others do not use any specific form of address. The Church of England defines the ministry of priests as follows, Priests are called to be servants, with their Bishop and fellow ministers, they are to proclaim the word of the Lord and to watch for the signs of Gods new creation. Formed by the word, they are to call their hearers to repentance and to declare in Christs name the absolution, with all Gods people, they are to tell the story of Gods love. They are to baptize new disciples in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit and they are to unfold the Scriptures, to preach the word in season and out of season, and to declare the mighty acts of God. They are to preside at the Lords table and lead his people in worship, offering them a spiritual sacrifice of praise. They are to bless the people in Gods name and they are to resist evil, support the weak, defend the poor, and intercede for all in need. They are to minister to the sick and prepare the dying for their death, guided by the Spirit, they are to discern and foster the gifts of all Gods people, that the whole Church may be built up in unity and faith. All denominations require that the minister has a sense of calling. One of the clearest references is found in 1 Timothy 3, 1-16, moreover he must have a good report of them which are without, lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to wine, not greedy of filthy lucre. And let these also first be proved, then let them use the office of a deacon, even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children, the churches have three orders of ordained clergy, Bishops are the primary clergy, administering all sacraments and governing the church. Priests administer the sacraments and lead local congregations, they cannot ordain other clergy, however, in some denominations, deacons play a non-sacramental and assisting role in the liturgy. Until the Reformation, the clergy were the first estate but were relegated to the estate in Protestant Northern Europe. After compulsory celibacy was abolished during the Reformation, the formation of an hereditary priestly class became possible, whereby wealth. Higher positioned clergy formed this clerical educated upper class, High Church Anglicanism and High Church Lutheranism tend to emphasise the role of the clergy in dispensing the Christian Sacrament. Bishops, priests and deacons have traditionally officiated over of acts worship, reverence, rituals, among these central traditions have been baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, marriage, the Mass or the Divine Service, and coronations
11.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
12.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
13.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
14.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
15.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
16.
Scout (Scouting)
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A scout is a boy or a girl, usually 10–18 years of age, participating in the worldwide Scouting movement. Because of the age and development span, many Scouting associations have split this age group into a junior. Scouts are organized into troops averaging 20–30 Scouts under the guidance of one or more Scout Leaders, troops subdivide into patrols of about six Scouts and engage in outdoor and special interest activities. Troops may affiliate with local, national, and international organizations, some national Scouting associations have special interest programs such as Air Scouts, Sea Scouts, outdoor high adventure, Scouting bands, and rider Scouts. Some troops, especially in Europe, have been co-educational since the 1970s, allowing boys, robert Baden-Powell founded the Boy Scouts as an organization in 1908, a few months after the first scout encampment at Brownsea Island Scout camp in 1907. Baden-Powell got the idea from his experiences with the British Army in South Africa, many boys joined Scouting activities, resulting in the movement growing rapidly to become the worlds largest youth organization. The Scout program is designed to develop a degree of self-reliance, initiative, courage, helpfulness, integrity, sportsmanship. Scouts should be helpful, understand their society, heritage, and culture, have respect for the rights of others, originally, the Scout program was aimed at 11- to 16-year-old boys. However, the brothers of Scouts started to attend Troop meetings. While most Scouts may join a troop after finishing Cub Scouts, as Scouts get older, they often seek more challenging and diverse activities. He may later join another affiliated program for children, such as Exploring, Venturing. A Scout learns the cornerstones of the Scout method, Scout Promise and these are designed to instill character, citizenship, personal fitness, and leadership in boys through a structured program of outdoor activities. Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities are key elements, primary activities include camping, woodcraft, first aid, aquatics, hiking, backpacking, and sports. Scouts are known throughout the world for performing acts of public good, for example, a scout foiled a 2008 assassination attempt on Maldives President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom by grabbing an attackers knife as the man leapt from a crowd and lunged at the leader. The Scout, Ibrahim Jaisham, a member of the co-educational The Scout Association of Maldives. Camping most often occurs on a level, such as in the troop. Camporees are events where units from a local area together for a weekend. These often occur a couple times a year and usually have a theme, jamborees are large events on a national or international level held every four years where thousands of Scouts camp together for one to two weeks
17.
Temperance movement
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The Temperance movement is a social movement against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The temperance movement began in the early 19th century, before this, although there were pieces published against drunkenness and excess, total abstinence from alcohol was very rarely advocated or practiced. There was also a concentration on hard spirits rather than on abstinence from alcohol, an early temperance movement began during the American Revolution in Connecticut, Virginia and New York state, with farmers forming associations to ban whiskey distilling. The movement spread to eight states, advocating temperance rather than abstinence, the American Temperance Society was formed in 1826, within 12 years claiming more than 8,000 local groups and over 1,250,000 members. He mainly concentrated his fire on the elimination of spirits rather than wine, on 14 August 1829 he wrote a letter in the Belfast Telegraph publicizing his views on temperance. He also formed the Ulster Temperance Movement with other Presbyterian clergy, the 1830s saw a tremendous growth in temperance groups, not just in England and the United States, but also in British colonies, especially New Zealand and Australia. In the 1830s a more form of temperance emerged called teetotalism. This movement originated in Preston, England, in 1833, the Catholic temperance movement started in 1838 when the Irish priest Theobald Mathew established the Teetotal Abstinence Society in 1838. In 1838, the working class movement for universal suffrage for men, Chartism. During the Victorian period, the movement became more radical, advocating the legal prohibition of all alcohol. It was also perceived to be tied in both religious renewal and progressive politics, particularly female suffrage. In 1855, an organisation was formed amidst an explosion of Band of Hope work. Meetings were held in churches throughout the UK and included Christian teaching, the group also campaigned politically for the curtailment of the influence of pubs and brewers. In this period there was success at restricting or banning the sale of alcohol in many parts of the United States, New Zealand. The Temperance movement was a significant mass movement at this time, numerous periodicals devoted to temperance were also published and temperance theatre, which had started in the 1820s, became an important part of the American cultural landscape at this time. The Salvation Army quickly spread internationally, maintaining an emphasis on abstinence, many of the most important prohibitionist groups, such as the avowedly prohibitionist United Kingdom Alliance and the US-based Womans Christian Temperance Union, were started in this time. In 1898 the Pioneer Total Abstinence Association was formed by James Cullen, an Irish Catholic, the Anti-Saloon League was an organization that began in 1893 in Ohio. A favorite goal of the British Temperance movement was to reduce the heavy drinking by closing as many pubs as possible
18.
Social justice
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Social justice is the fair and just relation between the individual and society. This is measured by the explicit and tacit terms for the distribution of wealth, opportunities for personal activity, in the current global grassroots movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets and economic justice. Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, while the concept of social justice can be traced through the theology of Augustine of Hippo and the philosophy of Thomas Paine, the term social justice became used explicitly from the 1840s. A Jesuit priest named Luigi Taparelli is typically credited with coining the term, in the late industrial revolution, progressive American legal scholars began to use the term more, particularly Louis Brandeis and Roscoe Pound. In the later 20th century, social justice was made central to the philosophy of the social contract, in 1993, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action treats social justice as a purpose of the human rights education. The different concepts of justice, as discussed in ancient Western philosophy, were centered upon the community. Plato wrote in The Republic that it would be a state that every member of the community must be assigned to the class for which he finds himself best fitted. In an article for J. N. V University, author D. R, bhandari says, Justice is, for Plato, at once a part of human virtue and the bond, which joins man together in society. It is the quality that makes good and social. Justice is an order and duty of the parts of the soul, Plato says that justice is not mere strength, but it is a harmonious strength. Justice is not the right of the stronger but the harmony of the whole. All moral conceptions revolve about the good of the whole-individual as well as social, reflecting this time when slavery and subjugation of women was typical, ancient views of justice tended to reflect the rigid class systems that still prevailed. On the other hand, for the groups, strong concepts of fairness. Distributive justice was said by Aristotle to require that people were distributed goods, socrates is attributed with developing the idea of a social contract, whereby people ought to follow the rules of a society, and accept its burdens because they have accepted its benefits. After the Renaissance and Reformation, the concept of social justice, as developing human potential. The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, all that extent of capacity which never fails to appear in revolutions. This is the highest abstract standard of social and distributive justice, towards which all institutions, and the efforts of all virtuous citizens, should be made in the utmost degree to converge. In the later 19th and early 20th century, social justice became an important theme in American political and legal philosophy, particularly in the work of John Dewey, Roscoe Pound, from this point, the discussion of social justice entered into mainstream legal and academic discourse
19.
Gossip
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Gossip is idle talk or rumor, especially about the personal or private affairs of others, the act of is also known as dishing or tattling. Gossip has been researched in terms of its evolutionary psychology origins and this has found gossip to be an important means by which people can monitor cooperative reputations and so maintain widespread indirect reciprocity. Indirect reciprocity is an interaction in which one actor helps another and is then benefited by a third party. Gossip has also identified by Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary biologist. Social media has also provided a faster way to share gossip. In only a matter of minutes, harmful gossip and rumors can spread online from one place in the world to another, the term is sometimes used to specifically refer to the spreading of dirt and misinformation, as through excited discussion of scandals. Some newspapers carry gossip columns which detail the social and personal lives of celebrities or of élite members of certain communities. The word is from Old English godsibb, from god and sibb, in the 16th century, the word assumed the meaning of a person, mostly a woman, one who delights in idle talk, a newsmonger, a tattler. In the early 19th century, the term was extended from the talker to the conversation of such persons, the verb to gossip, meaning to be a gossip, first appears in Shakespeare. The term originates from the bedroom at the time of childbirth, giving birth used to be a social, ladies only, event, in which a pregnant womans female relatives and neighbours would gather. As with any social gathering there was chattering and this is where the term came to mean talk of others. Peter Vajda identifies gossip as a form of violence, noting that it is essentially a form of attack. Gossip is thought by many to one person while disempowering another. Accordingly, many companies have policies in their employee handbooks against gossip. TLK Healthcare cites as examples of gossip, tattletailing to the boss without intention of furthering a solution or speaking to co-workers about something else has done to upset us. Low self-esteem and a desire to fit in are frequently cited as motivations for workplace gossip, breaks existing bonds by ostracizing individuals within an organization. Enhances ones social status/power/prestige within the organization, inform individuals as to what is considered socially acceptable behavior within the organization. This causes the gossipers coercive power to increase, reward, when a gossiper tells positive information about a person, their recipient might believe that the gossiper will also spread positive information about them
20.
Baseball
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Baseball is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of nine players each, who take turns batting and fielding. A run is scored when a player advances around the bases, Players on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team, which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates turns batting. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the team records three outs. One turn batting for both teams, beginning with the team, constitutes an inning. A game is composed of nine innings, and the team with the number of runs at the end of the game wins. Baseball has no clock, although almost all games end in the ninth inning. Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century and this game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the sport of the United States. Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, in the United States and Canada, professional Major League Baseball teams are divided into the National League and American League, each with three divisions, East, West, and Central. The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series, the top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League. The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision, a French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball. Other old French games such as thèque, la balle au bâton, consensus once held that todays baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It, A Search for the Roots of the Game, by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England, recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of other. It has long believed that cricket also descended from such games. The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, David Block discovered that the first recorded game of Bass-Ball took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player. William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford and this early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants
21.
Funeral director
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A funeral director, also known as an undertaker or mortician, is a professional involved in the business of funeral rites. These tasks often entail the embalming and burial or cremation of the dead, as well as the planning, funeral directors may at times be asked to perform tasks such as dressing, casketing, and cossetting. A funeral director may work at a home or be an independent employee. The term mortician is derived from the Latin word mort- + -ician, the term Mortician was the winning entry. As the societal need to account for the dead and their survivors is as ancient as civilization itself, ancient Egypt is a probable pioneer in supporting full-time morticians, intentional mummification began c.2600 BC, with the best-preserved mummies dating to c.1570 to 1075 BC. Specialized priests spent 70 full days on a single corpse, only royalty, nobility and wealthy commoners could afford the service, considered an essential part of accessing eternal life. Other paid actors would don the masks of ancestors and recreate their personalities and these purely ceremonial undertakers of the day nonetheless had great religious and societal impact, a larger number of actors indicated greater power and wealth for the deceased and their family. Modern ideas about proper preservation of the dead for the benefit of the living arose in the European Age of Enlightenment, dutch scientist Frederik Ruyschs work attracted the attention of royalty and legitimized postmortem anatomy. Most importantly, Ruysch developed injected substances and waxes that could penetrate the smallest vessels of the body, in the U. S. most modern day funeral homes are run as family businesses. The majority of work in small, independent family run funeral homes. The owner usually hires two or three other morticians to help them, often, this hired help is in the family, perpetuating the familys ownership. Most funeral homes have one or more viewing rooms, a room for embalming, a chapel. They usually have a hearse for transportation of bodies, a flower car and they also normally sell coffins and urns. In the United States, the states each have their own licensing regulations for funeral directors. Most require a combination of education, passage of a National Board Examination, passage of a state board examination. Mortuary science graduates may have to relocate to find jobs, in India, the Pariah caste function as traditional creamators. They also participate and specialize in funeral rites
22.
MacDowell Colony
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The MacDowell Colony is an artists colony in Peterborough, New Hampshire, United States, founded in 1907 by Marian MacDowell, pianist and wife of composer Edward MacDowell. She established the institution and its endowment chiefly with donated funds and she led the colony for almost 25 years, against a background of two world wars, the Great Depression, and other challenges. The mission of The MacDowell Colony is to nurture the arts by offering creative individuals of the highest talent an inspiring environment in which they can produce enduring works of the imagination. The colony has accepted visual and interdisciplinary artists, architects, filmmakers, composers, playwrights, poets, in 1962, the colony was designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1997, the colony was awarded the National Medal of Arts, aaron Copland worked there on composing the orchestral suite Appalachian Spring, a 1945 Pulitzer winner. Spalding Gray worked on his novel The Impossible Vacation and later chronicled his experiences at MacDowell Colony in his extended monologue Monster in a Box, thornton Wilder wrote Our Town and The Bridge of San Luis Rey. Willa Cather wrote Death Comes for the Archbishop, dubose and Dorothy Heyward wrote Porgy and Bess. Virgil Thomson worked on Mother of Us All Alice Walker worked on her first novel and Meridian at MacDowell Michael Chabon wrote The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, Alice Sebold wrote The Lovely Bones. The composer Edward MacDowell was one of the first seven members of the American Academy of Arts and he believed that interdisciplinary associations among artists were valuable. In 1896, Marian MacDowell bought Hillcrest Farm in Peterborough, New Hampshire, as a residence for herself. She had always been careful to give him a room for his work. Edward MacDowell found that the New Hampshire landscape enhanced his work of composing music, the couple formulated a plan to provide an interdisciplinary experience in a nurturing landscape, by creating an institutionalized residential art colony in the area. In 1904, Edward MacDowell began to show signs of an illness that ended his composing and teaching career, in 1907, Marian MacDowell deeded their farm to the Edward MacDowell Association and founded the MacDowell Colony. The first guests arrived that year, sisters Helen Farnsworth Mears, a sculptor, and Mary Mears, MacDowell began by inviting applicants personally, but by the 1920s had consigned the admission process to a committee. MacDowell said the most consistent support came from womens clubs and professional music sororities, at the age of 50, MacDowell began lecturing to womens groups to raise funds, resumed her performing career, and became a noted interpreter of her husbands work. By 1918,31 of Isabelle Sprague Smiths students funded the creation of the Isabelle D. Sprague Smith studio, through the years more separate studios were built. The program continues in 32 studios scattered over 450 acres of land, every year, the colony presents the Edward MacDowell Medal to an artist who has made a significant cultural contribution. Residency at the colony is not a requirement, Medal Day is one of the rare occasions when the colony is open to the public
23.
Peterborough, New Hampshire
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Peterborough is a town in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 6,284 at the 2010 census, the community is 38 miles southwest of Manchester and 72 miles northwest of Boston. Granted by Massachusetts in 1737, it was first permanently settled in 1749, the town suffered several attacks during the French and Indian War. Nevertheless, by 1759, there were fifty families settled, incorporated on January 17,1760 by Governor Benning Wentworth, it was named after Lieutenant Peter Prescott of Concord, Massachusetts, a prominent land speculator. The Contoocook River and Nubanusit Brook offered numerous sites for watermills, in 1810, the first cotton factory was established. By 1859, when the population was 2,222, there were four additional cotton factories, Abiel Abbot, after being charged with heresy by the Connecticut religious establishment, came to Peterborough as minister to the Peterborough Unitarian Church in 1827. Reverend Abbot founded the towns first prep school, the Monadnock Summer Lyceum, other early cultural institutions include Mariarden, a summer theatre where Paul Robeson played in Eugene ONeills The Emperor Jones at a time when roles for black Americans were scarce. Bette Davis performed there as a teen, performance blossomed again in 1976, when Widdie and Jonathon Hall founded the Peterborough Folkway. Within a few years, it became a must play on the East Coast for folk musicians, regular performers included Tom Paxton, Mary Chapin Carpenter, Shawn Colvin, Martin Saxton and Suzanne Vega. In the 1980s, thanks to publisher Wayne Green, Peterborough was clearly the per capita magazine production capital of the world, over 100 magazines, mostly about computers and technology, were published there, these included Byte and MacComputing. Peterboroughs leadership in environmental protection began in the 1990s, when its Earth Day USA office supported the US Air Forces annual Earth Day events around the world, Peterborough is home to the first tax-supported free public library in the United States. The Peterborough Town Library was founded at a meeting on April 9,1833. This idea was revolutionary in a time when subscription libraries were popular, the collection of materials would essentially be owned by the people and free to access. Funds for the formation of the library were available through the State Literacy Fund. The Reverend Abiel Abbot already had experience in creating libraries, due to the success of Abbots libraries, specifically the Town Library, the New Hampshire State Legislature passed a law authorizing towns to raise money to establish and maintain their own libraries. This law was enacted in 1849, making New Hampshire the first state to pass a law of this nature, the library started in the towns general store, which also served as the post office. The postmaster also served as the librarian, until Susan Gates was appointed in 1854. By 1873, it was decided that the materials would be moved to the Town Hall
24.
Samuel Steward
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Throughout his life he kept extensive secret diaries, journals and statistics of his sex life. He lived most of his life in Chicago, where he tattooed sailor-trainees from the US Navy’s Great Lakes Naval Training Station out of a tattoo parlor on South State Street. He later moved to the San Francisco Bay area, where he spent the late 1960s as the tattoo artist of the Hells Angels motorcycle gang. Steward was born in Woodsfield, Ohio and began attending Ohio State University in Columbus in 1927 and he taught English at OSU in 1932 during the final year of his PhD. His first year-long post was as an instructor of English in 1934 at Carroll College in Helena, Montana and he subsequently moved to Chicago, where he taught at Loyola University until 1946. After leaving Loyola to help re-write the World Book Encyclopedia, he taught at DePaul University. From the mid-1930s until 1949 he was deeply alcoholic, but he managed to overcome his addiction to alcohol with the help of Alcoholics Anonymous. Steward gained an introduction to Gertrude Stein in 1932 through his academic advisor Clarence Andrews and he paid visits to her rented country home in France during the summers of 1937 and 1939. During the 1937 trip, he met with many other literary figures, including Thornton Wilder, Lord Alfred Douglas, Thomas Mann. He detailed these encounters, some of them sexual, in his brief memoir and he also described his friendship with Stein and Toklas in his Dear Sammy, Letters from Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Steward met famed sex researcher Alfred Kinsey in late 1949 and subsequently became a collaborator with Kinsey’s Institute for Sex Research. He also allowed Kinsey to take detailed photographs of that sexually-themed apartment and he ultimately donated large numbers of drawings, paintings and decorative objects that he himself had created to the Institute. In spring of 1950, at Kinsey’s invitation, he was filmed engaging in BDSM sex with Mike Miksche, a New York-based erotic artist also known as Steve Masters. At Kinsey’s specific request he also kept detailed journals and diaries of his daily sexual activities, and chronicled them in a secret card catalogue he referred to as his “Stud File. ”Renslow would later go on to open The Gold Coast, Chicago’s first leather bar, and to found International Mr. Leather. In the 1960s Steward began writing and publishing his erotica under the name of Phil Andros, some of his early works described his fascination with rough trade and sadomasochistic sex, others focused on the power dynamics of interracial sexual encounters between men. In 1966, thanks to changes in American publishing laws, he was able to publish his story collection $TUD with Guild Press in the United States, by the late 1960s, Steward started writing a series of pulp pornographic novels featuring the hustler Phil Andros as narrator. As a leading tattoo artist of the 1950s and 60s, Steward was mentored by Milwaukee-based master tattooist Amund Dietzel. Steward in turn mentored Cliff Ingram, aka Cliff Raven, and Don “Ed” Hardy, later simply as Ed Hardy
25.
New Hampshire
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New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
26.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
27.
Rockport, Massachusetts
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Rockport is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 6,952 at the 2010 census, Rockport is located approximately 40 miles northeast of Boston at the tip of the Cape Ann peninsula. It is directly east of Gloucester and is surrounded on three sides by the Atlantic Ocean, part of the town comprises the census-designated place of Rockport. Before the coming of the English explorers and colonists, Cape Ann was home to a number of Native American villages, samuel de Champlain named the peninsula Cap Aux Isles in 1605, and his expedition may have landed there briefly. By the time the first Europeans founded a permanent settlement at Gloucester in 1623, the area that is now Rockport was simply an uninhabited part of Gloucester for more than 100 years, and was primarily used as a source of timber—especially pine-for shipbuilding. The area around Cape Ann was also one of the best fishing grounds in New England, in 1743, a dock was built at Rockport harbor on Sandy Bay and was used for both timber and fishing. Rockport had consisted primarily of large estates, summer homes, Rockport was set off as a separate town in 1840 as its residents desired a separate enclave with an identity of its own, and was incorporated in 1840. As the demand for its high-grade granite grew during the Industrial Revolution, a distinctive form of sloop was even developed to transport the granite to parts far and wide until the second decade of the 20th century. Rockport is the home of the Rockport Art Association, in 1856, a gang of 200 women led by Hannah Jumper swept through the town and destroyed anything containing alcohol in what is called Rockports revolt against rum and banned alcohol from the town. Except for a period in the 1930s, the town remained one of 15 Massachusetts dry towns, the town remained dry for many years until 2005, when it was voted that alcohol could be served at restaurants, but liquor stores are still illegal. In 1933, the Rockport American Legion Post, No.98 built a 27-foot scale model of Motif No.1 for the Legion Parade, which was held in Chicago, Illinois, site of the 1933 Worlds Fair. On October 3,1933, among 200 floats, it won first place in the float competition. Upon the floats return to Rockport, a crowd of over 4,000 people lined up, today Rockport is primarily a suburban residential and tourist town, but it is still home to a number of lobster fishermen and artists. Its rocky beaches and seaside parks are a place for tourists from the Greater Boston Area. Rockport is located at 42°39′20″N 70°37′15″W, elevation 23.46 m. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 17.5 square miles, of which 7.0 square miles is land and 10.5 square miles. Rockport lies at the far end of Cape Ann and is surrounded on three sides by water. There are three islands, Straitsmouth Island, Thacher Island, and Milk Island, which lie off the coast of Rockport and are part of the town
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Fourth wall
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The fourth wall is a performance convention in which an invisible, imagined wall separates actors from the audience. While the audience can see through this wall, the convention assumes, the metaphor suggests a relationship to the mise-en-scène behind a proscenium arch. When a scene is set indoors and three of the walls of its room are presented onstage, in what is known as a box set, the fourth wall, though, is a convention of acting, rather than of set design. Breaking the fourth wall is any instance in which this performance convention and this can be done through either directly referencing the audience or the work they are in, or referencing their fictionality. The temporary suspension of the convention in this way draws attention to its use in the rest of the performance and this act of drawing attention to a plays performance conventions is metatheatrical. The phrase breaking the wall is used to describe such effects in those media. Breaking the fourth wall is also possible in other media, such as video games, the concept is usually attributed to the philosopher, critic and dramatist Denis Diderot. The term itself was used by Molière, one play that uses the fourth wall extensively for comedic effect is The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Critic Vincent Canby described it in 1987 as that invisible scrim that forever separates the audience from the stage, oliver Hardy was probably the first to break the fourth wall, in his movies with Stan Laurel, by staring at the camera to seek comprehension from the viewers. Groucho Marx spoke directly to the audience in Animal Crackers,1930, woody Allen broke the fourth wall several times in his movie Annie Hall, as he explained, because I felt many of the people in the audience had the same feelings and the same problems. I wanted to talk to them directly and confront them, the John Hughes movie Ferris Buellers Day Off is another well-known fourth-wall-breaking movie. Bueller, played by Matthew Broderick, often turns to the camera, in the Mel Brooks film Blazing Saddles, the characters literally break the fourth wall. Breaking the fourth wall is an part of the ending of Alejandro Jodorowskys 1973 film The Holy Mountain. More recent examples include the 2016 film Deadpool, in which it is used as a device between the main character and the audience. On television, breaking the wall is rare, though it has been done throughout the history of the medium. George Burns did it numerous times on The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show he starred in with his real-life wife Gracie Allen from 1950 to 1958. Its Garry Shandlings Show and Mrs. Browns Boys both have their title character walking between sets mid-scene, and the latter occasionally shows characters retaking fluffed lines. Another television character who breaks the fourth wall is Francis Urquhart in the British TV drama series House of Cards, To Play the King
29.
Theatrical scenery
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Theatrical scenery is that which is used as a setting for a theatrical production. The history of theatrical scenery is as old as the theatre itself, what we tend to think of as traditional scenery, i. e. By the Shakespearean era, the painted backdrop or theatrical prop was in evidence. However, this means that todays set designers must be much more careful. Our more modern notion of scenery, which dates back to the 19th century, finds its origins in the spectacle of opera buffa. Its elaborate settings were appropriated by the straight, or dramatic, theatre, through their use in comic operettas, burlesques, pantomimes and the like. Everything came together in the 1980s and 1990s and, continuing to today, until there is no established style of scenic production, modern stagecraft has grown so complex as to require the highly specialized skills of hundreds of artists and craftspeople to mount a single production. The construction of scenery is frequently one of the most time-consuming tasks when preparing for a show. As a result, many theatres have a place for storing scenery so that it can be used for multiple shows, since future shows typically are not known far in advance, theatres will often construct stock scenery that can be easily adapted to fit a variety of shows. Common stock scenery types include, Curtains Flats Platforms Scenery wagons Production sets Scenic design Set construction Scenography
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Set construction
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The set designer produces a scale model, scale drawings, paint elevations, and research about props, textures, and so on. In theater, the director or production manager is the person responsible for evaluating the finished designs and considering budget. He or she engineers the scenery, has it redrafted for building, budgets time, crew and materials, technical directors often have assistant technical directors whose duties can range from drafting to actually building scenery. A scene shop, in production is often overseen by a shop foreman or master carpenter. This person assigns tasks, does direct supervision of carpenters, and deals with matters such as absences, breaks, tool repair. The staff of a shop is usually referred to as scenic carpenters, but within that there are many specialities such as plasterers, welders. Scenic painting is an aspect of scenic construction, although the scenic painter usually answers to the technical director. In major film production in England, a Supervising Art Director is responsible for a team of Art Directors, Construction supervisors interpret the drawings and allocate labor and resources, with the Production Designer giving approval of the finished set on the Directors behalf. Film construction is rigidly compartmentalized on major motion pictures, a prop making workshop is set up in a similar stage and may be paid for out of a Construction or Art Department budget depending on the nature and size of the props in question. The construction department is led by a construction coordinator, the coordinator reports to the art director and production designer and is in charge of budgeting and implementing designs. The construction coordinator has a general foreman to assist, next there are other foremen, lead carpenters called gang bosses, and then all of the carpenters and craftsmen. In the United States, set construction workers are members of the entertainment union, IATSE. Sound stage Stagecraft Staging Theatrical scenery Film sculptor
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Theatrical property
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A prop, formally known as property, is an object used on stage or on screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct from the actors, scenery, costumes, consumable food items appearing in the production are also considered props. The earliest known use of the properties in English to refer to stage accessories is in the 1425 CE Morality play. The Oxford English Dictionary finds the first usage of props in 1841, during the Renaissance in Europe, small acting troupes functioned as cooperatives, pooling resources and dividing any income. Many performers provided their own costumes, but special items—stage weapons, furniture or other hand-held devices—were considered company property, some experts however seem to think that the term comes from the idea that stage or screen objects belong to whoever uses them on stage. There is no difference between props in different media, such as theatre, film, or television, bland Wade, a properties director, says, A coffee cup onstage is a coffee cup on television, is a coffee cup on the big screen. He adds, There are definitely different responsibilities and different vocabulary, the term theatrical property originated to describe an object used in a stage play and similar entertainments to further the action. Technically, a prop is any object that gives the scenery, actors, or performance space specific period, place, props in a production originate from off stage unless they have been preset on the stage before the production begins. Props are stored on a prop table backstage near the entrance during production then generally locked in a storage area between performances. The term has readily transferred to television, motion picture and video game production, in recent years, the increasing popularity of movie memorabilia has added new meaning to the term prop, broadening its existence to include a valuable after-life as a prized collectors item. Typically not available until after a premiere, movie props appearing on-screen are called screen-used. However, a prop must read well from the house or on-screen, in some cases, a prop is designed to behave differently from how the real object would, often for the sake of safety. A mop, representing a string mop, but built out of a shape covered with fabric. A prop weapon that reads well but lacks the intentional harmfulness of the real weapon. In the theater, prop weapons are almost always either non-operable replicas, guns fire caps or noisy blanks, swords are dulled, and knives are often made of plastic or rubber. In film production, fully functional weapons are used. Real cartridges with bullets removed are still dangerously charged which has caused several instances when used on stage or film. The safety and proper handling of weapons used as movie props is the premiere responsibility of the prop master
32.
Homework
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Homework, or a homework assignment, is a set of tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside the class. The effect of homework is debated, generally speaking, homework does not improve academic performance among children and may improve academic skills among older students. It also creates stress for students and their parents and reduces the amount of time students could spend outdoors, exercising, playing sports. Homework also provides an opportunity for parents to participate in their childrens education, Homework also may be designed to reinforce what students have already learned. Opponents of homework cite the practice as rote, or grind work, designed to take up childrens time, methods to assess the correlation between homework and academic performance vary. Homework research dates back to the early 1900s, however, no consensus exists on the general effectiveness on homework. Results of homework studies varied based on multiple factors, such as the age group of those studied, Cooper, Robinson & Patall studied the literature on homework from 1987 to 2003, yielding varied results from different studies. The studies compared the time spent on homework with grades and test scores as measures of academic achievement, the authors recommended that researchers commence further studies using different methodology, warning that the correlation may not be caused by age. For older students, very high amounts of homework caused students academic performance to worsen, to measure the time spent on homework, the studies analyzed in Cooper, Robinson & Patall used the reports of either the students or the parents. When students provided the report, the correlation was positive and significant, but when parents provided the report, after a comprehensive review, academics scholar Harris Cooper concluded that homework does not improve academic achievements for grade school students. Methodologies used to study the effectiveness of homework have been disputed, to measure student achievement, most studies used either grades, test scores, or both. In Cooper, Robinson & Patall, the correlation between time spent on homework and measures of academic achievement became slightly weaker using standardized test scores rather than grades. The analysis of attitudes differed between assumptions, and were positive, but ranged from insignificant and significant from a correlation of zero, for conduct, the analysis pointed towards Epstein and Vazsonyi & Pickering. Epstein studied parent reports of the conduct of elementary school students, for all three of the correlations, higher values represent a higher correlation between time spent on homework and poor conduct. Bempechat suggested that homework develops students motivation and study skills, xu & Yuan notes that parents and teachers generally deem homework as a builder of students study skills and personal responsibility skills. Students are more likely to have negative perceptions about homework, being likely to ascribe the development of such skills to homework. Leone & Richards found that generally had negative emotions when completing homework. Homework has been identified in studies and articles as a dominant or significant source of stress
33.
Martha Scott
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Martha Ellen Scott was an American actress. She was featured in films like Cecil B. DeMilles The Ten Commandments, and William Wylers Ben-Hur, Scott was born in Jamesport, Missouri, the daughter of Letha and Walter Alva Scott, an engineer and garage owner. Her mother was a second-cousin of U. S. President William McKinley, the Scott family remained in Jamesport until Martha was thirteen years old when they moved to Kansas City, Missouri and eventually to Detroit Michigan. Scott became interested in acting in school, an interest she furthered by attending the University of Michigan, earning a teaching certificate. Following that she moved to New York City, where she found work both in stock stage productions and in radio dramas. In 1938 she made her Broadway debut in the staging of Thornton Wilders play Our Town as Emily Webb. Two years later Scott reprised the role of Emily in her debut when Our Town was made into a movie. Her critically acclaimed performance earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, the newcomer Scott was up against some of Hollywoods biggest names for the award, Katharine Hepburn, Joan Fontaine, Bette Davis, and the winner Ginger Rogers. Charlton Heston was a frequent co-star with Scott on both stage and screen, as she told an interviewer in 1988, I played his mother twice, I was his mother in Ben Hur and The Ten Commandments. I was his wife on the stage in New York in Design For a Stained Glass Window, in 1968, Scott joined Henry Fonda and Robert Ryan in forming a theatrical production company called The Plumstead Playhouse. It later became the Plumstead Theatre Company and moved to Los Angeles, the company produced First Monday in October, both on stage and on film. Her last production was Twelve Angry Men, which was performed at the Henry Fonda Theatre in Hollywood, Martha Scott first began appearing in TV roles in the mediums early days. Her first came in 1950 on The Nash Airflyte Theater, followed by several guest appearances on Robert Montgomery Presents and this pattern of guest episodic roles continued through the 1960s with appearances on Route 66, Ironside, and The Courtship of Eddies Father among others. In the mid-1950s, Scott was the narrator for Modern Romances, Scott was a frequent TV guest star in the 1970s. Scott was cast in single episode guest appearances on hit shows of the era like The Sandy Duncan Show, Columbo, Playback, The Mod Squad, Marcus Welby, M. D. She played the role of Jennifer Talbot, Terri Brocks nasty grandmother on General Hospital for six months which ended when her character was murdered and stuffed in a drain pipe. In the 1980s she had a role on the short-lived series Secrets of Midland Heights, several television movies
34.
Wilbur Theatre
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The Wilbur Theatre is a historic theater at 244-250 Tremont Street in Boston, Massachusetts. The Wilbur Theatre was originally opened in 1914 but was revitalized in 2008, the Wilbur Theatre dwells in the heart of Bostons historic theater district and is known for hosting live comedy and music. Clarence Blackall built the theatre in 1913, the Wilbur was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 and designated as a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1987. In 1998 SFX Entertainment bought the Boston theater properties of Jon B, platt, which included the lease on the Wilbur. In 2007 the theatre was put on the market, bill Blumenreich, owner of the Comedy Connection, put the building on lease in 2008. It now serves as the new home of the Comedy Connection in Boston, National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts Yearbook of the Boston Architectural Club,1915. Includes illus. of Wilbur Theatre George McKinnon, a born-again Wilbur will celebrate success. Boston Globe,20 Jan 1980 Anthony J. Yudis, Theatre plaza to spotlight the district. Boston Globe,09 Oct 1983 Library of Congress, drawing of Ye Wilbur Theatre, Tremont St. and Hollis St. Boston, Massachusetts,1927. Wilbur Theatre, 250-252 Tremont Street New York Public Library, Photo of interior, Wilbur Theatre, Boston, Mass. 20th century Program for the Wilbur Theatre, Boston Bostonian Society, Photo of 244-272 Tremont Street, c.1935 Photo of 250-268 Tremont Street, c.1959 City of Boston, Landmarks Commission
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Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
37.
Stephen Sondheim Theatre
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Designed in the Neo-classical style by architects Paul R. Allen and Ingalls & Hoffman, it was built by and named for actor-producer Henry Miller. His financial backers were Elizabeth Milbank Anderson, owner of the lot at 124 West 43rd, the original theatre had 950 seats. It opened on April 1,1918 with the play The Fountain of Youth and it was the first air-conditioned theater in Manhattan. The theatre had its first hit show with Noël Cowards The Vortex in 1926, from the 1930s through the late 1960s, the theater enjoyed its golden years, with performances by Helen Hayes, Leslie Howard, Lillian Gish, Douglas Fairbanks, and Ruth Chatterton gracing its stage. In 1966, the Miller family sold the theatre to the Nederlanders and it showed feature films as the Park-Miller until it became a porn theater called Avon-at-the-Hudson. In 1978, it was converted into the discotheque Xenon, on August 31,1985, the space opened as SHOUT, a nightclub featuring music from the 1950s and 60s, which operated for six years. The space reopened in 1995 as Club Expo, in 1998, it returned to performance use as the Kit Kat Club, borrowing its name from the club featured in the popular revival of Cabaret it was then housing. It was rechristened the Henry Miller when Urinetown opened in 2001, the theater was closed in 2004, the interior demolished and subsequently rebuilt by the Durst Organization to make way for the 57-story Bank of America Tower. Its neo-Georgian facade, landmarked by the city, remains, and includes a 1, with bank facilities located above, architects were forced to design and build the new theater underground. This makes the one of only two subterranean houses on Broadway. In 2007, the Roundabout Theatre Company announced it would operate the theater as its third Broadway venue, the new theater opened in September 2009 with the Roundabout Theatre Company production of a revival of the musical Bye Bye Birdie. On March 22,2010, his birthday, it was announced that Henry Millers Theatre would be renamed to honor American composer. The official unveiling and lighting of the marquee of the new Stephen Sondheim Theatre took place in a ceremony on September 15,2010, the theater is currently home to the new musical Beautiful, The Carole King Musical
38.
Morosco Theatre
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The Morosco Theatre was a Broadway theatre near Times Square in New York City from 1917 to 1982. It housed many notable productions and its demolition, along with four adjacent theaters, was controversial, after an invitation-only preview performance on February 4,1917, it opened to the public on February 5. The inaugural production was Canary Cottage, a musical with a book by Morosco, the Shuberts lost the building in the Great Depression, and City Playhouses, Inc. bought it at auction in 1943
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Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
