1.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
2.
Hardcover
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A hardcover or hardback book is one bound with rigid protective covers. It has a flexible, sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened, following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk. Hardcover books are printed on acid-free paper, and are much more durable than paperbacks. Hardcover books are more costly to manufacture. If brisk sales are anticipated, an edition of a book is typically released first. Some publishers publish paperback originals if slow hardback sales are anticipated, for very popular books these sales cycles may be extended, and followed by a mass market paperback edition typeset in a more compact size and printed on shallower, less hardy paper. In the past the release of an edition was one year after the hardback. It is very unusual for a book that was first published in paperback to be followed by a hardback, an example is the novel The Judgment of Paris by Gore Vidal, which had its revised edition of 1961 first published in paperback, and later in hardcover. Hardcover books are sold at higher prices than comparable paperbacks. Hardcovers typically consist of a block, two boards, and a cloth or heavy paper covering. The pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, and it too is covered by the cloth, a paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is usually put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is generally a blurb, the back flap is where the biography of the author can be found. Reviews are often placed on the back of the jacket, bookbinding Paperback How to make a simple Hardcover book
3.
Bookbinding
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Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
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Paper
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Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
5.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
6.
Periodical literature
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Periodical literature is a published work that appears in a new edition on a regular schedule. The most familiar example is the magazine, typically published weekly, monthly, newspapers, often published daily or weekly, are, strictly speaking, serials, not periodicals. Other examples of periodicals are newsletters, literary magazines, academic journals, science magazines and these examples are typically published and referenced by volume and issue. Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, for example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, Volume 10, Issue 4. Roman numerals are used in reference to the Volume number. When citing a work in a periodical, there are standardized formats such as The Chicago Manual of Style. In the latest edition of this style, a work with volume number 17 and issue number 3 may be written as follows, James M. Heilman, wikipedia and Medicine, Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language. Journal of Medical Internet Research 17, no.3, periodicals can be classified into two types, popular and scholarly. Scholarly journals are most commonly found in libraries and databases, examples are The Journal of Psychology and the Journal of Social Work. Trade/professional magazine are also examples of periodicals and they are written for an audience of professionals in the world. As of the early 1990s, there were over 6,000 business, technical, academic, scientific and trade publications in the United States alone. These examples are related to the idea of a continuing cycle of production and publication, magazines plan to continue publishing. A novel, in contrast, might be published in monthly parts and this approach is called part-publication, particularly when each part is from a whole work, or a serial, for example in comic books. It flourished during the century, for example with Abraham John Valpys Delphin Classics. The International Standard Serial Number is to serial publications what the International Standard Book Number is to books, postal services often carry periodicals at a preferential rate, for example, Second Class Mail in the United States only applies to publications issued at least quarterly
7.
Middle English
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This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
8.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
9.
Codex
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A codex is a book constructed of a number of sheets of paper, vellum, papyrus, or similar materials, with hand-written contents. The book is bound by stacking the pages and fixing one edge. Some codices are continuously folded like a concertina, the alternative to paged codex format for a long document is the continuous scroll. Examples of folded codices include the Maya codices, sometimes people use the term for a book-style format, including modern printed books but excluding folded books. The Romans developed the form from wooden writing tablets, the codexs gradual replacement of the scroll—the dominant book form in the ancient world—has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of printing. The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that lasted for centuries, the spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of Christianity, which adopted the format for use with the Bible early on. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible, the codex began to replace the scroll almost as soon as it was invented. In Egypt, by the century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature, technically, even modern paperbacks are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for manuscript books produced from Late antiquity until the Middle Ages. The scholarly study of manuscripts from the point of view of the bookbinding craft is called codicology. The study of ancient documents in general is called paleography, the Romans used precursors made of reusable wax-covered tablets of wood for taking notes and other informal writings. Two ancient polyptychs, a pentatych and octotych, excavated at Herculaneum used a connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords. Julius Caesar may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to pages in the form of a note-book. At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called pugillares membranei in Latin became commonly used for writing in the Roman Empire, theodore Cressy Skeat theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East. Codices are described in works by the Classical Latin poet. He wrote a series of five couplets meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of Saturnalia. ”Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have widely used as personal notebooks. The parchment notebook pages were commonly washed or scraped for re-use and consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal, as early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among Christians. In the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, however, in the Nag Hammadi library, hidden about AD390, all texts are codices
10.
Tract (literature)
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A tract is a literary work, and in current usage, usually religious in nature. The notion of what constitutes a tract has changed over time, by the early part of the 21st century, these meant small pamphlets used for religious and political purposes, though far more often the former. They are often left for someone to find or handed out. However, there have been times in history when the term implied tome-like works, the distribution of tracts pre-dates the development of the printing press, with the term being applied by scholars to religious and political works at least as early as the 13th century. They were used to disseminate the teachings of John Wycliffe in the 14th century, as a political tool, they proliferated throughout Europe during the 17th century. They were printed as persuasive religious material from the time of Gutenbergs invention, as religious literature, tracts were used throughout the turbulence of the Protestant Reformation and the various upheavals of the 17th century. These tracts were written by a group of Anglican clergy including John Henry Newman, John Keble, Henry Edward Manning and they were theological discourses that sought to establish the continuity between the Church of England and the patristic period of church history. They had a vast influence on Anglo-Catholicism and they were learned works and varied in length from four to over 400 pages. An important center for the spreading of tracts was the London-based Religious Tract Society, the publishing of tracts for religious purposes has continued unabated, with many evangelical tract ministries, in particular, existing today. In the United States, the American Tract Society has continuously published literature of this type since 1825, the Watch Tower Society continues to publish hundreds of millions of religious tracts in more than 400 languages, which are distributed by Jehovahs Witnesses. As evangelistic tools, tracts became prominent in the Jesus movement, one of the most widely distributed was The Four Spiritual Laws authored by Bill Bright of Campus Crusade for Christ and first published in 1965. This Was Your Life was the first of many written by Jack Chick. Later Chick tracts followed the pattern of vivid cartoon images and began to focus on issues of Fundamentalist Christianity, more recently Living Waters Publications prints tracts such as The Atheist Test or Are You Good Enough to Go to Heaven. As well as tracts which feature attention-getting illusions or gags and these include the Million Dollar Bill, which caused a legal controversy in June 2006. Most Christian tract ministries operate as non-profit faith organizations, some to the degree that they do not require a fee for their tracts, tracting is a colloquialism commonly used by Mormon missionaries to refer to door-to-door proselytizing, whether or not actual tracts are dispensed. Brochure-like tracts, also known as pamphlets, advocating political positions have also used throughout history as well. They were used throughout Europe in the 17th century, a well-known example of a far-reaching tract from this era is Common Sense by Thomas Paine. Tracts were used for political purposes throughout the 20th century and they were used to spread Nazi propaganda in central Europe during the 1930s and 1940s
11.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
12.
Marketing
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Marketing is the study and management of exchange relationships. Marketing is used to create the customer, to keep the customer, with the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that Marketing is one of the premier components of Business Management - the other being Innovation. Other services and management activities such as Operations, Human Resources, Accounting, Law, the term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably, a similar concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value. Marketing practice tended to be seen as an industry in the past. The overall process starts with marketing research and goes through market segmentation, business planning and execution, ending with pre and it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also adept at re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times, the term marketing concept pertains to the fundamental premise of modern marketing. This concept proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, Marketing and marketing concepts are directly related. An orientation, in the context, relates to a perception or attitude a firm holds towards its product or service. There exist several common orientations, A firm employing a product orientation is chiefly concerned with the quality of its own product, a firm would also assume that as long as its product was of a high standard, people would buy and consume the product. A firm using a sales orientation focuses primarily on the selling/promotion of a particular product, consequently, this entails simply selling an already existing product, and using promotion techniques to attain the highest sales possible. Such an orientation may suit scenarios in which a firm holds dead stock, or otherwise sells a product that is in high demand, a firm focusing on a production orientation specializes in producing as much as possible of a given product or service. Thus, this signifies a firm exploiting economies of scale, until the minimum efficient scale is reached, a production orientation may be deployed when a high demand for a product or service exists, coupled with a good certainty that consumer tastes do not rapidly alter. The marketing orientation is perhaps the most common used in contemporary marketing. It involves a firm essentially basing its marketing plans around the marketing concept, the marketing orientation often has three prime facets, which are, A firm in the market economy can survive by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for a firms future viability, in this sense, a firms marketing department is often seen as of prime importance within the functional level of an organization. Information from a marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments within the firm. As an example, a department could ascertain that consumers desired a new type of product
13.
Party platform
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Plank is the term often given to the components of the political platform – the opinions and viewpoints about individual topics, as held by a party, person, or organization. The word plank depicts a component of a political platform. The metaphor can return to its origin when public speaking or debates are actually held upon a physical platform. A party platform is referred to as a manifesto or a political platform. Research on American politics suggests that platform positions offer important clues as to the policies that U. S. parties will enact, over the past 30 years, Democratic and Republican congresspeople voted in line with their respective party platforms 74% and 89% of the time, respectively. The first known use of the platform was in 1535. The word platform comes from Middle French plate-forme, literally meaning flat form, the political meaning of the word to reflect statement of party politics is from 1803, probably originally an image of a literal platform on which politicians gather, stand, and make their appeals. S
14.
Protest
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A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
15.
Political campaign
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A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group. In democracies, political campaigns often refer to campaigns, by which representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. In modern politics, the most high-profile political campaigns are focused on elections and candidates for head of state or head of government. The message of the campaign contains the ideas that the wants to share with the voters. It is to get those who agree with their ideas to them when running for a political position. The message often consists of talking points about policy issues. The points summarize the ideas of the campaign and are repeated frequently in order to create a lasting impression with the voters. In many elections, the party will try to get the candidate off message by bringing up policy or personal questions that are not related to the talking points. Most campaigns prefer to keep the message broad in order to attract the most potential voters, a message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow the candidate down with explaining details. Barack Obama ran on a consistent, simple message of change throughout his campaign, however, even if the message is crafted carefully, it does not assure the candidate a victory at the polls. For a winning candidate, the message is refined and then becomes his or her in office, in a modern political campaign, the campaign organization will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size. Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaigns operations, apart from a candidate, they are often a campaigns most visible leader. Political consultants advise campaigns on all of their activities, from research to field strategy. Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients, activists are the foot soldiers loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists. Such volunteers and interns may take part in such as canvassing door-to-door. Modern political campaigns have set new standards for how successful campaigns are conducted day-to-day. The daily schedule of a campaign is hyperextended, and often has no definite beginning or end, only a series of tasks to be completed by certain benchmark times, or, most often. COB for political campaigns is generally defined as the time at night at which your supervisor is required to report his/her numbers, only a very small fraction of campaign workers do the bulk of their work during traditional business hours
16.
Pamphleteer
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Pamphleteer is a historical term for someone who creates or distributes pamphlets, unbound booklets intended for wide circulation. Pamphlets were used to broadcast the writers opinions, to articulate a political ideology, for example, during times of political unrest, such as the French Revolution, pamphleteers were highly active in attempting to shape public opinion. Before the advent of telecommunications, those with access to a printing press, thomas Paines pamphlets were influential in the history of the American Revolutionary War. 17th-century Dutch naval officer Witte Corneliszoon de With wrote papers mocking and praising his fellow officers, poet and polemicist John Milton published pamphlets as well
17.
Book collecting
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The love of books is bibliophilia, and someone who loves to read, admire, and collect books is a bibliophile. Bibliophile book collecting is distinct from casual book ownership and the accumulation of books for reading, duke Philip the Good of Burgundy appears to have had the largest private collection of his day, with about six hundred volumes. There was an English antiquarian reaction to Henry VIIIs dissolution of the Monasteries, the commissioners of Edward VI plundered and stripped university, college, and monastic libraries, so to save books from being destroyed, those who could began to collect them. Book collecting can be easy and inexpensive, there are millions of new and used books, and thousands of bookstores, including online booksellers like Abebooks, Alibris, Amazon, and Biblio. com. Only the wealthiest book collectors pursue the great rarities, the Gutenberg Bible and Shakespeares First Folio are, for example, Collectors of average means may collect works by a favorite author, first editions of modern authors, or books on a given subject. Book prices generally depend on the demand for a book, the number of copies available. There are associations that collectors may join, the Fine Press Book Association is aimed at collectors of modern fine printing, and produces its journal, Parenthesis, twice a year. The Private Libraries Association covers modern fine printing too, but is more general in its outlook and produces a quarterly journal. There are millions of books, so collectors necessarily specialize in one or more genres or subgenres of literature, a reader of fiction, who enjoys Westerns, might decide to collect first editions of Zane Greys novels. A lover of modern English poetry might collect the works of W H Auden, a Californian who prefers non-fiction might look for books about the history of the San Francisco Bay Area. Individual interests may include, A particular author or genre or field of study A particular illustrator Award winning books Books as Art Bindings and/or Book design, the Grolier Club has since 1884 been interested in the. Study of the arts pertaining to the production of books, stages of publication, advance review copies, galley proofs Related collecting interests include collecting bookplates, autographs, and ephemera. Book prices generally depend on the demand for a book, the number of copies available for purchase. As with other collectibles, prices rise and fall with the popularity of an author, title. Because of the number of books for sale, there is no single comprehensive price guide for collectible books. The prices of the copies listed for sale at the online bookseller sites provide some indication of their current market values, as with other collectibles, the value of a book ultimately depends on its physical condition. Years of handling, moving, and storage take their toll on the dust jacket, cover, pages, Books are subject to damage from sunlight, moisture, and insects. Acid from the process can cause the pages to develop brown spots, called foxing, gradually turn brown, called tanning
18.
Library
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A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC
19.
New York Public Library
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The New York Public Library is a public library system in New York City. With nearly 53 million items, the New York Public Library is the second largest public library in the United States and it is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, nonprofit corporation operating with both private and public financing. The library has branches in the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island, the City of New Yorks other two boroughs, Brooklyn and Queens, are served by the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Library, respectively. The branch libraries are open to the public and consist of circulating libraries. The New York Public Library also has four libraries which are open to the general public as well. At the behest of Joseph Cogswell, John Jacob Astor placed a codicil in his will to bequeath $400,000 for the creation of a public library. After Astors death in 1848, the board of trustees executed the wills conditions. The library created was a reference library, its books were not permitted to circulate. An act of the New York State Legislature incorporated the Lenox Library in 1870, the library was built on Fifth Avenue, between 40th and 42nd streets, in 1877. Bibliophile and philanthropist James Lenox donated a vast collection of his Americana, art works, manuscripts, at its inception, the library charged admission and did not permit physical access to any literary items. Both the Astor and Lenox libraries were struggling financially, although New York City already had numerous libraries in the 19th century, almost all of them were privately funded and many charged admission or usage fees. On May 23,1895, Bigelow and representatives of the two agreed to create The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The plan was hailed as an example of philanthropy for the public good. The newly established library consolidated with the grass-roots New York Free Circulating Library in February 1901, the trustees hired McKim, Mead & White, Carrère and Hastings, and Walter Cook to design all the branch libraries. The notable New York author Washington Irving was a friend of Astor for decades and had helped the philanthropist design the Astor Library. They saw their role as protecting the librarys autonomy from politicians as well as bestowing upon it status, resources, representative of many major board decisions was the purchase in 1931 of the private library of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, uncle of the last tsar. This was one of the largest acquisitions of Russian books and photographic materials, at the time, the military drew extensively from the librarys map and book collections in the world wars, including hiring its staff. For example, the Map Divisions chief Walter Ristow was appointed as head of the section of the War Departments New York Office of Military Intelligence from 1942 to 1945
20.
New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
21.
Jo Labadie
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Charles Joseph Antoine Jo Labadie was an American labor organizer, anarchist, Greenbacker, social activist, printer, publisher, essayist, and poet. His boyhood was a frontier existence among Potawatomi tribes in southern Michigan and his only formal schooling was a few months in a parochial school. Labadie began five years of printing and then settled in Detroit as a printer for the Detroit Post. He married his first cousin, Sophie Elizabeth Archambeau, in 1877 and their children were Laura, Charlotte, and Laurance, also a prominent anarchist essayist. The family was involved in the film and the entertainment industry in the Detroit area. Labadie joined the newly formed Socialist Labor Party in Detroit at the age of 27, as a printer, he was also a member of Detroits Typographical Union 18 and was one of its two delegates to the International Typographical Union convention in Detroit in 1878. In 1878 Labadie organized Detroits first assembly of the Knights of Labor and his column Cranky Notions was widely published. In 1883 Labadie embraced individualist anarchism, a non-violent doctrine and he became closely allied with Benjamin Tucker, the countrys foremost exponent of that doctrine, and frequently wrote for the latters publication, Liberty. Without the oppression of the state, Labadie believed, humans would choose to harmonize with the natural laws. without robbing fellows through interest, profit, rent. Labadie supported localized public cooperation, and was an advocate for community control of utilities, streets. Although he did not support the militant anarchism of the Haymarket anarchists and he broke with the Knights of Labor when their national leader, Terence V. Powderly, repudiated the defendants completely. In 1888, Labadie organized the Michigan Federation of Labor, becoming its first president, at age fifty he began writing verse and publishing artistic hand-crafted booklets. In 1908, the city postal inspector refused to handle his mail because it bore stickers with anarchist quotations, a month later the Detroit Water Board, where Labadie worked as a clerk, dismissed him from his post for expressing anarchist sentiments. In both cases, public officials were forced to back down in the face of public protests in support of Labadie. The libraries of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Labadie sought instead to keep the material as near to his hometown of Detroit as possible and contacted the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor about their potential acquisition of the material. While the University of Michigan was slow to show interest in the collection, the report returned on Labadies collection was negative, dismissed as a great mass of stuff. In 1912 twenty crates of material were moved from Labadies attic to Ann Arbor, Labadie spent his later years soliciting donations to the collection from friends and acquaintances, donating hundreds more items himself to the library in 1926. Agnes Inglis cataloged and organized the collection, the collection thus preserved is today regarded as among the finest accumulations of 19th Century radical ephemera in the United States
22.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
23.
Flyer (pamphlet)
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A flyer is a form of paper advertisement intended for wide distribution and typically posted or distributed in a public place, handed out to individuals or sent through the mail. In the 2010s, flyers range from inexpensively photocopied leaflets to expensive, glossy, a flyer is also called a flier, circular, handbill, pamphlet, poster, lit, weekly ad, catalogue or leaflet. Persuade people about a social, religious, or political message, Flyers have been used in armed conflict, for example, airborne leaflet propaganda has been a tactic of psychological warfare. Recruit members for organizations or companies, like postcards, pamphlets and small posters, flyers are a low-cost form of mass marketing or communication. There are many different flyer formats, some examples include, A4 A5 DL A6 Flyers are inexpensive to produce and they required only a basic printing press from the 18th century to the 20th century. Their widespread use intensified in the 1990s with the spread of less expensive desktop publishing systems, in the 2010s, inexpensive black and white flyers can be produced with just a personal computer, computer printer and photocopier. In the 2010s, the ordering of flyers through traditional printing services has been supplanted by Internet services, customers send designs, review proofs online or via e-mail and receive the final products by mail. Flyers are not a new medium, prior to the War of American Independence some colonists were outraged with the Stamp Act and gathered together in anti-stamp act congresses and meetings. In these congresses they had to win support, and issued handbills and leaflets, pamphlets, along with other written paraphernalia, in the 2000s, some jurisdictions have laws or ordinances banning or restricting leafleting or flyering in certain locations. Owners of private property may put up signs saying Post No Bills, bulletin boards are found on college campuses, in cafés, community meeting houses, laundromats and small markets. The electronic flyer may be embedded into the body of the e-mail or added as an attachment to be opened, Jordan, Summer Forest Hoeckel, Jason A. Forest Jordan & Neil Strauss, ISBN 0-8230-4751-2 Media related to Hand bills at Wikimedia Commons
24.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
25.
Online Etymology Dictionary
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The Online Etymology Dictionary is a free online dictionary that describes the origins of English-language words. Douglas Harper compiled the etymology dictionary to record the history and evolution of more than 30,000 words, including slang, the core body of its etymology information stems from Ernest Weekleys An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. Other sources include the Middle English Dictionary and the Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, in producing his large dictionary, Douglas Harper says that he is essentially and for the most part a compiler, an evaluator of etymology reports which others have made. Harper works as a Copy editor/Page designer for LNP Media Group, as of June 2015, there were nearly 50,000 entries in the dictionary. It is cited in articles as a source for explaining the history
26.
Henry Liddell
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Lewis Carroll wrote Alices Adventures in Wonderland for Henry Liddells daughter Alice. Liddell received his education at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford and he gained a double first degree in 1833, then became a college tutor, and was ordained in 1838. Liddell was Headmaster of Westminster School from 1846 to 1855, meanwhile, his life work, the great lexicon, which he and Robert Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first edition of Liddell and Scotts Lexicon appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard Greek–English dictionary, with the 8th edition published in 1897, as Headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, Oxford, in the same year he brought out his History of Ancient Rome and took a very active part in the first Oxford University Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were for years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford life. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the then Prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, while he was Dean of Christ Church, he arranged for the building of a new choir school and classrooms for the staff and pupils of Christ Church Cathedral School on its present site. Before then the school was housed within Christ Church itself, in July 1846, Liddell married Miss Lorina Reeve, with whom he had several children, including Alice Liddell of Lewis Carroll fame. In conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the study of art at Oxford, in 1891, owing to advancing years, he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, where he died on 18 January 1898, Two roads in Ascot, Liddell Way and Carroll Crescent honour the relationship between Henry Liddell and Lewis Carroll. Liddell was an Oxford character in later years and he figures in contemporary undergraduate doggerel, I am the Dean, this Mrs Liddell. She plays first, I, second fiddle and she is the Broad, I am the High – We are the University. The Victorian journalist, George W. E and his father was Henry Liddell, Rector of Easington, the younger son of Sir Henry Liddell, 5th Baronet and the former Elizabeth Steele. His fathers elder brother, Sir Thomas Liddell, 6th Baronet, was raised to the Peerage as Baron Ravensworth in 1821 and his mother was the former Charlotte Lyon, a daughter of Thomas Lyon and the former Mary Wren. On 2 July 1846, Henry married Lorina Reeve and they were parents of ten children, Edward Harry Liddell. Alice Pleasance Liddell, for whom the story of the childrens classic Alices Adventures in Wonderland was originally told, rhoda Caroline Anne Liddell, she was invested as an Officer, Order of the British Empire in 1920. Albert Edward Arthur Liddell, he died in infancy, violet Constance Liddell, she was invested as a Member, Order of the British Empire in 1920. Sir Frederick Francis Liddell, First Parliamentary Counsel and Ecclesiastical Commissioner, lionel Charles Liddell, he was British Consul to Lyons and Copenhagen
27.
Box
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Box describes a variety of containers and receptacles for permanent use as storage, or for temporary use, often for transporting contents. Boxes may be made of materials such as wood or metal, or of corrugated fiberboard, paperboard. The size may vary from small to the size of a large appliance. A corrugated box is a common shipping container. A decorative or storage box may be opened by raising, pulling, sliding or removing the lid, several types of boxes are used in packaginlolg and storage. A corrugated box is a container made of corrugated fiberboard. These are most commonly used to transport and warehouse products during distribution, a folding carton is fabricated from paperboard. The paperboard is printed, die-cut and scored to form a blank and these are transported and stored flat, and erected at the point of filling. These are used to package a wide range of goods, intended either for use or as a storage box for the remaining goods. A set up box is made of paperboard, permanently glued together with paper skins that can be printed or colored. Unlike folding cartons, these are assembled at the point of manufacture, set-up boxes are more expensive than folding boxes and are typically used for protecting high value items such as cosmetics, watches or smaller consumer electronics. A crate is a heavy duty shipping container made of wood. Crates are distinct from wooden boxes, also used as heavy duty shipping containers, for a wooden container to be a crate, all six of its sides must be put in place to result in the rated strength of the container. The strength of a box, on the other hand, is rated based on the weight it can carry before the top or opening is installed. A bulk box is a large box often used in industrial environments and it is sized to fit well on a pallet. Depending on locale and specific usage, the carton and box are sometimes used interchangeably. The invention of large steel intermodal shipping containers has helped advance the globalization of commerce, boxes for storing various items in can often be very decorative, as they are intended for permanent use and sometimes are put on display in certain locations. A jewelry or jewellery box, is a box for trinkets or jewels and it can take a very modest form with paper covering and lining, covered in leather and lined with satin, or be larger and more highly decorated
28.
Carton
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A carton is a box or container usually made of paperboard and sometimes of corrugated fiberboard. Many types of cartons are used in packaging, sometimes a carton is also called a box. A carton is a type of packaging suitable for food, pharmaceuticals, hardware, folding cartons are usually combined into a tube at the manufacturer and shipped flat to the packager. Tray styles have a bottom and are often shipped as flat blanks. High-speed equipment is available to set up, load, and close the cartons, egg cartons or trays are designed to protect whole eggs while in transit. Traditionally these have made of molded pulp. This uses recycled newsprint which is molded into a shape which protects the eggs, more recently egg cartons have also been made from expanded polystyrene and PET. Cartons for liquids can be fabricated from laminates of liquid packaging board, foil, most are based on either Tetra Pak or SIG Combibloc systems. One option is to have the printed laminate supplied on a roll, the carton is cut, scored, and formed at the packager. A second option is to have the pre-assembled tubes delivered to the packager for completion and these are suited for aseptic processing and are used for milk, soup, juice, etc. Gable top cartons are used for liquid products such as milk, juice. These use polyethylene-coated liquid packaging board and sometimes a foil laminate, most are opened by pushing open the gables at the top back and pulling the top out. Some have fitments to assist in opening and pouring the contents, the history of the carton goes as far back as 1879 in a Brooklyn, New York, factory operated by Robert Gair. A die-ruled, cut, and scored paperboard into an impression of a folded carton. By 1896, the National Biscuit Company was the first to use cartons to package crackers, the inventor of this carton was G. W. However, it was in 1915 that John Van Wormer of Toledo, Ohio, was granted the first patent for the first paper bottle, which was the first folded blank box for holding milk. The milk carton was original in the sense that it could be folded, glued, filled with milk, the early 1960s brought many automated systems to help with production of repeatable processes. It was at time that an engineer from Detroit, Michigan, named Mario Lepore developed a machine to fold
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Corrugated box design
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Corrugated box design is the process of matching design factors for corrugated fiberboard boxes with the functional physical, processing and end-use requirements. Packaging engineers work to meet the requirements of a box while controlling total costs throughout the system. In addition to the structural design discussed in article, printed bar codes, labels. Corrugated boxes are used frequently as shipping containers, boxes need to contain the product from manufacturing through distribution to sale and sometimes end-use. Boxes provide some measure of protection by themselves but often require inner components such as cushioning, bracing and blocking to help protect fragile contents. The shipping hazards depend largely upon the particular system being employed. Ordinary shipping containers require printing and labels to identify the contents, provide legal and regulatory information, boxes that are used for marketing, merchandising, and point-of-sale often have high graphics to help communicate the contents. Some boxes are designed for display of contents on the shelf, others are designed to help dispense the contents. Popular for their strength, durability, lightness, recyclability, and cost-effectiveness, due to the quality and safety of packaging items in corrugated boxes, they are used widely in the food industry. The boxes handle the pressure that comes with stacking, making them ideal for easy transporting, more than 95% of all products in the United States are shipped in corrugated boxes. Corrugated paperboard accounts for more than half of all the paper recycled in the US, one of the important functions of a corrugated box is to provide crush resistance and adequate strength for stacking in warehouses. A box can be designed by optimizing the grade of corrugated board, box design, flute direction, support from the product also provides load sharing and can be an important factor. Box closures sometimes can have effects on box stacking strength, if long-term storage of corrugated boxes in high humidity is expected, extra strength and moisture resistance is called for. The method of loading boxes on pallets strongly affects stacking, vertical columns provide the best box performance while interlocking patterns of boxes significantly reduce performance. The interaction of the boxes and pallets is also important, Box compression testing is a means of evaluating boxes, stacks of boxes, and unit loads under controlled conditions. Field conditions of stacking and dynamic compression do not have the degree of control. Compression strength can be estimated based on construction, size. Many packaging engineers find it beneficial to periodically audit warehouses and visit customers package receiving operations, when field performance is observed or documented to have problems, a new cycle of design and testing may be justified
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Cigarette pack
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A pack or packet of cigarettes is a rectangular container, mostly of paperboard, which contains cigarettes. The pack is designed with a foil, paper or biodegradable plastic. By pulling the pull-tabs, the pack is opened, hard packs can be closed again after opening, whereas soft packs cannot. Cigarette packs often contain warning messages depending on which country they are sold in, the size of a pack is often regulated. Government agencies usually set a minimum pack size, in Australia, the most common quantity per pack is 25, although some brands have changed them to 26, second to 20 which by law, is the minimum. 30,40 and even 50 packs are also sold, in Canada, most packs sold have 25 cigarettes, but packs of 20 are also popular. In many European countries, increases of cigarette tax can cause the quantity of cigarettes in the pack to change, in Malaysia, the selling of packs containing fewer than 20 cigarettes is prohibited. In the United States of America, the quantity of cigarettes in a pack must be at least 20, certain brands, such as Export As, come in a pack of 25. For many years, half-packs of 10 cigarettes were commonly available, in the United Kingdom brands are usually sold in packets of 20 but most popular brands are also available in 10s. Vending machines often dispense packets containing 16 or 18 cigarettes, although the dimensions of the packaging are the same as the equivalent packet containing 20. Despite this, due to plain packaging laws being enforced in May 2017, packs of 10 will be banned from UK markets, a carton of cigarettes usually contains 10 packs, totaling 200 cigarettes. Some cartons contain twenty packs, totaling 400 cigarettes, a hard pack is the usual style of paperboard packaging for store bought cigarettes, which consists of a relatively stable box. This successfully prevents the crumpling of cigarettes when kept in a pocket or handbag. The flip-top hard pack cigarette case was introduced in 1955 by Philip Morris, a soft pack is a box packaging made of thin paper, usually containing 20 cigarettes. Soft packs may be considered inconvenient as they easily and cannot be resealed. They offer the convenience of not having to open the package each time the smoker wants a cigarette. They require less physical space when fewer cigarettes remain in the pack. With American brands, cigarettes from a pack are usually a few millimeters longer than their hard-boxed counterparts
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Coffee cup sleeve
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Coffee sleeves are typically made of textured paperboard, but can be found made of other materials. Coffee sleeves allow coffee houses, fast food restaurants, and other vendors to avoid double-cupping, some paper cup holders carry advertisements. There are a number of patents that cover various coffee sleeves, other people have claimed to invent the coffee sleeve. The sleeve was invented while Sorensen was driving his daughter Ryeder to school, the java jacket first appeared at the Seattle Coffeefest in 1995 and Sorensen and his wife Colleen were overwhelmed with requests and orders to fill. Coffee cup sleeves can be customized by having logos or brands printed directly on the sleeves, many coffee shops have custom printed coffee sleeves. Coffee sleeves should not be confused with fixed cup holders, in the 2008 movie Made of Honor, Patrick Dempseys character Thomas Tom Bailey invented the coffee cup sleeve and calls it the coffee collar
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Corrugated fiberboard
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Corrugated fiberboard is a material consisting of a fluted corrugated sheet and one or two flat linerboards. It is made on flute lamination machines or corrugators and is used in the manufacture of shipping containers, the corrugated medium and linerboard board both are made of kraft containerboard, a paperboard material usually over 0.01 inches thick. Corrugated fiberboard and paperboard are sometimes called corrugated cardboard, although cardboard might be any heavy paper-pulp based board. Corrugated paper was patented in England in 1856, and used as a liner for tall hats, the patent was issued to Albert Jones of New York City for single-sided corrugated board. Jones used the board for wrapping bottles and glass lantern chimneys. The first machine for producing large quantities of corrugated board was built in 1874 by G, the Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890 – flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, applying this idea to corrugated boxboard was a straightforward development when the material became available in the early twentieth century. The corrugated box was used for packaging glass and pottery containers. Later, in the mid-1950s, the case enabled fruit and produce to be brought from the farm to the retailer without bruising, improving the return to the producers, several properties and characteristics can be measured for corrugated board. Included are, Edge crush test Burst strength Flat crush test Bending resistance Impact resistance Cushioning, shock absorption Tear resistance Grammage for components, Corrugated fiberboard is anisotropic, many of its properties a highly directional. For example, edge crush, bending stiffness, tensile, and surface characteristics are different, depending on the orientation to the flutes, Corrugated board is manufactured on large high-precision machinery lines called corrugators, usually running at about 500 feet per minute or more. These machines, over time, have very complex with the objective of avoiding some common problems in corrugated board production, such as warp. The key raw material in corrugating is paper, different grades for each layer making up the corrugated box, due to supply chain and scale considerations, paper is produced in separate plants called paper mills. Most corrugating plants keep an inventory of paper reels, in the classical corrugator, the paper is softened with high-pressure steam. After the board is formed it is dried in the so-called dry-end, here the newly formed corrugated board is heated from the bottom by hot plates. On the top, various pressures are applied by a system on the belt. The corrugated medium is often 0.026 pounds per foot basis weight in the U. S. in the UK. At the single-facer, it is heated, moistened, and formed into a pattern on geared wheels
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Envelope
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An envelope is a common packaging item, usually made of thin flat material. It is designed to contain an object, such as a letter or card. Traditional envelopes are made from sheets of cut to one of three shapes, a rhombus, a short-arm cross, or a kite. These shapes allow for the creation of the structure by folding the sheet sides around a central rectangular area. In this manner, an enclosure is formed with an arrangement of four flaps on the reverse side. Although in principle the flaps can be held in place by securing the topmost flap at a single point and they are most commonly used for enclosing and sending mail through a prepaid-postage postal system. Window envelopes have a cut in the front side that allows the paper within to be seen. They are generally arranged so that the address printed on the letter is visible. The window is covered with a transparent or translucent film to protect the letter inside, as was first designed by Americus F. Callahan in 1901. In some cases, shortages of materials or the need to economize resulted in envelopes that had no film covering the window, one innovative process, invented in Europe about 1905, involved using hot oil to saturate the area of the envelope where the address would appear. The treated area became sufficiently translucent for the address to be readable, as of 2009 there is no international standard for window envelopes, but some countries, including Germany and the United Kingdom, have national standards. An aerogram is related to a lettersheet, both being designed to have writing on the inside to minimize the weight, if desired, a separate letter could be enclosed with postage remaining at one penny provided the combined weight did not exceed half an ounce. This was a legacy of the system of calculating postage. During the U. S. Civil War those in the Confederate States Army occasionally used envelopes made from wallpaper, due to financial hardship. A return envelope is a pre-addressed, smaller envelope included as the contents of an envelope and can be used for courtesy reply mail, metered reply mail. Some envelopes are designed to be reused as the return envelope, the direct mail industry makes extensive use of return envelopes as a response mechanism. Up until 1840, all envelopes were handmade, each being individually cut to the appropriate shape out of a rectangular sheet. In 1845 Edwin Hill and Warren de la Rue obtained a patent for a machine that not only cut out the envelope shapes
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Molded pulp
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Molded pulp, also named moulded pulp or molded fibre, is a packaging material, typically made from recycled paperboard and/or newsprint. It is used for packaging or for food service trays. Other typical uses are end caps, trays, plates, bowls, for many applications, molded pulp is less expensive than expanded polystyrene, vacuumed formed PET and PVC, corrugation, and foams. Molded pulp products can be made waterproof with a spray or dip coating of wax, several types of molded pulp can be manufactured by several processes. These products usually have wall thicknesses of 1/16 to 1/4 and are used primarily for support packaging applications, thick-Wall is also commonly referred to as Slush Molded. The surfaces are rough on one side and moderately smooth on the opposite side. Product definition is due to the use of relatively inexpensive single-pass molds. Typical uses are for edge and edge protector, heavy item packaging, auto replacement parts, transfer molded products are usually thin walled, 1/16 to 3/16, and are the most prevalent type in use today. The process uses vacuum forming and take-off or transfer molds, where the mold is a fine wire mesh in the shape of the upper/exposed surface. Prior to the process, the mesh is mated with a vacuum chamber that draws water through the mesh into the chamber. The fibrous slurry is sprayed from below onto the mold, typical uses of transfer molded products are for packaging electronic equipment, cellular phones and other household and hardware items. This newest form of molded pulp is the highest quality of thin walled products available today, the process uses Cure-In-The-Mold technology which produces well defined, smooth surfaced molded pulp products. After being formed, the product is captured in heated forming molds which presses and densifies the molded products and they are accurately formed and have the appearance of plastic material. The products are ejected from the molds in their finished state as opposed to being dried in a heated oven. Typical uses for this type are for packaging and those applications where high definition. This type of molded pulp product is that which has some kind of secondary processing which is generally different from or in addition to. This could apply to any of the first three types, secondary processing could be coating, printing, hot-pressing, die-cutting, trimming or manufactured using colors or special slurry additives. Uses are for many kinds of custom applications, Packaging cushioning Sustainable packaging Yam, K. L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6
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Oyster pail
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An oyster pail is a folded, waxed or plastic coated, paperboard container originally designed to hold oysters. It commonly comes with a made of solid wire. Currently, it is often in use by American Chinese cuisine restaurants primarily throughout the United States and it can also sometimes be found in European countries such as Germany and England, but is rarely seen in China and other Asian countries with high numbers of ethnic Chinese. The container has the advantage of being inexpensive, durable and fairly leak-proof as long as it is kept upright, the top usually includes a locking paperboard tab so that it is self-closing. The simple origami-like folded construction also allows for escape of steam from hot food. If care is used to remove the flaps, and the sides are unfolded, however it is also typical to eat directly out of the container, a feat that the long reach of chopsticks makes easier. The containers are used with American Chinese cuisine, though they have started to spread in some European countries. Oyster pails that can be used safely in microwave ovens are also available, the containers may also be used for storing or transporting non-food items, such as soap bath beads or small parts. Takeout containers have also offered as novelty packaging for small gifts. Early patents date to 1890,1894 and 1908, the paperboard oyster pail was invented at a time when fresh oysters were more popular, more plentiful, and less expensive than they are at present. Since shucking oysters takes some amount of skill and can be difficult and dangerous, the oyster pail provided an inexpensive and sanitary way to accomplish this. In the early 20th century oyster pails were also used to hold honey, in the mid-20th century, overfishing of oysters left manufacturers with a significant number of unsold oyster pails. However, in the US after World War II, there was a increase in sales of prepared foods that could be purchased from restaurants. Chinese food proved to be a choice, since it was tasty, unusual, fairly inexpensive. The oyster pail was quickly adopted for Chinese takeout, in 2011, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History displayed iconic Chinese takeout containers in its exhibit Sweet & Sour, A Look at the History of Chinese Food in the United States
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Paper bag
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A paper bag is a bag made out of paper. Paper bags are used as shopping bags. In 1852, Francis Wolle, a schoolteacher, invented the first machine to mass-produce paper bags, Wolle and his brother patented the machine and founded the Union Paper Bag Company. In 1871, inventor Margaret E. Knight designed a machine that could create flat-bottomed paper bags, in 1883, Charles Stilwell patented a machine that made square-bottom paper bags with pleated sides, making them easier to fold and store. This style of bag came to be known as the S. O. S. or Self-Opening Sack, in 1912, Walter Deubener, a grocer in St. Paul, Minnesota, used cord to reinforce paper bags and add carrying handles. These Deubener Shopping Bags could carry up to 75 pounds at a time, Paper bags with handles later became the standard for department stores, and were often printed with the stores logo or brand colors. Plastic bags were introduced in the 1970s, and thanks to their lower cost, with the trend towards phasing out lightweight plastic bags, though, some grocers and shoppers have switched back to paper bags. In 2015, the worlds largest paper shopping bag was made in the UK, standard brown paper bags are made from kraft paper. Tote-style paper bags, such as often used by department stores or as gift bags, can be made from any kind of paper. Paper bags can be made from recycled paper, with local laws requiring bags to have a minimum percentage of post-consumer recycled content. Litho – printed for the best result, very nice and sharp colors can be printed by lithographic technique in production of laminated paper bags. The number of plastic bags used by shoppers in England has plummeted by more than 85% after the introduction of a 5p charge last October. The charge has also triggered donations of more than £29m from retailers towards good causes including charities and community groups, England was the last part of the UK to adopt the 5p levy, after successful schemes in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. There are also exemptions for some goods, such as raw meat and fish, prescription medicines, seeds and flowers, around 8m tonnes of plastic makes its way into the world’s oceans each year, posing a serious threat to the marine environment. Experts estimate that plastic is eaten by 31 species of marine mammals, the environment minister, Therese Coffey, said, “Taking 6bn plastic bags out of circulation is fantastic news for all of us. It will mean our precious marine life is safer, our communities are cleaner, Paper shopping bags, brown paper bags, grocery bags, paper bread bags and other light duty bags have a single layer of paper. A variety of constructions and designs are available, many are printed with the names of stores and brands. Types of paper bag are, laminated, twisted, flat tap, the laminated bag, whilst not totally waterproof, has a laminate that protects the outside to some degree
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Paperboard
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Paperboard is a thick paper-based material. While there is no differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a grammage above 224 g/m2, Paperboard can be single- or multi-ply. Paperboard can be cut and formed, is lightweight. Another end-use would be graphic printing, such as book and magazine covers or postcards, sometimes it is referred to as cardboard, which is a generic, lay term used to refer to any heavy paper pulp–based board. Paperboard is also used in fine arts for creating sculptures, in 1817, the first paperboard carton was produced in England. Folding cartons first emerged around the 1860s and were shipped flat to save space,1879 saw the development of mechanical die cutting and creasing of blanks. In 1911 the first kraft sulphate mill was built in Florida and in 1915 the gable top milk carton was patented, ovenable paperboard was introduced in 1974. Terminology and classifications of paperboard are not always uniform, differences occur depending on specific industry, locale, and personal choice. It is the covering over the corrugating medium. Other Binders board – a paperboard used in bookbinding for making hardcovers, pulp board are produced on pulping machines that can handle higher grammage and several plies. The above-mentioned fibrous material can come from fresh sources or from recycled waste paper. Around 90% of virgin paper is made from wood pulp and it is now mandatory in many countries for paper-based packaging to be manufactured wholly or partially from recycled material. Raw materials include, Hardwood, Ca.0.05 inches in length e. g. Birch which has short fibres and it is generally more difficult to work with, however, it does provide higher tensile strength, but lower tear and other strength properties. Although its fibres are not as long and strong as those in softwood, Hardwood fibres fill the sheet better and therefore make a smoother paper that is more opaque and better for printing. Hardwood makes an excellent corrugating medium, softwood, Ca.0.13 inches in length e. g. Pine and spruce which have typically long fibres and make superior paperboard in services where strength is important. Recycled, Used paper is collected and sorted and usually mixed with virgin fibres in order to new material. This is necessary as the recycled fibre often loses strength when reused, mixed waste paper is not usually deinked for paperboard manufacture and hence the pulp may contain traces of inks, adhesives, and other residues which together give it a grey colour
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Paper cup
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A paper cup is a disposable cup made out of paper and often lined or coated with plastic or wax to prevent liquid from leaking out or soaking through the paper. It may be made of recycled paper and is used around the world. Paper cups have been documented in imperial China, where paper was invented by 2nd century BC, paper cups were known as chih pei and were used for the serving of tea. They were constructed in different sizes and colors, and were adorned with decorative designs, textual evidence of paper cups appears in a description of the possessions of the Yu family, from the city of Hangzhou. The modern paper cup was developed in the 20th century, in the early 20th century, it was common to have shared glasses or dippers at water sources such as school faucets or water barrels in trains. This shared use caused public health concerns, the article was reprinted and distributed by the Massachusetts State Board of Health in November 1909. Based on these concerns, and as paper goods became cheaply and cleanly available, one of the first railway companies to use disposable paper cups was the Lackawanna Railroad, which began using them in 1909. By 1917, the glass had disappeared from railway carriages. Paper cups are also employed in hospitals for health reasons, in 1942 the Massachusetts State College found in one study that the cost of using washable glasses, re-used after being sanitized, was 1.6 times the cost of using single-service paper cups. These studies, as well as the reduction in the risk of cross-infection, professor Davisons study was instrumental in abolishing the public glass and opening the door for the paper cup. Soon, the devices, which would dispense cool water for one cent, the Dixie Cup was first called Health Kup, but from 1919 it was named after a line of dolls made by Alfred Schindlers Dixie Doll Company in New York. Success led the company, which had existed under a variety of names, to itself the Dixie Cup Corporation and move to a factory in Wilson. Atop the factory was a water tank in the shape of a cup. In 1957, Dixie merged with the American Can Company, the James River Corporation purchased American Cans paper business in 1982. The assets of James River are now part of Georgia-Pacific, a subsidiary of Koch Industries, in 1983, production moved to a modern factory in Forks, Pennsylvania. The original factory in Wilson has sat vacant ever since, the closing of the factory also prompted Conrail to abandon the Easton & Northern railroad branch, of which Dixie Cups was the last major customer. In 1969, the Dixie Cup logo was created by Saul Bass, the coupon collectors problem is sometimes called the Dixie cup problem. The base paper for paper cups are called cup board and are made on special paper machines and have a barrier coating for waterproofing
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Facial tissue
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Facial tissue and paper handkerchief refers to a class of soft, absorbent, disposable papers that are suitable for use on the face. They are disposable alternatives for cloth handkerchiefs, facial tissue is often referred to as a tissue, or by the genericized trademark Kleenex which popularized the invention and its use. Facial tissue and paper handkerchiefs are made from the lowest basis weights tissue paper, the surface is often made smoother by light calendering. These paper types consist usually of 2–3 plies, because of high quality requirements the base tissue is normally made entirely from pure chemical pulp, but might contain added selected recycled fiber. The tissue paper might be treated with softeners, lotions or added perfume to get the right properties or feeling, the finished facial tissues or handkerchiefs are folded and put in pocket-size packages or a box dispenser. In 1924, facial tissues as they are today were first introduced by Kimberly-Clark as Kleenex. It was invented as a means to remove cold cream, early advertisements linked Kleenex to Hollywood makeup departments and sometimes included endorsements from movie stars who used Kleenex to remove their theatrical makeup with cold cream. The other 40% used it for reasons, including napkins. Kimberly-Clark also introduced pop-up, colored, printed, pocket, and 3-ply facial tissues
"Pamphlets". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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