1.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
2.
Uruguay
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Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
3.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
4.
Quechua languages
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
5.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
6.
Provinces of Argentina
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Argentina is subdivided into twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, which is the federal capital of the nation as decided by Congress. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, during the War of Independence the main cities and their surrounding countrysides became provinces though the intervention of their cabildos. The Anarchy of the Year XX completed this process, shaping the original thirteen provinces, Jujuy seceded from Salta in 1834, and the thirteen provinces became fourteen. After seceding for a decade, Buenos Aires Province accepted the 1853 Constitution of Argentina in 1861, a law from 1862 designated as national territories those under federal control but outside the frontiers of the provinces. In 1884 they served as bases for the establishment of the governorates of Misiones, Formosa, Chaco, La Pampa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. The agreement about a dispute with Chile in 1900 created the National Territory of Los Andes, its lands were incorporated into Jujuy, Salta. La Pampa and Chaco became provinces in 1951, Misiones did so in 1953, and Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the Tierra del Fuego, Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into departments and municipalities, except for Buenos Aires Province, Buenos Aires City itself is divided into communes. Provinces hold all the power that they not to delegate to the federal government, they must be representative republics. Beyond this they are autonomous, they enact their own constitutions, freely organize their local governments. Since 1983 four provinces were intervened, namely Catamarca, Corrientes, Santiago del Estero, article 61 of the Constitution of the city of Buenos Aires states that Suffrage is free, equal, secret, universal, compulsory and not accumulative. The foreign residents enjoy this right, with the obligations, on equal terms with Argentine citizens registered in this district. Argentina is divided into seven geographical regions, many provinces having their territories across more than one. Source, Demographics of Argentina ISO 3166-2, AR, the ISO codes for the provinces of Argentina. com Argentine Provinces since 1973 at World Statesmen
7.
Buenos Aires Province
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Buenos Aires is the largest and most populous Argentinian province. It takes the name from the city of Buenos Aires, which used to be the capital until it was federalized in 1880. The current capital of the province is the city of La Plata, the entire province is part of the Pampas geographical region. The province has a population of about 15.6 million people, nearly 10 million people live in Greater Buenos Aires, the metropolitan area surrounding the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. The area of the province,307,571 km2, makes it the largest in Argentina with around 11% of the total area. The inhabitants of the province before the 16th century advent of Spanish colonisation were aboriginal peoples such as the Charrúas and their culture was lost over the next 350 years. They were subjected to Eurasian plagues from which few survived, the survivors joined other tribes or have been mostly absorbed by Argentinas European ethnic majority. Pedro de Mendoza founded Santa María del Buen Ayre in 1536, even though the first contact with the aboriginals was peaceful, it soon became hostile. The city was evacuated in 1541, Juan de Garay re-founded the settlement in 1580 as Santísima Trinidad y Puerto Santa María de los Buenos Aires. Amidst ongoing conflict with the aboriginals, the cattle farms extended from Buenos Aires, jesuits unsuccessfully tried to peacefully assimilate the aboriginals into the European culture brought by the Spanish conquistadores. A certain balance was found at the end of the 18th century, the end to this situation came in 1879 with the Conquest of the Desert in which the aboriginals where almost completely exterminated. After the independence from Spain in 1816, the city and province of Buenos Aires became the focus of an intermittent Argentine Civil War with other provinces. A Federal Pact secured by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas in 1831 led to the establishment of the Argentine Confederation and to his gaining the sum of public power, which provided a tenuous unity. Ongoing disputes regarding the influence of Buenos Aires, between Federalists and Unitarians, and over the Port of Buenos Aires fueled periodic hostilities, the province was declared independent on September 11,1852, as the State of Buenos Aires. Concessions gained in the 1859 Pact of San José de Flores, intermittent conflicts with the nation did not truly cease until 1880, when the city of Buenos Aires was formally federalized and, thus, administratively separated from the province. La Plata was founded in 1882 by Governor Dardo Rocha for the purpose of becoming the provincial capital, the equivalent of a billion dollars of British investment and pro-development, education and immigration policies pursued at the national level subsequently spurred dramatic economic growth. Driven by European immigration and improved health, the population, like Argentinas, nearly doubled to one million by 1895. Rail lines connected nearly every town and hamlet in the province by 1914 and this era of accelerated development was cut short by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which caused a sharp drop in commodity prices and led to a halt in the flow of investment funds between nations
8.
La Pampa Province
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La Pampa is a sparsely populated province of Argentina, located in the Pampas in the center of the country. Neighboring provinces are from the north clockwise San Luis, Córdoba, Buenos Aires, Río Negro, Neuquén, in 1604 Hernandarias was the first European explorer to reach the area, it was later explored by Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera in 1662. But it was not until the 18th century that Spanish colonists established permanent settlements here, resistance of the local indigenous people prevented much expansion until the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas. It did not cease until Julio Rocas conquest of the desert in the 19th century, the territory was divided between the officers, and they erected the first Spanish settlements. The Territorio Nacional de La Pampa Central was erected in 1884, containing the Río Negro Province, by 1915 there were 110,000 residents, a reflection of movement to that area. In 1945 the territory was divided and La Pampa became a province, in 1952 its constitution was indited and the province was renamed after Eva Peron. In 1955 after the government changed and the Peróns went into exile, situated in the middle of the pampas, the low, flat steppe receives 500 mm of rain a year, diminishing towards the West. The low humidity and temperate weather result in high contrast in temperature between day and night, which is reflected in the vegetation of the region, heat waves are frequent, and temperatures reach over 30°C sometimes. These are often followed by severe storms and much colder periods, by early March nights are already noticeably cooler, and April usually brings the first frosty nights. Averages range from 10°C to 20°C during the day, and 0°C to 7°C at night, winters in La Pampa are usually dry and sunny, with cool days and quite cold nights, and some marked variations between warmer and colder periods. Daytime temperatures range from 10°C in the north and west, to about 5°C in the southernmost areas, nighttime lows range from about 0°C in the northeast corner to around -5°C or slightly below freezing in many southern and western areas. That being said, northerly winds occasionally bring days of up to 25°C, nights below -7°C are quite common everywhere, with temperatures below -10°C possible in most areas. Overall, precipitation ranges from about 700 mm in the east/northeast, to 500 mm in the centre, snow is quite common almost everywhere, although frost can be more common and happen anytime from March to October. Northwestern La Pampa is part of the pampa húmeda, adjacent to the Province of Buenos Aires, the influence of the Cuyo region can be seen in the west, with a low mountain range of 600 meters. There are only two rivers in the province, the Colorado on the border with the Province of Río Negro. The Salados level has been dropping, as its tributaries in the Province of Mendoza are diverted for irrigation, La Pampa, long Argentinas most economically agricultural province, produced an estimated US$3.144 billion in output in 2006, or, US$10,504 per capita. Now, the GDP per capita of the province is of US$14.000, agriculture contributes a fourth to La Pampas economy, the most important activity being cattle ranching, with 3,632,684 head, which takes place all over the province. Other livestock include 202,428 sheep,140,498 goats and 64,118 pigs, the Northeast, on the more fertile lands, has also an important activity with wheat, sunflower, maize, alfalfa, barley, and other cereals
9.
Santa Fe Province, Argentina
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The Province of Santa Fe is a province of Argentina, located in the center-east of the country. Neighboring provinces are from the north clockwise Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Buenos Aires, Córdoba, together with Córdoba and Entre Ríos, the province is part of the economico-political association known as the Center Region. Santa Fes most important cities are Rosario, the capital Santa Fe, Rafaela, Villa Gobernador Gálvez, Venado Tuerto, Reconquista, and Santo Tomé. The adult literacy rate in the province is 96. 3% The aboriginal tribes who inhabited this region were the Tobas, Timbúes, Mocovíes, Pilagás, Guaycurúes and they were nomadic, lived from hunting, fishing and fruit recollection. In 1573 Juan de Garay founded the city of Santa Fe in the surroundings of present town Cayastá, but the city was moved in 1651 and 1660 to its present location. In 1812 the lawyer and general Manuel Belgrano created and displayed for the first time the Argentine flag on the banks of the Paraná River and this period was short lived, since that same year Candioti died and central government reestablished the dependent government. However, in 1816, the caudillos Mariano Vera and Estanislao López deposed the governor delegate and proclaimed the sovereignty of the province, during the civil strifes of 1820, Santa Fe troops were decisive in the defeat of Buenos Aires centralist army. So, in time, López gradually became the Federations Patriarch, after Lópezs death it was his secretary and right hand, José María Cullen the one elected governor. These two parties had many strong electoral contests with the conservative parties. After the Electoral Reform of Roque Sáenz Peña in 1912, the UCR reached the government, during this time, more precisely in 1919, the National University of the Littoral was founded. In 1932 it was the PDP who got the governors seat, the contentious 1958 elections brought an ally of President-elect Arturo Frondizi to power in Santa Fe, Dr. Carlos Sylvestre Begnis. The tunnel, most of which runs under the massive Paraná River, is the longest in Argentina, forced to resign after conservative pressure drove Pres. Frondizi from office in 1962, Begnis had the satisfaction of seeing Hernandarias open in 1969, Santa Fe suffered the violence of the late 70s and the depression of the 1980s more than most other provinces. It continued to languish economically during the prosperous 1990s, as the revalued Argentine peso put pressure on its productive sectors, touching bottom around 2002, its economy has grown by 7% a year since then. Most of the consists of green flatlands, part of the humid Pampas. There are low sierras to the west, the south presents lower temperatures, averaging 14 °C, and slightly less precipitations. Thunderstorms are common, and so are heat waves what can bring temperatures up to 40 °C and these are often interrupted by cold fronts that bring crisp, cool weather from the south. March brings cooler nights in the south, and April brings comfortable weather, with highs ranging from 22 °C in the south to 26 °C in the north, winter is dryer in the west of the province and wetter in the east
10.
States of Brazil
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The Federative Republic of Brazil is a union of 27 Federative Units,26 states and one federal district, where the federal capital, Brasília, is located. The states are based on historical, conventional borders which have developed over time. The Federal District is not formally a state, but shares some characteristics of a state as well as some of a municipality, the codes given below are defined in ISO 3166-2, BR. The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the hereditary captaincies, stretches of land granted by the Portuguese Crown to noblemen or merchants with a charter to colonize the land, as the map shows, these divisions generally followed lines of latitude. Each of the holders of these captaincies was referred to as a captain donatary and these captaincies were to be passed from father to son, but the Crown retained the power to revoke them, which the King indeed did in the 16th century. In 1549, the Portuguese Crown appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor-general of the vast Portuguese dominion in South America and this dominion overall became known as the State of Brazil. In several periods of history, the half of the dominion was detached from the State of Brazil. Unlike Spanish America, the territory remained united under a single governor-general. This arrangement later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, in 1759, the heritability of the captaincies was totally abolished by the government of the Marquis of Pombal, with all captains becoming appointed by the Crown. The captaincies were officially renamed provinces on 28 February 1821, with independence, in 1822, the former captaincies became provinces of the Empire of Brazil. Most internal boundaries were unchanged from the colonial period, generally following natural features such as rivers. Minor changes were made to domestic politics, as well as additions resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes by the end of the 19th century. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces immediately became states, after the war, the first four territories became states, with Rio Branco and Guaporé being renamed Roraima and Rondônia, respectively, whilst Ponta Porã and Iguaçu remained as territories. In 1960, the square-shaped Distrito Federal was carved out of Goiás in preparation for the new capital, Brasília. The previous federal district became Guanabara State, but in 1975 it was merged with Rio de Janeiro State, retaining its name, in 1977, Mato Grosso was split into two states. The northern area retained the name Mato Grosso while the area became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The new Mato Grosso do Sul incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã, central Iguaçu went to Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to Santa Catarina. In 1988, the portion of Goiás became the state of Tocantins
11.
Rio Grande do Sul
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Rio Grande do Sul is a state located in the southern region of Brazil. It is the fifth most populous state and the ninth largest by area, the capital and largest city is Porto Alegre. The state has a Gaúcho culture like its foreign neighbors and it was originally inhabited by Guarani people. The first Europeans there were Jesuits, followed by settlers from the Azores, in the 19th century it was the scene of conflicts including the Farroupilha Revolution and the Paraguayan War. Large waves of German and Italian migration have shaped the state, Rio Grande do Sul is bordered to the north by the Brazilian State of Santa Catarina, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Uruguay, and to the west by Argentina. A range of low mountains extends southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catarina, west of this range is a vast grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising – the northern and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate for sheep, and the southern for cattle. The coast is one great sand beach, broken only by the outlet of the two lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two river systems in Rio Grande do Sul – that of the eastern slope draining to the lagoons. The larger rivers of the group are the Jacuí, Sinos, Caí, Gravataí and Camaquã, which flow into the Lagoa dos Patos. The Guaíba River is broad, comparatively deep and about 56 kilometres long, the Jaguarão, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay, is navigable 42 km up to and beyond the town of Jaguarão. Its width varies from 35 to 58 km, the lake is comparatively shallow and filled with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and difficult. The Lagoa Mirim occupies a position farther south, on the Uruguayan border. It is more irregular in outline and discharges into Lagoa dos Patos through a channel known as the São Gonçalo Channel. A part of the lies in Uruguayan territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty. Both of these lakes are evidently the remains of an ancient depression in the coastline shut in by sand beaches built up by the action of wind. They are of the level as the ocean, but their waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short distance above the Rio Grande outlet. Fully one-third of the state belongs to the Río de la Plata drainage basin, the Uruguay River itself is formed by the confluence of the Canoas and Pelotas rivers. Rio Grande do Sul lies within the temperate zone and is predominantly humid subtropical
12.
Natural region
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A natural region is a basic geographic unit. Usually it is a region which is distinguished by its natural features of geography, geology. Thus most natural regions are homogeneous ecosystems, human impact can be an important factor in the shaping and destiny of a particular natural region. The concept natural region may refer to a small, well defined area, or to a large basic geographical unit, the term may also be used generically, like in alpine tundra, or specifically to refer to a particular place. The term is useful where there is no corresponding or coterminous official region. The Fens of eastern England, the Thai highlands, and the Pays de Bray in Normandy, are examples of this. Others might include regions with particular geological characteristics, like badlands, such as the Bardenas Reales, an upland massif of acidic rock, or The Burren, in Ireland
13.
Tandil
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Tandil is the main city of the homonymous partido, located in Argentina, in the southeast of Buenos Aires Province, just north-northwest of the Tandilia hills. The city was founded in 1823 and its name originates from the Piedra Movediza which later fell, the city is the birth place of many notable sports personalities, as well as current president of Argentina Mauricio Macri. Tandil is located 180 metres above sea level and its coordinates are 37°19′08″S 59°08′05″W, the city borders Rauch and Azul, Ayacucho and Balcarce, Lobería, Necochea and Benito Juárez and Azul and Benito Juárez. Tandil is in a known as the Humid Pampa. According to the 2001 census, Tandil had a population of 108,109, the total area of the Tandil partido is 4,935 km2. Tandils climate is mild and humid, with a temperature of 13.8 °C and 888.6 millimetres of precipitation annually. Mornings are often cold in autumn, winter and spring, fog is very common in autumn and winter, when frosts are also common. Minimum temperatures below −5 °C have been recorded in the winter months, rainfall occurs throughout the year but more frequently in summer. Snow and heat waves are not very common, the climatological data in the table below is from the period 1981–1990, The name of the city comes from the Mapuche words tan, and lil. It is probably a reference to the Piedra Movediza, a boulder which stood seemingly miraculously balanced on the edge of a rocky foothill. The Moving Stone toppled on February 29,1912, and split into two pieces at the bottom of the hill, some people thought that tan in fact meant moving. In order to demonstrate the slight movements of the boulder, it was practice to place bottles or some other things under its base to see them break. As of May 2007, a replica was set up in the place where the original stood. The replica, made by engineering students, is cemented in place. The town was founded by Martín Rodríguez on April 4,1823, with time the original natives became acculturated and mixed with the increasing European population. The vast majority of immigrants came from Spain and Italy, but also Danish people settled, Tandil was designated a city in 1895 and became a popular tourist destination attracting people from Buenos Aires and other parts of Argentina. The Piedra Movediza fell in 1912 and split in two below and this was the way the locals would prove to visitors that the rock, in fact, moved, since the movement was too subtle to be detected by the naked eye. There have been projects to restore the rock, and a stone was placed where the original used to be
14.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
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Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
16.
Climate of Argentina
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The climate of Argentina is a complex subject, the vast size of the country and considerable variation in altitude make for a wide range of climate types. Argentina has four seasons, winter, spring, summer and autumn, summers are the warmest and wettest season in most of the country except in most of Patagonia where it is the driest season. Winters are normally mild in the north, cool in the center and cold in the parts with the latter experiencing frequent frost. Because southern parts of the country are moderated by the surrounding oceans, Spring and autumn are transition seasons that generally feature mild weather. Many regions have different, often contrasting, microclimates, in general, northern parts of the country are characterized by hot, humid, rainy summers and mild winters with periodic droughts. Mesopotamia, in the northeast is characterized by temperatures and abundant precipitation throughout the year with droughts being uncommon. West of this lies the Chaco region, which is the warmest region in Argentina, precipitation in the Chaco region decreases westwards, resulting in the vegetation changing from forests in the east to shrubs in the west. Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry and hot although the topography makes it climatically diverse, ranging from the cold. The center of the country, which includes the Pampas to the east and the drier Cuyo region to the west has hot summers with tornadoes and thunderstorms. High elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions, and the zones can see heavy snowfall. The Pampas, where many of the cities are located, has a flat topography and poor water drainage. Argentina is vulnerable and will likely be significantly impacted by climate change, temperatures have increased in the last century while the observed changes in precipitation are variable, with some areas receiving more and other areas less. These changes have impacted river flow, increased the frequency of weather events. Based on the projections for both precipitation and temperatures, these events are likely to increase in severity and create new problems associated with climate change in the country. In Argentina, the climate is divided into four, well defined seasons, winter, spring, summer, in winter, the northern parts of Argentina are generally warm, the central parts mild, and the southern parts cold with frequent frost and snow. The northern parts of the country have the warmest temperatures, with an average of 14 °C, in the extreme south, mean temperatures are below 4 °C. At higher altitudes in the Andes, average temperatures are below 0 °C. June and July temperatures are similar to each other, however
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Climate of Brazil
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The climate of Brazil varies considerably mostly from tropical north to temperate zones south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Temperatures below the equator are high, averaging above 25 °C, there is little seasonal variation near the equator, although at times it can get cool enough to need to wear a jacket, especially in the rain. Average temperatures below the Tropic of Capricorn are mild, ranging from 13 °C to 22 °C, the cities of Belo Horizonte and Brasília have moderate temperatures, usually between 15 and 30 °C, because of their elevation of approximately 1,000 metres. Rio de Janeiro, Recife, and Salvador on the coast have warm climates, with temperatures of each month ranging from 23 to 27 °C. The cities of São Paulo, Curitiba, Florianópolis and Porto Alegre have a climate similar to that of southern United States. Most of Brazil has moderate rainfall of between 1,000 and 1,500 mm a year, with most of the falling in the summer south of the Equator. The Amazon region is humid, with rainfall generally more than 2,000 mm per year and reaching as high as 3,000 mm in parts of the western Amazon. The Northeast is the driest part of the country, the region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil, where during the dry season between May and November, temperatures of more than 38 °C have been recorded. However, the sertão, a region of semidesert vegetation used primarily for low-density ranching, turns green when there is rain. Most of the Center-West has 1,500 to 2,000 mm of rain per year, with a dry season in the middle of the year, while the South. Because the South Atlantic basin is not a favorable environment for their development. The countrys coastal population centers are not as burdened with the need to prepare for cyclones, as are cities at similar latitudes in the United States. Despite the popular image of the Amazon as a region of blistering heat, the annual average temperature in the region is 22 to 26 °C, with not much variation between the warmest and the coldest months. The hottest part of Brazil is the northeast, where temperatures of more than 38 °C are frequently recorded during the dry season between May and November, along the Atlantic coast from Recife to Rio de Janeiro, average temperatures range from 23 to 27 °C. Inland, on ground, temperatures are lower, ranging from 18 to 21 °C. South of Rio the seasons are defined and the range of temperatures significantly wider. Brazils most intense rain falls around the mouth of the Amazon near the city of Belém, most of Brazil has moderate rainfall of between 1,000 and 1,500 millimetres a year, most of it coming between December and April. The driest part of the country is the northeast, where rainfall is erratic, the highest temperature officially registered in Brazil was 44.7 °C in Bom Jesus, Piauí state on 21 November 2005
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Subtropics
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The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude at 23.5 latitude and temperate latitudes. Subtropical climates are characterized by warm to hot summers and cool to mild winters with infrequent frost. Subtropical climates can occur at elevations within the tropics, such as in the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam. Six climate classifications use the term to define the various temperature. A great portion of the deserts are located within the subtropics. Within savanna regimes in the subtropics, a wet season is seen annually during the summer, within Mediterranean climate regimes, the wet season occurs during the winter. Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones. Plants such as palms, citrus, mango, lychee, the tropics have been historically defined as lying between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, located at 23. 45° north and south latitude respectively. The poleward fringe of the subtropics is located at approximately 40° north and south latitude respectively, northern fringes of the type can go further north due to moderating effects of ocean streams, like in parts of Southern Europe due to heat transported by the Gulf Stream. Several methods have used to define the subtropical climate. In the Trewartha climate classification, a subtropical region should have at least eight months with a temperature greater than 10 °C. According to the Troll-Paffen climate classification, there exists one large subtropical zone named the warm-temperate subtropical zone. According to the E. Neef climate classification, the zone is divided into two parts, Rainy winters of the west sides and Eastern subtropical climate. According to the Wilhelm Lauer & Peter Frankenberg climate classification, the zone is divided into three parts, high-continental, continental, and maritime. According to the Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification, subtropical is one of six zones in the world. Heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the trough or Intertropical convergence zone. The upper-level divergence over the near-equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft, as the air moves towards the Mid-Latitudes, it cools and sinks, which leads to subsidence near the 30th parallel of both hemispheres. This circulation is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge, many of the worlds deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas, located within the subtropics
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Semiarid climate
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A semi-arid climate or steppe climate is the climate of a region that receives precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not extremely. There are different kinds of climates, depending on such variables as temperature. Semi-arid climates tend to short or scrubby vegetation, with semi-arid areas usually dominated by either grasses or shrubs. To determine if a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold must first be determined. If the areas precipitation is less than the threshold but more than half the threshold. Hot semi-arid climates tend to be located in the tropics and subtropics and these climates tend to have hot, sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts, hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Africa, Australia and South Asia. In Australia, a portion of the Outback surrounding the central desert regions lies within the hot semi-arid climate regime. Hot semi-arid climates can also be found in North America, primarily in Mexico, areas of Texas near Mexico, cold semi-arid climates tend to be located in temperate zones or elevated portions in subtropical zones. They are typically found in continental interiors some distance from bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though their summers are not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold winters and these areas usually see some snowfall during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates. These large diurnal temperature variations are seen in hot semi-arid climates. Cold semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Asia and North America, however, they can also be found in Northern Africa, South Africa, Europe, sections of South America and sections of interior southern Australia and New Zealand. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold depending on the isotherm used. One such location is San Diego, California, which has cool summers for the due to prevailing winds off the ocean. Arid Forest Research Institute Continental climate Dust Bowl Goyders Line Pallisers Triangle Köppen climate classification Wave height Ustic
20.
San Luis Province
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San Luis is a province of Argentina located near the geographical center of the country. Neighboring provinces are, from the clockwise, La Rioja, Córdoba, La Pampa, Mendoza. The city of San Luis was founded in 1594 by Luis Jufré de Loaysa y Meneses and it was refounded by Martín García Óñez de Loyola in 1596 under the name San Luis de Loyola. Politics in San Luis have long influenced by the descendants of the noted mid-19th century advocate for San Luiss integration into the rest of Argentina. Since the return of Argentina to democratic rule in 1983, in particular and this situation is, as in many smaller provinces in Argentina, partly explained by the customary use of a combination of nepotism, propaganda and generous social welfare legislation. This includes substantial allegations of illegal pressure, including the violent 1991 harassment of a local journalist, since 1983, however, Governor Adolfo Rodríguez Saá has also overseen record investment by light manufacturers and advances like the construction of Argentinas most extensive expressway network. The province has low sierras in the north along the Dry Pampas, San Luis economy has, over the past generation, been among the most improved in Argentina. Its 2006 output, estimated at US$3.386 billion, yielded a per capita income of US$9,203, the economic profile of the province changed due to industrial promotion policies implemented since late 1982. Until then, the sector was the productive base. Industrial establishments installed after that year, exhibit great diversification and are mainly in two centers, the capital and Villa Mercedes. Tourism is another of the activities promoted by the San Luis government since the return of democracy in 1983, currently the province has the largest network of highways in the country, which connects most of the resorts with the provincial capital. The province is divided into nine departments, source for department names, Provincia de San Luis - Official website Argentour, San Luis Province
21.
Thunderstorm
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Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied by winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or, in contrast. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband, strong or severe thunderstorms, known as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. Thunderstorms result from the upward movement of warm, moist air. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, as the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earths surface, as the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. Thunderstorms can form and develop in any location but most frequently within the mid-latitude. Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along them, pose great hazards. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts. There are four types of thunderstorms, single-cell, multi-cell cluster, multi-cell lines, supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena. Mesoscale convective systems formed by vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thunderstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the lightning that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms, weather radar, weather stations, past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earths atmosphere, thunderstorms have also observed on the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune. Warm air has a lower density than air, so warmer air rises upwards. Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air, the moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air condenses. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning, Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds
22.
Atmospheric convection
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Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability, or temperature difference, layer in the atmosphere. Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability, mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds, cumulus cloud development, and decreased surface dew points. Moist convection leads to development, which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world. Special threats from thunderstorms include hail, downbursts, and tornadoes, there are a few general archetypes of atmospheric instability that correspond to convection and lack thereof. Steeper and/or positive lapse rates suggests atmospheric convection is more likely and this is because any displaced air parcels will become more buoyant, given their sign of adiabatic temperature change, in the steep lapse rate environments. Convection begins at the level of free convection, where it begins its ascent through the free convective layer, the rising parcel, if having enough momentum, will continue to rise to the maximum parcel level until negative buoyancy decelerates the parcel to a stop. Acceleration is of relevance to convection. Drag produced by the updraft creates a force to counter that from the buoyancy. This could be thought of as similar to the velocity of a falling object. This force from buoyancy can be measured by Convective Available Potential Energy, see the CAPE, buoyancy, and parcel links for a more in depth mathematical explanation of these processes. Within the atmosphere, this means from the surface to above the 500 hPa level, oceanic deep convection only occurs at a few locations. While less dynamically important than in the atmosphere, it is responsible for the spreading of cold water through the low layers of the ocean, as such, it is important for the large-scale temperature structure of the whole ocean. A thermal column is a section of rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earths atmosphere. Thermals are created by the heating of the Earths surface from solar radiation. The Sun warms the ground, which in turn warms the air directly above it, the warmer air expands, becoming less dense than the surrounding air mass, and creating a thermal low. The mass of air rises, and as it does. It stops rising when it has cooled to the temperature as the surrounding air. Associated with a thermal is a downward flow surrounding the thermal column, the downward moving exterior is caused by colder air being displaced at the top of the thermal
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Hail
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Hail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets, though the two are often confused and it consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Ice pellets falls generally in cold weather while hail growth is inhibited during cold surface temperatures. Unlike graupel, which is made of rime, and ice pellets, the METAR reporting code for hail 5 mm or greater is GR, while smaller hailstones and graupel are coded GS. Hail is possible within most thunderstorms as it is produced by cumulonimbus, Hail formation requires environments of strong, upward motion of air with the parent thunderstorm and lowered heights of the freezing level. In the mid-latitudes, hail forms near the interiors of continents, while in the tropics, there are methods available to detect hail-producing thunderstorms using weather satellites and weather radar imagery. Severe weather warnings are issued for hail when the stones reach a size, as it can cause serious damage to human-made structures and, most commonly. Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm, Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres or more. Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms, unlike ice pellets, hailstones are layered and can be irregular and clumped together. Although the diameter of hail is varied, in the United States, stones larger than 2 cm are usually considered large enough to cause damage. The Meteorological Service of Canada issues severe thunderstorm warnings when hail that size or above is expected, the US National Weather Service has a 2.5 cm or greater in diameter threshold, effective January 2010, an increase over the previous threshold of ¾-inch hail. Other countries have different thresholds according local sensitivity to hail, for grape growing areas could be adversely impacted by smaller hailstones. Hailstones can be large or very small, depending on how strong the updraft is. These types of strong updrafts can also indicate the presence of a tornado, the growth rate is maximized where air is near a temperature of −13 °C. Like other precipitation in clouds, hail begins as water droplets. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes below freezing, they become supercooled water, a cross-section through a large hailstone shows an onion-like structure. This means the hailstone is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating layers that are thin, white. Former theory suggested that hailstones were subjected to multiple descents and ascents, falling into a zone of humidity and this up and down motion was thought to be responsible for the successive layers of the hailstone
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Flood
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A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. The European Union Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water, in the sense of flowing water, the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the flood plains of rivers. Some floods develop slowly, while others such as floods, can develop in just a few minutes. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, the word flood comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages. Deluge myths are stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution. Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when water is supplied by rainfall or snowmelt more rapidly than it can infiltrate or run off. The excess accumulates in place, sometimes to hazardous depths, surface soil can become saturated, which effectively stops infiltration, where the water table is shallow, such as a floodplain, or from intense rain from one or a series of storms. Infiltration also is slow to negligible through frozen ground, rock, concrete, paving, areal flooding begins in flat areas like floodplains and in local depressions not connected to a stream channel, because the velocity of overland flow depends on the surface slope. Endorheic basins may experience flooding during periods when precipitation exceeds evaporation. Floods occur in all types of river and stream channels, from the smallest ephemeral streams in humid zones to normally-dry channels in arid climates to the worlds largest rivers. When overland flow occurs on tilled fields, it can result in a flood where sediments are picked up by run off. Localized flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, debris, slow-rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in flow may be the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, the cause may be localized convective precipitation or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. In one instance, a flood killed eight people enjoying the water on a Sunday afternoon at a popular waterfall in a narrow canyon. Without any observed rainfall, the rate increased from about 50 to 1,500 cubic feet per second in just one minute. Two larger floods occurred at the site within a week
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Flash flood
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A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas, washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm. Flash floods may occur after the collapse of an ice or debris dam, or a human structure such as a man-made dam. Flash floods are distinguished from regular floods by a timescale of less than six hours, the water that is temporarily available is often used by foliage with rapid germination and short growth cycles, and by specially adapted animal life. Flash floods can occur under several types of conditions, Flash flooding occurs when it rains rapidly on saturated soil or dry soil that has poor absorption ability. The runoff collects in gullies and streams and, as they join to form larger volumes, often forms a fast flowing front of water, in areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when glaciers have been melted by the intense heat. Flash floods are known to occur in the highest mountain ranges of the United States and are common in the arid plains of the Southwestern United States. Flash flooding can also be caused by extensive rainfall released by hurricanes and other tropical storms, human activities can also cause flash floods to occur. When dams fail, a quantity of water can be released. Many people tend to underestimate the dangers of flash floods, what makes flash floods most dangerous is their sudden nature and fast-moving water. A vehicle provides little to no protection against being swept away, it may make people overconfident, more than half of the fatalities attributed to flash floods are people swept away in vehicles when trying to cross flooded intersections. As little as 2 feet of water is enough to carry away most SUV-sized vehicles. The U. S. National Weather Service reported in 2005 that, using a national 30-year average, more people die yearly in floods,127 on average, than by lightning, tornadoes, in deserts, flash floods can be particularly deadly for several reasons. First, storms in arid regions are infrequent, but they can deliver an enormous amount of water in a short time. Second, these rains often fall on poorly absorbent and often clay-like soil, in fact, in some areas, desert roads frequently cross dry river and creek beds without bridges. From the drivers perspective, there may be clear weather, when a river unexpectedly forms ahead of or around the vehicle in a matter of seconds. Finally, the lack of rain to clear water channels may cause flash floods in deserts to be headed by large amounts of debris, such as rocks, branches. 1889, Johnstown Flood, Pennsylvania, U. S. more than 2,200 people dead 1903, Heppner Flood of 1903, Oregon, United States,247 dead, 25% of the city 1938, Los Angeles Flood of 1938, California, U. S. S
26.
Tornado
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A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 feet across, the most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour, are more than two miles in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles. Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout, waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water and these spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica, however, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes, the Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, an F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes, Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is a form of the Spanish word tronada. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning to thunder and it most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar, however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also referred to as a twister, and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term cyclone is used as a synonym for tornado in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the term twister is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister. A tornado is a rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a definition of the word, for example. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud and this results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of cloud and condensation funnel
27.
Pampas deer
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Pampas deer live in the grasslands of South America at low elevations. They are known as venado or gama in Spanish and as veado-campeiro in Portuguese and their habitat includes water and hills, often with winter drought, and grass that is high enough to cover a standing deer. Many of them live on the Pantanal wetlands, where there are ongoing conservation efforts, human activity has changed much of the original landscape. They are known to live up to 12 years in the wild, longer if captive, many people are concerned over this loss, because a healthy deer population means a healthy grassland, and a healthy grassland is home to many species, some also threatened. Many North American birds migrate south to areas, and if the Pampas deer habitat is lost. There are approximately 80,000 Pampas deer total, with the majority of living in Brazil. The Pampas deer are part of the New World deer, another term for all South American deer species and it is believed that they rapidly evolved into different species, with only a few surviving today. Fossil records begin with clear differentiation and are close to what look like now. The Pampas deer evolved as plains dwellers and their direct ancestor first appeared during the Pleistocene period during the Pampean Formation. Scientists believe the deer evolved with no culling predators because when alarmed, they stamp their feet, have a particular trot and whistle, the Pampas deer share a similar gene pattern with another deer species called Blastocerus. Unique to those two species, they have two fused chromosomes, the Pampas deer have 3 subspecies, O. b. bezoarticus that live in eastern and central Brazil, south of the Amazon river into Uruguay. O. b. leucogaster that live in southwestern Brazil, to southeastern Bolivia, to Paraguay, O. b. celer from the southern part of Argentina. They are the most rare and are an endangered species, Pampas deer are the most polymorphic mammals. This large genetic variation reflects the fact there were millions at one time. Their current high nucleotide diversity shows that they had large numbers even in just the recent past. Pampas deers have tan fur, lighter on their undersides and insides of legs and their coats do not change with the seasons. They have white spots above their lips and white patches on their throats and their shoulder height is 60–65 cm in females and 65–70 cm in males. Their tails are short and bushy,10 cm to 15 cm long, adult males typically weigh 24–34 kg, but have been documented up to 40 kg, and females typically weigh 22–29 kg
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Guanaco
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The guanaco, a camelid native to South America, stands between 1.0 and 1.2 m at the shoulder and weighs 90 to 140 kg. Its color varies very little, ranging from a brown to dark cinnamon. Guanacos have grey faces and small, straight ears, the name guanaco comes from the South American Quechua word huanaco. The guanaco is a native to the mountainous regions of South America. They are found in the altiplano of Peru, Bolivia and Chile, in Argentina and Chile, they are more numerous in Patagonian regions, as well as in places such as the Torres del Paine National Park, and Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. In these areas, they have more robust populations, since grazing competition from livestock is limited, estimates, as of 2011, place their numbers at 400,000 to 600,000. A small introduced population exists on Staats Island in the Falkland Islands, guanacos live in herds composed of females, their young, and a dominant male. While reproductive groups tend to remain small, often containing no more than 10 adults, when they feel threatened, guanacos alert the herd to flee with a high-pitched, bleating call. The male usually runs behind the herd to defend them and they can run at 56 km per hour, often over steep and rocky terrain. A guanacos typical lifespan is 20 to 25 years, guanacos are one of the largest wild mammal species found in South America. Natural predators include cougars, jaguars, and foxes, the guanaco has thicker skin on its neck, a trait also found in its domestic counterpart, the llama and in its relatives, the wild vicuña and domesticated alpaca. This protects its neck from predator attacks, bolivians use the neck-skin of these animals to make shoes, flattening and pounding the skin to be used for the soles. In Chile, hunting is allowed only in Tierra del Fuego, between 2007 and 2012,13,200 guanacos were legally hunted in Tierra del Fuego. Mating season occurs between November and February, during which males often fight violently to establish dominance and breeding rights, eleven-and-a-half months later, a single chulengo is born. Chulengos are able to immediately after birth. Male chulengos are chased off from the herd by the dominant male around one year of age, although the species is still considered wild, around 300 guanacos are in US zoos and around 200 are registered in private herds. Guanacos are the parent species of the domesticated llama, guanacos are often found at high altitudes, up to 4,000 meters above sea level, except in Patagonia, where the southerly latitude means ice covers the vegetation at these altitudes. For guanacos to survive in the low oxygen levels found at high altitudes
29.
Gray brocket
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The gray brocket, also known as the brown brocket, is a species of brocket deer from northern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Peru, eastern and southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It formerly included the Amazonian brown brocket and sometimes also the Yucatan brown brocket as subspecies, unlike other species of brocket deer in its range, the gray brocket has a gray-brown fur without reddish tones. The scientific name of the gray brocket deer comes from Félix de Azaras gouazoubira, though sometimes it is seen as Mazama gouazoupira, this is incorrect, perhaps mistakenly replacing a b with a p from Azaras name for the red brocket, Gouazoupita. The coat of a gray brocket can range from gray-brown to dark brown, lighter, browner coats are seen in those that live in grasslands, whereas grayer, darker colors are more prevalent in forest regions. Significant variation can be seen between individuals of the population, as well. Their tails are white on the bottom, and on their flanks the hair is of a lighter color than that of the rest of the body, the body length of a gray brocket deer can range from 85 to 105 cm and the weight from 11 to 25 kg. In addition to the differences in color, the gray brocket is generally smaller than the red brocket. The gray brocket is found in northern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Peru, eastern and southern Brazil, Uruguay and they range from the western part of South America, in the East Andes foothills in Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina. From there, it extends eastward, through semiopen regions such as the Gran Chaco, Cerrado and it does not live in the Amazon Rainforest region, and its distribution runs south to the mouth of the Paraná River in Argentina. It is found in vegetation and forest edge, but typically avoids both open habitats without cover and dense forest. The gray brocket is a herbivore that chooses what it eats selectively, during some periods, the grays brocket may become primarily fruit-eating, but this depends on the season, area, and availability of fruits. Many of the fruits are in dense forests, which it for the most part avoids, in the dry season, they eat the fruit from trees such Caesalpinia paraguariensis, which produce dry, tough fruits. Periodically and locally, they also eat cacti, bromeliad fruits, the gray brocket reaches sexual maturity around 18 months old. No distinct breeding season is seen, the gestation periods lasts around 7 months, and post partum estrus occurs. Thus, a gray brocket can produce two offspring in a year, after birth, the doe takes care of the fawn until it is weaned, though the time until it is weaned is unknown. During this time, the fawn remains hidden and is fed by the doe, four types of scent marking have been observed as a means of communication, due to their performance of these behaviors in concurrence with certain postures. These scent-marking behaviors include urination, defecation, thrashing, and forehead rubbing, such scent-marking tactics can be part of a claim on territory if a number of markings are placed within a concentrated area by a single gray brocket. Gray brockets are active during the day, but generally only appear in the open at night and they are solitary and territorial, with the male defending a larger territory and the female a smaller core area
30.
Chacoan mara
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The Chacoan mara, Dolichotis salinicola, is a relatively large South American rodent of the cavy family. They are a relative of the better known Patagonian mara. The Chacoan mara lives in the South American Chaco, the dry forests and grasslands of Argentina, Paraguay. Maras dig a burrow to sleep in at night, the Chacoan mara eat grasses and other herbage. They will eat any available vegetation. Chacoan maras live in groups of up to four animals. The Chacoan mara is from the family Caviidae, which includes cavies, such as their relative the capybara. Chacoan maras are related to the other member of the Dolichotis genus. Maras are the fourth largest rodent in the world after the capybaras, beavers, though the mara may look like a rabbit, the rabbit is not actually a rodent and therefore not as closely related to the mara as one might expect
31.
Plains viscacha
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The plains viscacha or plains vizcacha is a species of rodents in the family Chinchillidae. It is the living species within the genus Lagostomus. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay, the plains viscacha is the largest species in its family. They construct elaborate burrows that house successive colonies for decades, the plains viscacha is a large rodent, weighing up to 9 kg. It has a head and body length over 500 mm. The dorsal pelage ranges from gray to brown, depending upon soil color, and its head is bulky, and the face is black and white, males have distinctive black mustaches and stiff whiskers. Their fore feet have four toes, and the feet have three toes. The southern viscacha looks remarkably like a long-tailed rabbit, soft dense fur covers its body, from the tips of its elongate ears to the end of its long, curled tail. The forelimbs are short, while the contrastingly long and muscular hind limbs enable it run. The colour of its fur varies seasonally and with age, but generally the upperparts are grey to brown, with tints of cream and black and they live in communal burrow systems in groups containing one or more males, several females, and immatures. Viscachas forage in groups at night and aggregate underground during the day, all members of a group use burrows throughout the communal burrow system and participate in digging at the burrows. Alarm calls are primarily by adult males. The long-term social unit of the plains viscacha is the female group, resident males disappear each year and new males join groups of females. Vizcachas live in colonies that range from a few individuals to hundreds, to keep up with the colony chatter, they have acquired an impressive repertoire of vocalizations that are used in social interactions. Vizcachas are small mammals, but these vocalizations resonate with plenty of strength, members of a social group share a common foraging area around the communal burrow system, and feed on a variety of grasses and forbs, occasionally browsing on low shrubs. Plains viscachas ovulate over 200 eggs per cycle, although hunting is not currently considered a major threat to this species, it needs to be monitored in case it starts to have a severe impact on the population
32.
Brazilian guinea pig
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The Brazilian guinea pig is a guinea pig species found in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela. Cavia aperea has been mated to the domestic guinea pig, Cavia porcellus. Brazilian guinea pigs are mainly diurnal animals and are narrower and longer than domesticated guinea pigs and this is a medium-sized guinea pig with an adult length of about 272 mm and a weight of 637 grams. The tail, at around 2.4 mm, is almost non-existent, the dorsal fur is dark olive-brown mixed with brown and black, and the underparts are a pale grey or yellowish-grey. Its karyotype has 2n =64 and a reportedly variable FN of 116 or 128 for C. a. aperea and 128 for C. a. pamparum. The Brazilian guinea pig has a distribution in South America at altitudes between 400 and 3,000 metres above sea level. Its range extends from Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela to northern Argentina and its typical habitat is open grassland and savannah. Cavia aperea is a herbivore and feeds on grasses and other herbs and it is diurnal, mainly emerging in the early morning to forage and again in the evening. It does not dig a burrow, but makes an intricate maze of tunnels that are 8 to 12 cm wide. It has latrine areas beside the trackways where piles of bean-shaped droppings can be seen, breeding takes place at any time of year but mostly in the austral summer. The gestation period is about 62 days and females can have five litters in a year, the number of young born averages two and ranges from one to five. The minimum age at which the adults can breed is thirty days. The Brazilian guinea pig has a range and no particular threats have been identified. It is a species with a stable population and, as well as living in open savannah country. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its status as least concern
33.
Southern mountain cavy
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The southern mountain cavy is a species of South American rodent in the family Caviidae. Southern mountain cavies are tailless rodents with short, speckled, greyish-yellow fur, adults measure around 20 cm in total length and weigh between 200 and 326 g. They have large eyes surrounded by a prominent white ring, southern mountain cavies are largely restricted to Argentina, but may also be found in some neighbouring regions of Chile and Bolivia. They are found across almost the whole of western and southern Argentina and they can even climb trees to get at the leaves, sometimes reaching as high as 4 m above the ground. In time of hardship, however, they eat almost any plants. They live in burrows with anything from 4 to 38 individuals. Such burrows can be extensive, with one being reported to have 26 entrances, and they are diurnal, emerging from the burrows at sunrise, and remaining active throughout the day, except in particularly hot weather. Males are often aggressive towards one another, creating a strict hierarchy within the burrow. Nonetheless, in weather or when there are few shelter sites, individuals, especially females, may huddle together. Natural predators include owls, hawks, grisons, foxes, and skunks, other calls include a high-pitched cry of fear and soft, almost inaudible, squeaks used during chases and courtship. Breeding occurs between August and April, with litters of one to five young being born about 54 days later, the young weigh about 30 g at birth, and are able to run almost immediately. They are weaned at three weeks, and females may be sexually mature at just 40 to 50 days old
34.
Coypu
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The coypu, also known as the river rat or nutria, is a large, omnivorous, semiaquatic rodent and the only member of the family Myocastoridae. Originally native to subtropical and temperate South America, it has since been introduced to North America, Europe, Asia, although it is still valued for its fur in some regions, its destructive feeding and burrowing behaviors make this invasive species a pest throughout most of its range. Coypus live in burrows alongside stretches of water and they feed on river plant stems. Two names are used in English for Myocastor coypus. The name nutria is generally used in North America, Asia, and throughout countries of the former Soviet Union, however, in Spanish-speaking countries, to avoid this ambiguity, the name coypu is used in Latin America and Europe. In France, the coypu is known as a ragondin, in Dutch, it is known as beverrat. In German, it is known as Nutria, Biberratte or Sumpfbiber, in Italy, instead, the popular name is, as in North America and Asia, nutria, but it is also called castorino, by which its fur is known in Italy. In Swedish, the animal is known as sumpbäver, in Brazil, the animal is known as ratão-do-banhado, nútria, or caxingui. The coypu was first described by Juan Ignacio Molina in 1782 as Mus coypus, the genus Myocastor, assigned in 1792 by Robert Kerr, is derived from the Greek mys and kastor, or mouse-beaver. Geoffroy, independently of Kerr, named the species Myopotamus coypus, the coypu somewhat resembles a very large rat, or a beaver with a small tail. Adults are typically 4–9 kg in weight, and 40–60 cm in length, with a 30- to 45-cm tail. It is possible for coypu to weigh up to 16 to 17 kg and they have coarse, darkish brown outer fur with soft dense grey under fur, also called the nutria. Three distinguishing features are a white patch on the muzzle, webbed hind feet, the nipples of female coypu are high on her flanks, to allow their young to feed while the female is in the water. A coypu is often mistaken for a muskrat, another widely dispersed, the muskrat, however, is smaller and more tolerant of cold climates, and has a laterally flattened tail it uses to assist in swimming, whereas the tail of a coypu is round. It can also be mistaken for a beaver, as beavers. However, beavers tails are flat and paddle-like, as opposed to the tails of coypus. Male coypus reach sexual maturity as early as four months, once a female is pregnant, gestation lasts 130 days, and she may give birth to as few as one or as many as 13 offspring. Baby coypus are precocial, born fully furred and with open eyes, a female coypu can become pregnant again the day after she gives birth to her young
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Puma (genus)
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Puma is a genus in Felidae that contains the cougar and the jaguarundi, and may also include several poorly known Old World fossil representatives. In addition to these potential Old World fossil there are a couple of New World fossil representatives such as Puma pumoides, the puma is a large, secretive cat. They are also known as cougars and mountain lions, and are able to reach larger sizes than other big cat individuals. Though despite their size, it has been believed that they are more closely related to smaller feline species. There are 7 subspecies of puma, all of which have similar characteristics but tend to vary in color and size. Pumas are thought to be one of the most adaptable of felines on the American continents, unfortunately, with the expansion of human settlements and land clearance, the cats are being pushed into smaller areas of habitat. Despite them being pushed into more hostile areas, it is believed that their high adaptability allows for members of the genus to avoid disappearing from the wild forever. Subspecies of the genus include cats that are the fourth largest in the cat family. Adult males can reach around 7.9 feet from nose to tail, females can reach around 6.7 ft from nose to tail, and a body weight averaging between 64 and 141 lbs. They also have tails ranging from 25 to 37 inches of their body length, the heads of the cats are round, with erect ears. It has powerful forequarters, neck, jaw which help grasp and they have four retractable claws on their forepaws, and also their hind paws. The majority of pumas are found in mountainous regions, therefore they have a thick fur coat to help retain body heat during freezing winters. Depending on subspecies and the location of their habitat, the fur varies in color from brown-yellow to grey-red. Individuals who live in colder climates have coats that are more grey than individuals living in warmer climates with a red color to their coat. Pumas are incredibly powerful predators with muscular hind legs, which are longer and stronger than the front. They are able to leap as high as 18 ft into the air and they can reach speeds of up to 40–50 mph, but they are much better adapted for short and powerful sprints to catch their prey. Members of the genus live solitarily, with the exception of the time cubs spend with their mothers, individuals cover a large home range searching food, covering a distance of about 80 square miles during the summers and 40 square miles during the winters. They are also able to hunt during the night just as effectively as they can during the day, members of this genus are large and powerful carnivores
36.
Maned wolf
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The maned wolf is the largest canid of South America. Its markings resemble those of foxes, but it is not a fox, nor is it a wolf and it is the only species in the genus Chrysocyon. It is very rare in Uruguay, possibly being displaced completely through loss of habitat, IUCN lists it as near threatened, while it is considered a vulnerable species by the Brazilian government. It is known locally as aguará guazú, or kalak by the Toba, lobo de crin, lobo de los esteros, or lobo colorado and it also is called borochi in Bolivia. The maned wolf bears minor similarities to the red fox, although it belongs to a different genus, the average adult weighs 23 kg and stands 90 cm tall at the shoulder, has a head-body length of 100 cm with the tail adding another 45 cm. Its ears are large and long, the maned wolf is the tallest of the wild canids, its long legs are likely an adaptation to the tall grasslands of its native habitat. Fur of the wolf may be reddish brown to golden orange on the sides with long, black legs. The coat is marked further with a tuft at the tip of the tail. The mane is erectile, and typically, is used to enlarge the wolfs profile when threatened or when displaying aggression, rare melanistic maned wolves exist, and the first black adult maned wolf was photographed by camera trap in northern Minas Gerais in Brazil in 2013. The maned wolf also is known for the odor of its territory markings. Unlike other large canids the maned wolf does not form packs and it hunts alone, usually between sundown and midnight. Maned wolves rotate their large ears to listen for prey animals in the grass and they tap the ground with a front foot to flush out the prey and pounce to catch it. It kills its prey by biting on the neck or back, monogamous pairs may defend a shared territory of approximately 30 km2, although outside of mating, the individuals may meet seldom. The territory is crisscrossed by paths that the maned wolves create as they patrol at night, several adults may congregate in the presence of a plentiful food source, for example, a fire-cleared patch of grassland that would leave small vertebrate prey exposed while foraging. Both female and male maned wolves use their urine to communicate, the urine has a very distinctive odor, which some people liken to hops or cannabis. The responsible substance very likely is a pyrazine, which occurs in both plants. The preferred habitat of the maned wolf include grasslands, scrub prairies and their mating season ranges from November to April. Gestation lasts 60 to 65 days and a litter may have two to six black-furred pups, each weighing approximately 450 g
37.
Pampas fox
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The pampas fox, also known as grey pampean fox, aguará chaí, aguarachay, Azaras fox, or Azaras zorro, is a medium-sized zorro, or false fox, native to the South American pampas. The alternative common names are references to Spanish naturalist Félix de Azara, the pampas fox resembles the culpeo or Andean fox in appearance and size, but has a proportionately wider snout, reddish fur on the head and neck, and a black mark on the muzzle. Its short, dense fur is grey over most of the body, with a line running down the back and onto the tail. The ears are triangular, broad, and relatively large, and are reddish on the outer surface, adults range from 51 to 80 cm in body length, and weigh 2.4 to 8.0 kg, males are about 10% heavier than females. In the northern part of its range, the fox is more richly colored than in the southern part. The pampas fox can be found in northern and central Argentina, Uruguay, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay and it prefers open pampas habitats, often close to agricultural land, but can also be found in montane or chaco forest, dry scrubland, and wetland habitats. It is most common below 1,000 m elevation, in the Spanish-speaking areas of its habitat, the pampas fox is known by the common names of zorro de las pampas or zorro gris pampeano. In Portuguese-speaking Brazil, it is called by the names of graxaim or sorro. The pampas foxes mostly live a life, but come together as monogamous pairs in the breeding season to raise their young. They are mainly nocturnal, becoming active at dusk, although may also be active during the day and they den in any available cavity, including caves, hollow trees, and the burrows of viscachas or armadillos. Even when raising young together, adult foxes generally hunt alone, although considerable variation is seen, the home range of a typical pampas fox has been estimated to be around 260 hectares. Pampas foxes are more omnivorous than most other canids, and have a varied and their primary predators are pumas and domesticated dogs. Pampas foxes breed in the spring, with the female coming into heat just once each year. After a gestation period of 55 to 60 days, the mother gives birth to a litter of up to eight kits, the young are born between September and December, and are weaned around two months of age. Females reach sexual maturity in their first year, and animals have lived for up to 14 years in captivity, pups hunt with parents when they are 3 months old. The males bring food to their females, which stay at the den with kits
38.
Geoffroy's cat
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Geoffroys cat is a wild cat native to the southern and central regions of South America. It is about the size of a domestic cat, while the species is relatively common in many areas, it is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because it is widespread and abundant over most of its range. Geoffroys cat is about the size of a cat, averaging 60 centimetres, with a relatively short,31 centimetres. This felid weighs only about 2 to 5 kilograms, though individuals up to 7.8 kilograms have been reported, in general, those found in the southern part of their range are larger than those from the north, and males are larger than females. Their fur has black spots, but the background colour varies from region to region, in the north, a brownish-yellow coat is most common, farther south. As with most wild cats, the fur of the underbelly is paler, there are dark bands on the tail and limbs, and similar markings on the cheeks and across the top of the head and neck. The backs of the ears are black, with white spots, melanism is common both in the wild and in captivity. Unusual among cats, Geoffroys cats have been observed to stand up on their legs to scan the surrounding landscape. A similar posture is seen in weasels, meerkats and prairie dogs, Geoffroys cats inhabit the Andes, Pampas, and Gran Chaco landscape. They are found from southern Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan and they prefer open woodland or scrubland habitats with plenty of cover, but are also found in grasslands and marshy areas. Although they are able to climb trees, they rarely do so, the IUCN previously listed the species as Near Threatened because of the concern over habitat conversion in many countries in the cats range. Geoffroys cat is nocturnal, and preys primarily on rodents, hares, small lizards, insects, like other small cats, it is a solitary hunter, contacting others of its species only during the mating season. Females maintain territories ranging from 2 to 6 square kilometres, while males have larger ranges, the breeding season for Geoffroys cats lasts from October to March. During this time, the female comes into estrus for periods of up to twelve days, mating during this time is brief and frequent, often taking place on a high ledge or similar site. Litters may consist of one to four kittens, although one or two is more common, gestation lasts for 72–78 days, with most births occurring between December and May. The kittens are born blind and helpless, weighing about 65 to 95 grams, the eyes open after from eight to nineteen days, and they begin to eat solid food at six or seven weeks. Kittens become independent of their mother at around eight months, but are not sexually mature until 18 months for females and 24 months for males. The oldest recorded age for a Geoffroys cat in captivity is at least 20 years, recently, Geoffroys cat has been successfully bred with the domestic cat, resulting in the felid hybrid safari cat
39.
Lesser grison
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The lesser grison is a species of mustelid from South America. Lesser grisons have a long, slender body, short legs, and they have a long neck and a small head with a flattened forehead and rounded ears. They are smaller than the related greater grison, with a head-body length of 27 to 52 cm. Adults weigh anything from 1.2 to 2.4 kg, females are slighter smaller and more slender than males. The top of the head, the back and flanks, the remainder of the body is black or nearly so, apart from a pale buff-coloured stripe running from the forehead to the shoulders along the lower margin of the grey furred area. The feet are webbed, with five toes ending in sharp, curved, lesser grisons are found throughout most of southern South America from sea level to as high as 4,200 metres elevation. They are found in a range of habitats, although generally near water, including grasslands, forests, scrub. They are also known to inhabit agricultural land and pasture in some areas and they are among the major predators on cavies, including wild guinea pigs, and also of nesting grebes. They are semi-plantigrade, walking partly on the soles of their feet and they possess anal scent glands that spray a noxious chemical similar to, but probably weaker than, that of skunks. They are monogamous, hunting together when raising their litters of two to five young, lesser grisons hunt primarily during the day, locating their prey at least partly by scent. They are either solitary, or live in family groups of parents and offspring. They are said to be fierce, and to play with their food for up to 45 minutes before eating it. During the night, they sleep in trees or natural crevices. Burrows may be as deep as 4 m, and have entrances obscured by leaves, lesser grisons can be tamed if raised from a young age. They were used in the past to hunt wild chinchillas, pursuing them down burrows in a manner to ferrets. They are still kept to control rodents on farms, although they may also be hunted. They have also reported to be amongst the most frequent species among mammalian roadkill in Brazil. Lesser grisons can act as a reservoir for Chagas disease, one apparent sacrificial burial from Argentina has been dated to 1,420 BP
40.
White-eared opossum
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The white-eared opossum is an opossum species found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It is a terrestrial and, sometimes, arboreal animal, for some time, this species was incorrectly known by the name D. azarae, correctly applied to the big-eared opossum. This led to azaraes discontinuation as a species name, from 1993 until 2002, this species also included the Guianan white-eared opossum and the Andean white-eared opossum as subspecies. It is the mascot of Clube Náutico Capibaribe, a Brazilian football team from Recife. The white-eared opossum is one to three pounds in weight and has black and grey fur, with white hair covering their ears and face. They are omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates, small vertebrates, and these areas have disparate environmental characteristics such as rainfall, humidity, water balance and temperature. The white-eared opossum often changes its habitat depending on its breeding season, usually populations are higher in the wetter seasons when the young are weaned and begin venturing out for food. Though normally solitary and nomadic, some will group together in burrows, holes, south American opossums mainly consume invertebrates such as beetles, diplopods, and opiliones, together with fruit and vertebrates like small birds, mammals, fossorial snakes, and fish. The composition of the changes with the seasons and as the animal ages. During the dry season, older opossums prefer to consume vertebrates, on the other hand, the younger opossums consume more invertebrates and fruits during the wet season. These relatively small differences in diet can favour the survival of younger opossums during the wet season because they avoid competition with older animals, the diet of white-eared opossums also makes them effective seed dispersers. Younger opossums consume smaller fruits than older opossums, so usually the adult opossums disperse larger seeds, however, proportionally, smaller seeds have more chance to pass through the gut without damage
41.
Molina's hog-nosed skunk
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Molina’s hog-nosed skunk, Conepatus chinga, is similar to the common skunk with scent glands used to spray an odorous liquid to offend potential predators. They have a resistance to pit viper venom, distinct white markings. The Molina’s hog-nosed skunk’s native range is throughout mid to southern South America, Chile, Peru, northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. The mammal is therefore associated with regions and open areas, mainly described as the Pampas biome and preferring to live in open vegetation, shrub forest. Typically they will live alone in a home range size of about 1.66 individuals/km^2 with some overlapping. Although living in mostly solitary areas, the skunks will come together temporarily for mating purposes, foraging mainly at night, the skunk is omnivorous eating birds, small mammals, eggs, insects, leaves, and fruit. The skunk is listed as “least concerned” according to the IUCN Redlist, the main threats of the skunk are increased habitat destruction and fragmentation from over exploitation of humans and grazing of agriculture. The skunk is also affected by the planning of new roads, due to improper planning, habitat destruction, and fragmentation, the skunk has started living around man-made structures and along fences and buildings. The Andes, A Trekking Guide Infonatura
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