1.
City of New Orleans (train)
–
The City of New Orleans is an Amtrak passenger train which operates on an overnight schedule between Chicago, Illinois, and New Orleans, Louisiana. The train is a successor to the Illinois Central Railroads Panama Limited, the present name was revived in 1981. When the first City of New Orleans was begun by the Illinois Central Railroad in 1947, it was the longest daylight run in the United States and it was sung about in the bittersweet 1971 song. Additional corridor service is provided between Chicago and Carbondale, Illinois, by the Illini and Saluki, the Illinois Central Railroad introduced the original City of New Orleans on April 27,1947 as a daytime companion to the overnight Panama Limited. EMD E7 diesel locomotives pulled new lightweight Pullman Company coaches, the 921-mile route, which the City of New Orleans covered in 15 hours 55 minutes, was the longest daytime schedule in the United States. The City of New Orleans exchanged St. Louis—New Orleans through cars at Carbondale, Illinois and Louisville—New Orleans cars at Fulton, Kentucky. The average speed of the new train was nearly 60 mph, by October 25,1959, the timetable had lengthened to 16 hours 30 minutes. The train remained popular throughout the 1960s and gained ex-Missouri Pacific Railroad dome coaches in 1967, inauspiciously, the City of New Orleans was involved in Amtraks first fatal derailment on June 10, near Salem, Illinois. Because this train made no connections with trains at either New Orleans or Chicago, Amtrak moved the train to an overnight schedule on November 14,1971. A Kansas City section began operation on April 29,1984, known as the River Cities, it separated at Centralia, Illinois. This section ended on November 4,1994, the northbound City of New Orleans began stopping at Gilman, Illinois, on October 26,1986. Gilman had last seen service in 1971, the Illini stopped there as well, service to Cairo, Illinois, south of Carbondale, ended on October 25,1987. Amtrak operated the City of New Orleans reliably through the 1980s and into the 1990s, in 1992, nevertheless, on-board service had declined, Trains magazine editor J. David Ingles called the train Amtraks least-glamorous long-distance train. On March 3,1994, new Superliner cars replaced the single-level cars, real dining service returned, by the early 1990s an Amfleet dinette had doubled with the lounge car. On September 10,1995, the train was rerouted between Memphis and Jackson due to the Illinois Central Railroads desire to abandon the route in favor of the newer and flatter Yazoo District. Service ended at Batesville, Mississippi, Grenada, Mississippi, Winona, Mississippi, Durant, Mississippi and Canton, on March 15,1999, the City of New Orleans collided with a flatbed semi-trailer near Bourbonnais. Of the 217 people aboard the train, eleven people were killed in the Bourbonnais train accident, the fourth car, where the fatalities occurred, was engulfed in flames following the collision at the crossing. Because of damage to the states of Mississippi and Louisiana due to Hurricane Katrina, Amtrak was forced in late August 2005 to cancel service south of Memphis, Tennessee
City of New Orleans (train)
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City of New Orleans
City of New Orleans (train)
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The City of New Orleans in New Orleans
City of New Orleans (train)
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IC #4017, an
EMD E7, leads the City of New Orleans at
Kankakee, Illinois in August 1964.
2.
Illinois Central Railroad
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A line also connected Chicago with Sioux City, Iowa. There was a significant branch to Omaha, Nebraska, west of Fort Dodge, Iowa, the Sioux Falls branch has been abandoned in its entirety. The Canadian National Railway acquired control of the IC in 1998, riding on the City of New OrleansIllinois Central Monday morning rail Fifteen cars and fifteen restless riders Three conductors and 25 sacks of mail. Good morning America, how are you, – Steve Goodman, City of New Orleans,1970 The IC is one of the early Class I railroads in the US. Its roots go back to abortive attempts by the Illinois General Assembly to charter a railroad linking the northern and southern parts of the state of Illinois. In 1850 U. S. President Millard Fillmore signed a grant for the construction of the railroad. The Illinois Central was chartered by the Illinois General Assembly on February 10,1851, senator Stephen Douglas and later President Abraham Lincoln were both Illinois Central men who lobbied for it. Douglas owned land near the terminal in Chicago, Lincoln was a lawyer for the railroad. Upon its completion in 1856 the IC was the longest railroad in the world and its main line went from Cairo, Illinois, at the southern tip of the state, to Galena, in the northwest corner. A branch line went from Centralia, to the growing city of Chicago. In Chicago its tracks were laid along the shore of Lake Michigan and on an offshore causeway downtown, in 1867 the Illinois Central extended its track into Iowa, and during the 1870s and 1880s the IC acquired and expanded railroads in the southern United States. IC lines crisscrossed the state of Mississippi and went as far as New Orleans, Louisiana, to the south and Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1880s, northern lines were built to Dodgeville, Wisconsin, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and Omaha, Nebraska. Further expansion continued into the twentieth century. The Illinois Central, and the other Harriman lines owned by E. H, Harriman, was the target of the Illinois Central shopmens strike of 1911. Although marked by violence and sabotage in the south, midwest, and western states, the railroads simply hired replacements and withstood diminishing union pressure. The strike was called off in 1915. The totals above do not include the Waterloo RR, Batesville Southwestern, Peabody Short Line or CofG, on December 31,1925 IC/Y&MV/G&SI operated 6,562 route-miles on 11,030 miles of track, A&V and VS&P added 330 route-miles and 491 track-miles. At the end of 1970 IC operated 6,761 miles of road and 11,159 of track, on August 10,1972, the Illinois Central Railroad merged with the Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad to form the Illinois Central Gulf Railroad
Illinois Central Railroad
–
Two Illinois Central
EMD SD70 's leading a train at
Homewood, Illinois
Illinois Central Railroad
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Illinois Central ad (1870)
Illinois Central Railroad
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ICG logo
Illinois Central Railroad
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ICG hopper with ACI plate
3.
Amtrak
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Founded in 1971 to take over most of the remaining U. S. passenger rail services, it is partially government funded yet operated and managed as a for-profit corporation. Amtrak serves more than 500 destinations in 46 states and three Canadian provinces, operating more than 300 trains each day over 21,300 miles of track, some track sections allow trains to run as fast as 150 mph. In fiscal year 2015, Amtrak served 30.8 million passengers and had $2.185 billion in revenue, nearly two-thirds of passengers come from the 10 largest metropolitan areas, 83% of passengers travel on routes shorter than 400 miles. Its headquarters is at Union Station in Washington, D. C, the name Amtrak is a portmanteau of the words America and trak, the latter itself a sensational spelling of track. From the mid-19th century until about 1920, nearly all intercity travelers in the United States moved by rail, historically, U. S. passenger trains were owned and operated by the same privately owned companies that operated freight trains. About 65,000 railroad passenger cars operated in 1929, from 1920 into the later 20th century, passenger rails popularity diminished and there was a series of pullbacks and tentative recoveries. Rail passenger revenues declined dramatically between 1920 and 1934 because of the rise of the automobile, in the same period, many travelers were lost to interstate bus companies such as Greyhound Lines. However, in the mid-1930s, railroads reignited popular imagination with service improvements and new, diesel-powered streamliners, such as the gleaming silver Pioneer Zephyr and Flying Yankee. Even with the improvements, on a basis, traffic continued to decline. World War II broke the malaise, passenger traffic soared sixfold thanks to troop movements, in 1946, there remained 45 percent fewer passenger trains than in 1929, and the decline quickened despite railroad optimism. Passengers disappeared and so did trains, few trains generated profits, most produced losses. Broad-based passenger rail deficits appeared as early as 1948, and by the mid-1950s, by 1965, only 10,000 rail passenger cars were in operation,85 percent fewer than in 1929. Passenger service was provided on only 75,000 miles of track, the 1960s also saw the end of railway post office revenues, which had helped some of the remaining trains break even. The causes of the decline of rail in the United States were complex. Until 1920, rail was the practical form of intercity transport. By 1930, the companies had constructed, with private funding. In 1916, the amount of track in the United States peaked at 254,251 miles, some rail routes had been built primarily to facilitate the sale of stock in the railroad companies, they were redundant from the beginning. These were the first to be abandoned as the financial positions deteriorated
Amtrak
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The
Illinois Central Railroad 's
Panama Limited long-distance diesel
streamliner train
Amtrak
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Geographic map of the Amtrak system
Amtrak
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The
Boston and Maine Railroad 's
Speed Merchant Talgo train
Amtrak
–
The
Gulf, Mobile and Northern Railroad Rebel streamliner train
4.
Passenger train
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A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
Passenger train
–
A
BNSF intermodal freight train passes through
Wisconsin, United States
Passenger train
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Steam locomotive -hauled passenger train
Passenger train
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British Rail Class 390 Electric multiple unit train
Passenger train
–
A
Transperth B-series train
5.
Chicago
–
Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
Chicago
–
Clockwise from top:
Downtown Chicago, the
Chicago Theatre, the
'L',
Navy Pier,
Millennium Park, the
Field Museum, and the
Willis Tower.
Chicago
–
Traditional
Potawatomi costume on display at the
Field Museum
Chicago
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A 1903 painting of Chicago in 1833
Chicago
–
An artist's rendering of the
Great Chicago Fire of 1871
6.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
Illinois
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Mississippian copper plate found at the Saddle Site in
Union County, Illinois
Illinois
–
Flag
Illinois
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Illinois in 1718, approximate modern state area highlighted, from Carte de la Louisiane et du cours du Mississipi by
Guillaume de L'Isle.
Illinois
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Native women and children fleeing the
Battle of Bad Axe during the
Black Hawk War
7.
New Orleans, Louisiana
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
New Orleans, Louisiana
–
From top left: A typical New Orleans mansion off
St. Charles Avenue, a streetcar passing by
Loyola University and
Tulane University, the skyline of the
Central Business District,
Jackson Square, and a view of Royal Street in the
French Quarter
New Orleans, Louisiana
–
The
Battle of New Orleans (1815)
New Orleans, Louisiana
–
Mississippi River
steamboats at New Orleans, 1853.
New Orleans, Louisiana
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The starving people of New Orleans under Union occupation during the Civil War, 1862
8.
Panama Canal
–
The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
Panama Canal
–
Satellite image showing location of Panama Canal. Dense jungles are visible in green.
Panama Canal
–
A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and passages
Panama Canal
–
Ferdinand de Lesseps
Panama Canal
–
Excavator at work, in Bas Obispo, 1886
9.
Pullman (car or coach)
–
In the United States, Pullman was used to refer to railroad sleeping cars which were built and operated on most U. S. railroads by the Pullman Company from 1867 to December 31,1968. Pullman also refers to dining cars in Europe that were operated by the Pullman Company. Specifically, in Great Britain, Pullman refers to the cars operated by the British Pullman Car Company. Such coaches ran in Kiev since 1907 and in Odessa since 1912, since 1920s tramcars nicknamed Pullmanwagen in German ran in Leipzig, Cologne, Frankfurt and Zürich. In some Western European countries in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, in 1963, the luxurious Mercedes-Benz 600 was introduced, with a range including a long wheelbase version called Pullman. Later, stretched versions of regular Mercedes-Benz S-Class cars were also called Pullman, in Greek and Italian, the word pullman is used to refer to a coach bus. In Greek, it would be spelled as πούλμαν, in Latin America, pullman may refer to a luxury bus as well as to a railroad sleeping car. In the video game Sid Meiers Railroads, players can bid on the Pullmans Palace Car patent. This patent makes Passengers pay an extra 25% to bask in its comfort. Buses portal Pullman loaf, a type of long, square bread developed to be baked in the kitchens of rail cars Starlight Express. Clerestory#Transportation, Railway Coach roof design following the Pullman American influence, travel by Pullman, a century of service. A Century of Pullman Cars, Volume I, Alphabetical List. Greenberg Publishing Company, a Century of Pullman Cars, Volume II, The Palace Cars. The Pullman Project Canadian National Railways Sleeping Car No.1683 St. Hyacinthe—photographs, chicago Historical Societys Pullman website Pullman Prototypes—Pantagraph
Pullman (car or coach)
–
Exterior view of a Pullman car
Pullman (car or coach)
–
Former Brighton Belle Pullman carriage at London Victoria, now part of the
Venice Simplon Orient Express fleet
Pullman (car or coach)
–
Mercedes-Benz S600 Pullman
10.
Sleeping car
–
The sleeping car or sleeper is a railway passenger car that can accommodate all its passengers in beds of one kind or another, primarily for the purpose of making nighttime travel more restful. The first such cars saw use on American railroads in the 1830s. Some of the more types have private rooms. The Cumberland Valley Railroad pioneered sleeping car service in the spring of 1839, with a car named Chambersburg, a couple of years later a second car, the Carlisle, was introduced into service. The man who made the sleeping car business profitable in the United States was George Pullman. Pullman cars were normally a dark Pullman green, although some were painted in the host railroads colors, the cars carried individual names, but usually did not carry visible numbers. Pullman-Standard continued manufacturing sleeping cars and other passenger and freight cars until 1980. One unanticipated consequence of the rise of Pullman cars in the US in the 19th and early 20th centuries was their effect on civil rights, each Pullman car was staffed by a uniformed porter. The majority of Pullman Porters were African Americans, the pullman attendants, regardless of their true name, were traditionally referred to as George by the travelers, the name of the companys founder, George Pullman. The Pullman company was the largest employer of African Americans in the United States, subsequently, railway porters fought for political recognition and were eventually unionized. Their union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, became an important source of strength for the burgeoning Civil Rights Movement in the early 20th century, notably under the leadership of A. Because they moved about the country, Pullman porters also became an important means of communication for news, the African-American newspaper, the Chicago Defender, gained a national circulation in this way. Porters also used to re-sell phonograph records bought in the metropolitan centres, greatly adding to the distribution of jazz and blues. From the 19th to the century, the most common type of sleeping car accommodation on North American trains was the open section. Open-section accommodations consist of pairs of seats, one facing forward. The seat pairs can be converted into the combination of an upper, a famous example of open sections can be seen in the movie Some Like It Hot. As the 20th century progressed, a variety of private rooms was offered. Most of these rooms provided significantly more space than open-section accommodations could offer, Some of them, such as the rooms of the misleadingly named Slumbercoach cars manufactured by the Budd Company and first put into service in 1956, were triumphs of miniaturization
Sleeping car
–
Pullman sleeping car, original to the
William Crooks locomotive, on display in Duluth, Minnesota
Sleeping car
–
The first American sleeping car, the "Chambersburg" started service on the CVRR in 1839.
Sleeping car
–
Pullman porter making an upper berth aboard the
B&O Capitol Limited bound for Chicago
Sleeping car
–
In 1964, aging open-section Pullman cars waited in
Portland, Oregon, available for "emergencies".
11.
St. Louis, Missouri
–
St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
St. Louis, Missouri
–
From top left:
Forest Park Jewel Box,
MetroLink at
Lambert-St. Louis International Airport,
Apotheosis of St. Louis at the
Saint Louis Art Museum, The
Gateway Arch and the St. Louis skyline,
Busch Stadium, and the
St. Louis Zoo
St. Louis, Missouri
–
An illustrated map by F. Graf; Saint Louis in 1896.
St. Louis, Missouri
–
South Broadway after a May 27, 1896, tornado
St. Louis, Missouri
–
Westward view of St. Louis skyline, September 2008.
12.
Carbondale, Illinois
–
Carbondale is a city in Jackson County, Illinois, United States, within the Southern Illinois region informally known as Little Egypt. The city developed from 1853 because of the stimulation of railroad construction into the area, today the major roadways of Illinois Route 13 and U. S. Route 51 intersect in the city. The city is 96 miles southeast of St. Louis, Missouri, Carbondale is the home of the main campus of Southern Illinois University. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 25,902, the CSA has 126,575 residents, the sixth-most-populous Combined statistical area in Illinois. In August 1853, Daniel Harmon Brush, John Asgill Conner, Brush named Carbondale for the large deposit of coal in the area. The first train through Carbondale arrived on Independence Day 1854, traveling north on the line from Cairo. By the time of the American Civil War, Carbondale had developed as a center for transportation and business. This part of Illinois was known as Little Egypt because of the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the city has had a college since 1856 beginning with the Presbyterian founded Carbondale College which was later converted to an elementary school. Carbondale also won the bid for the new teacher training school for the region. This gave the new industry, new citizens, and a supplement to public schools. In 1947, the name was changed to Southern Illinois University and it has become the flagship of the Southern Illinois University system. This institution, now recognized as a research university, has nearly 18,000 students enrolled. On April 29,1866, one of the first formal Memorial Day observations following the Civil War was held at the citys Woodlawn Cemetery, local resident, General John A. Logan, gave the principal address. In the early 20th century, Carbondale was known as the Athens of Egypt, due to the expansion of the college and university, the phrase dates to at least 1903, when it appeared in a local paper. By 1922, the Carbondale Free Press was using the phrase on its flag, Carbondale is located at 37°44′N 89°13′W. It is in the watershed of the Big Muddy River, at 415 feet above sea level. According to the 2010 census, Carbondale has an area of 17.519 square miles. Carbondale lies in the limits of a humid subtropical climate
Carbondale, Illinois
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This statue was placed here by Station Carbondale, Inc. through donations from people dedicated to the preservation of Carbondale's railroad history. The first train came to Carbondale on July 4, 1854. At the peak of the city's railroad traffic, as many as 53 passenger trains passed through here each day.
Carbondale, Illinois
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Counties
13.
Memphis, Tennessee
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Memphis is a city in the southwestern corner of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Shelby County. The city is located on the fourth Chickasaw Bluff, south of the confluence of the Wolf, Memphis had a population of 653,450 in 2013, making it the largest city in the state of Tennessee. It is the largest city on the Mississippi River, the third largest in the greater Southeastern United States, the greater Memphis metropolitan area, including adjacent counties in Mississippi and Arkansas, had a 2014 population of 1,317,314. This makes Memphis the second-largest metropolitan area in Tennessee, surpassed by metropolitan Nashville, Memphis is the youngest of Tennessees major cities, founded in 1819 as a planned city by a group of wealthy Americans including judge John Overton and future president Andrew Jackson. A resident of Memphis is referred to as a Memphian, and the Memphis region is known, particularly to media outlets, as Memphis and the Mid-South. Occupying a substantial bluff rising from the Mississippi River, the site of Memphis has been a location for human settlement by varying cultures over thousands of years. The historic Chickasaw Indian tribe, believed to be their descendants, French explorers led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto would encounter the Chickasaw in that area, in the 16th century. J. D. L. Chickasaw Bluffs, located on the Mississippi River at the present day location of Memphis, spain and the United States vied for control of this site, which was a favorite of the Chickasaws. The United States gained the right to navigate the Mississippi River, the Spanish dismantled the fort, shipping its lumber and iron to their locations in Arkansas. Captain Isaac Guion led an American force down the Ohio River to claim the land, by this time, the Spanish had departed. The forts ruins went unnoticed twenty years later when Memphis was laid out as a city, the city of Memphis was founded on May 22,1819 by John Overton, James Winchester and Andrew Jackson. They named it after the ancient capital of Egypt on the Nile River, Memphis developed as a trade and transportation center in the 19th century because of its flood-free location high above the Mississippi River. Located in the delta region along the river, its outlying areas were developed as cotton plantations. The cotton economy of the antebellum South depended on the labor of large numbers of African-American slaves. Through the early 19th century, one million slaves were transported from the Upper South, Many were transported by steamboats along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. This gave planters and cotton brokers access to the Atlantic Coast for shipping cotton to England, the citys demographics changed dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s under waves of immigration and domestic migration. Due to increased immigration since the 1840s and the Great Famine, ethnic Irish made up 9.9 percent of the population in 1850, but 23.2 percent in 1860, when the total population was 22,623. They had encountered considerable discrimination in the city but by 1860 and they also gained many elected and patronage positions in the Democratic Party city government, and an Irish man was elected as mayor before the Civil War
Memphis, Tennessee
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From top to bottom and left to right:
Downtown Memphis skyline,
Beale Street,
Graceland,
Orpheum Theatre, Beale Street Landing, and the
Hernando de Soto Bridge
Memphis, Tennessee
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A
Mississippian era priest (Digital illustration, 2004)
Memphis, Tennessee
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Memphis in the mid-1850s
Memphis, Tennessee
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Cotton merchants on Union Avenue (1937)
14.
Hot Springs, Arkansas
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Hot Springs is the eleventh-largest city in the state of Arkansas and the county seat of Garland County. The city is located in the Ouachita Mountains among the U. S, interior Highlands, and is set among several natural hot springs for which the city is named. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 35,193, in 2015 the estimated population was 35,635. The center of Hot Springs is the oldest federal reserve in the United States, the hot spring water has been popularly believed for centuries to possess medicinal properties, and was a subject of legend among several Native American tribes. Following federal protection in 1832, the city developed into a spa town. One of the largest Pentecostal denominations in the United States, the Assemblies of God, today, much of Hot Springss history is preserved by various government entities. Hot Springs National Park is maintained by the National Park Service, including Bathhouse Row, downtown Hot Springs is preserved as the Central Avenue Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The city also contains dozens of hotels and motor courts. Due to the popularity of the waters, Hot Springs benefited from rapid growth during a period when many cities saw a sharp decline in building. As a result, Hot Springss architecture is a key part of the blend of cultures, including a reputation as a tourist town. Also a destination for the arts, Hot Springs features the Hot Springs Music Festival, Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival, members of many Native American tribes had been gathering in the valley for untold numbers of years to enjoy the healing properties of the thermal springs. In 1673, Father Marquette and Jolliet explored the area and claimed it for France, the 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the land to Spain, however, in 1800 control was returned to France until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1807, a man named Prudhomme became the first settler of modern Hot Springs, on August 24,1818, the Quapaw Indians ceded the land around the hot springs to the United States in a treaty. After Arkansas became its own territory in 1819, the Arkansas Territorial Legislature requested in 1820 that the springs, twelve years later, in 1832, the Hot Springs Reservation was created by the United States Congress, granting federal protection of the thermal waters. The reservation was renamed Hot Springs National Park in 1921, the outbreak of the American Civil War left Hot Springs with a declining bathing population. After the Confederate forces suffered defeat in the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862, rector moved his staff and state records to Hot Springs. Union forces did not attack Little Rock, and the government returned to the city on July 14,1862. Many residents of Hot Springs fled to Texas or Louisiana and remained there until the end of the war, in September 1863, Union forces occupied Little Rock
Hot Springs, Arkansas
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Clockwise from top: Aerial view of Hot Springs, Army-Navy Hospital, a pool of hot spring water in Hot Springs National Park, the Central Avenue Historic District,
Bathhouse Row
Hot Springs, Arkansas
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The Quapaw Bathhouse, along Hot Springs' famed "Bathhouse Row"
Hot Springs, Arkansas
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September 10, 1913 with remnants of the fire
Hot Springs, Arkansas
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Aerial view of Hot Springs after 1925 along Central Avenue. The base of Hot Springs Mountain is in top right, behind Bathhouse Row. Part of West Mountain is on the left. The southwest edge of North Mountain is behind the
Arlington Hotel at top.
15.
San Antonio, Texas
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
San Antonio, Texas
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From top to bottom and Left to Right: 1. San Antonio downtown from the Tower of The Americas at night. 2. The Riverwalk 3. The McNay Museum of Art 4. The Tower Life Building 5. Bexar County courthouse 6. San Antonio Public Library 7. The Tower of the Americas at night 8. The Alamo
San Antonio, Texas
–
Seal
San Antonio, Texas
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Lithograph of San Antonio in 1886
San Antonio, Texas
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Memorial to the
Alamo defenders
16.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
Great Depression
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Dorothea Lange 's
Migrant Mother depicts destitute
pea pickers in
California, centering on
Florence Owens Thompson, age 32, a mother of seven children, in
Nipomo, California, March 1936
Great Depression
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USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
Great Depression
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Crowd gathering at the intersection of
Wall Street and Broad Street after the
1929 crash
Great Depression
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Crowds outside the
Bank of United States in New York after its failure in 1931
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
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Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
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The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
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Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
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Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
18.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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Photograph of
Battleship Row taken from a Japanese plane at the beginning of the attack. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the
USS West Virginia. Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over the
USS Neosho and one over the Naval Yard.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor on October 30, 1941, looking southwest
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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Route followed by the Japanese fleet to Pearl Harbor and back.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
–
An Imperial Japanese Navy
Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter on the aircraft carrier
Akagi.
19.
War Production Board
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The War Production Board was an agency of the United States government that supervised war production during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt established it in August 1939, with Executive Order 9024, the WPB replaced the Supply Priorities and Allocation Board and the Office of Production Management. It rationed such commodities as gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, paper and it was dissolved shortly after the defeat of Japan in 1945, and was replaced by the Civilian Production Administration in late 1945. In 1942-45, WPB supervised the production of $183 billion worth of weapons and supplies, britain, the USSR and other allies produced an addition 30%, while the Axis produced only 30%. One fourth of the US output was warplanes, one fourth was warships, meanwhile, the civilian standard of living was about level. The first chairman of the Board was Donald M. Nelson and he was succeeded by Julius A. Krug, who served from 1944 until the Board was dissolved. The WPB had advisory, policy-making, and progress-reporting divisions, the WPB managed twelve regional offices, and operated one hundred twenty field offices throughout the nation. They worked alongside state war production boards, which maintained records on state war production facilities and also helped state businesses obtain war contracts, the national WPBs primary task was converting civilian industry to war production. It initiated events such as scrap metal drives, which were carried out locally to great success, for example, a national scrap metal drive in October 1942 resulted in an average of almost eighty-two pounds of scrap per American. The WPB and the nations factories effected a great turnaround, military aircraft production, which totaled 6,000 in 1940, jumped to 85,000 in 1943. The WPB ensured that each received the materials it needed to produce the most war goods in the shortest time. Without American production the Allies could never have won the war, from 1942 to 1945 the WPB directed a total production of $185 billion worth of armaments and supplies. At wars end, most production restrictions were lifted. William Beverly Murphy, president and CEO of Campbell Soup Company Charles E. Wilson, the Civilian Production Board was consolidated with other agencies to form the Office of Temporary Controls—an agency in the Office for Emergency Management of the Executive Office of the President. The latter had previously been established pursuant to the Reorganization Act of 1939, studies in industrial price control by United States Office of Temporary Controls. 1947 Problems in price control, legal phases by United States Office of Temporary Controls,1947 Problems in price control by United States Office of Temporary Controls. 1948 The beginnings of OPA by United States Office of Temporary Controls, Office of Temporary Controls, Office of Price Administration,1947 Guaranteed wages by United States Office of Temporary Controls. Freedoms Forge, How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, new York, Harcourt, Brace, & Co.1948
War Production Board
War Production Board
–
Contents
War Production Board
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A safety campaign around ordinance by U.S. Army published during the height of World War II (c. 1942-1943) by the War Production Board
20.
Casey Jones
–
Jonathan Luther John Casey Jones from Jackson, Tennessee, was an American railroader who worked for the Illinois Central Railroad. He was killed on April 30,1900 when his train collided with a freight train near Vaughan. As a boy, he lived near Cayce, Kentucky, where he acquired the nickname of Cayce, Jones married Mary Joanna Brady, whose father owned the boarding house where Jones was staying. Since she was Catholic, he decided to convert and was baptized on November 11,1886 at St. Bridgets Catholic Church in Whistler, Alabama and they were married at St. Marys Catholic Church in Jackson on November 25,1886. They bought a house at 211 West Chester Street in Jackson, by all accounts he was a devoted family man and teetotaler. In summer 1887 a yellow fever epidemic struck many train crews on the neighboring Illinois Central Railroad, on March 1,1888, Jones switched to IC, firing a freight locomotive between Jackson, Tennessee and Water Valley, Mississippi. He was promoted to engineer, his goal, on February 23,1891. Jones reached the pinnacle of the profession as an expert locomotive engineer for IC. Railroading was a talent, and Jones was recognized by his peers as one of the best engineers in the business and he was known for his insistence that he get her there on the advertised and that he never fall down, arrive at his destination behind schedule. He was so punctual, it was said that set their watches by him. His work in Jackson primarily involved freight service between Jackson and Water Valley, Mississippi, both locations were busy and important stops for IC, and he developed close ties with them between 1890 and 1900. Jones was also famous for his skill with the train whistle. His whistle was made of six thin tubes bound together, the shortest being half the length of the longest and its unique sound involved a long-drawn-out note that began softly, rose and then died away to a whisper, a sound that became his trademark. The sound of it was described as a sort of whippoorwill call. People living along the IC line between Jackson and Water Valley would turn over in their beds late at night upon hearing it and say There goes Casey Jones as he roared by. During the Worlds Columbian Exposition at Chicago, Illinois, in 1893, a call was sent out for trainmen who wanted to work there. Jones answered it, spending a pleasant summer there with his wife and he shuttled many people from Van Buren Street to Jackson Park during the exposition. It was his first experience as an engineer in passenger service, at the fair, he became acquainted with No
Casey Jones
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Portrait of the "brave engineer": John Luther "Casey" Jones, 1863–1900
Casey Jones
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Marker in Memphis, Tennessee commemorating Casey Jones
Casey Jones
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Casey Jones' home at the time of his death.
21.
Magnolia Star
–
The Panama Limited was a passenger train operated from 1911 to 1971 by the Illinois Central Railroad between Chicago, Illinois, and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Panama Limited took its name from the Panama Canal, which in 1911 was then under construction, for most of its career, the train was all-Pullman, carrying sleeping cars only. The Panama Limited was one of many trains discontinued when Amtrak began operations in 1971, though Amtrak revived the service later that year, today, overnight service between Chicago and New Orleans is provided by Amtraks City of New Orleans, another former Illinois Central train. In the early 1900s the Illinois Centrals premier train on the Chicago-New Orleans route was the Chicago, on February 4,1911, the Illinois Central renamed this train the Panama Limited, in honor of the anticipated opening of the Panama Canal. The train included a St. Louis, Missouri, section that connected at Carbondale, the train was first-class only north of Memphis, Tennessee. It carried through sleepers for Hot Springs, Arkansas, and San Antonio and it made the journey in 25 hours. In 1912, the train was replaced with an all-steel, all electric consist, the Illinois Central relaunched the train on November 15,1916, with new equipment and a new schedule,23 hours from Chicago to New Orleans. The new train carried sleeping cars only for its entire route and its old equipment and schedule became a new train, the Louisiane. The Great Depression led the Illinois Central to discontinue the luxurious Panama Limited between May 28,1932, and December 2,1934, when it returned it had new air-conditioned equipment and an improved 20-hour schedule between Chicago and New Orleans. The Panama Limited was streamlined in 1942, during World War II, the Illinois Central had ordered two lightweight sets of equipment prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, after an appeal the War Production Board allowed their delivery. The first diesel/electric-powered streamlined run of the Panama Limited was on May 3,1942 on an 18-hour schedule, on hand for the first run was Janie Jones, the widow of famed engineer Casey Jones. The Panama Limited carried a new orange and brown paint scheme which became standard on Illinois Central passenger trains. For the duration of the War the Illinois Central dropped the extra fare, in June 1946 the schedule dropped to 17 hours, later the schedule was reduced to 16 hours,30 minutes again with the extra fare. The Panama Limited maintained a level of service until the Amtrak era. It was noted for its dining car service, with a first rate culinary staff and creole fare in the Vieux Carre-themed dining cars, a well-known multi-course meal on the Panama Limited was the Kings Dinner, on the menu for about $10. In 1952 the Illinois Central acquired several 2-unit 175-foot dining cars from the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad which it used on the Panama, with the Pennsylvanias Broadway Limited it was one of the last two all-Pullman trains in the United States. On October 29,1967, the Illinois Central added coaches to the Panama Limited, the Illinois Central dropped this separate designation on December 13,1968. The Illinois Central petitioned the Interstate Commerce Commission to end the train altogether on November 23,1970, the final day of operation of the Panama Limited by the Illinois Central Railroad was April 30,1971
Magnolia Star
–
Postcard depiction of the train, circa 1917.
Magnolia Star
–
Panama Limited
Magnolia Star
–
Interior of the club car on the Panama Limited, circia 1917.
Magnolia Star
–
The streamlined Panama Limited, circa 1940s or 1950s.
22.
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
The Interstate Commerce Commission was a regulatory agency in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. Congress expanded ICC authority to other modes of commerce beginning in 1906. The agency was abolished in 1995, and its functions were transferred to the Surface Transportation Board. The Commissions five members were appointed by the President with the consent of the United States Senate and this was the first independent agency. The ICC was established by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, the creation of the commission was the result of widespread and longstanding anti-railroad agitation. A central issue was rate discrimination between similarly situated customers and communities, various sections of the Interstate Commerce Act banned personal discrimination and required shipping rates to be just and reasonable. President Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley as the first chairman of the ICC, Cooley had been Dean of the University of Michigan Law School and Chief Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court. The Commission had a troubled start because the law that created it failed to give it adequate enforcement powers, the Commission is, or can be made, of great use to the railroads. It satisfies the popular clamor for a government supervision of the railroads, - William H. H. Miller, US Attorney General, circa 1889. Following passage of the 1887 act, the ICC proceeded to set maximum shipping rates for railroads, however, in the late 1890s several railroads challenged the agencys ratemaking authority in litigation, and the courts severely limited the ICCs powers. Congress expanded the powers through subsequent legislation. The 1893 Railroad Safety Appliance Act gave the ICC jurisdiction over railroad safety, removing this authority from the states, and this was followed with amendments in 1903 and 1910. The Hepburn Act of 1906 authorized the ICC to set railroad rates. A long-standing controversy was how to interpret language in the Act that banned long haul-short haul fare discrimination, the Valuation Act of 1913 required the ICC to organize a Bureau of Valuation that would assess the value of railroad property. This information would be used to set rates, in 1934, Congress transferred the telecommunications authority to the new Federal Communications Commission. In 1935, Congress passed the Motor Carrier Act, which extended ICC authority to regulate interstate bus lines and trucking as common carriers. Between 1920 and 1923, William Z. Ripley, a professor of economy at Harvard University. His plan became known as the Ripley Plan, in 1929 the ICC published Ripleys Plan under the title Complete Plan of Consolidation
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
A 1914 cartoon shows railroad companies asking the ICC (depicted as
Uncle Sam) for permission to raise rates, while the ghost of a horrified
William Henry Vanderbilt looks on.
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
Seal
Interstate Commerce Commission
–
A Puck magazine cartoon from 1907 depicting two large bears named "Interstate Commerce Commission" and "Federal Courts" attacking
Wall Street.
23.
Arlo Guthrie
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Arlo Davy Guthrie is an American folk singer-songwriter. Like his father, Woody Guthrie, he is known for singing songs of protest against social injustice, Guthries best-known work is his debut piece, Alices Restaurant Massacree, a satirical talking blues song about 18 minutes in length that has since become a Thanksgiving anthem. His only top-40 hit was a cover of Steve Goodmans City of New Orleans and his song Massachusetts was named the official folk song of the state in which he has lived most of his adult life. Guthrie has also made acting appearances. He is the father of four children, who have also had careers as musicians, Guthrie was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of the folk singer and composer Woody Guthrie and Marjorie Mazia Guthrie. His sister is the record producer Nora Guthrie and his mother was a one-time professional dancer with the Martha Graham Company and founder of the Committee to Combat Huntingtons Disease, the illness from which Woody Guthrie died in 1967. Arlos father was from a Protestant family and his mother was Jewish and his maternal grandmother was the renowned Yiddish poet Aliza Greenblatt. Guthrie received religious training for his bar mitzvah from Rabbi Meir Kahane, Rabbi Kahane was a really nice, patient teacher, Guthrie later recalled, but shortly after he started giving me my lessons, he started going haywire. Guthrie converted to Catholicism in 1977, before embracing interfaith beliefs later in his life, Guthrie attended Woodward School in Clinton Hill, Brooklyn from first through eighth grades and later graduated from the Stockbridge School, in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1965. He spent the summer of 1965 in London, eventually meeting Karl Dallas and he briefly attended Rocky Mountain College, in Billings, Montana. He received an Honorary Doctorate from Siena College in 1981 and from Westfield State College in 2008, as a singer, songwriter and lifelong political activist, Guthrie carries on the legacy of his father. He was awarded the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience award on September 26,1992, Guthrie and his collaborator appeared in court, pled guilty to the charges, were levied a nominal fine and picked up the garbage that weekend. Guthrie has pointed out that this was also the length of one of the famous gaps in Richard Nixons Watergate tapes. The Alice in the song is Alice Brock, who had been a librarian at Arlos boarding school in the town before opening her restaurant and she now owns an art studio in Provincetown, Massachusetts. The song lampoons the Vietnam War draft, however, Guthrie has stated in multiple interviews that the song is more an anti-stupidity song than an anti-war song, adding that it is based on a true incident. In the song, Guthrie is called up for an examination and rejected as unfit for military service as a result of a criminal record consisting in its entirety of one crime. Alices restaurant is the subject of the recurrent refrain, but is not mentioned in the story, on the DVD commentary for the 1969 movie, Guthrie stated that the events presented in the song all actually happened. For a short period after its release in 1967, Alices Restaurant was heavily played on U. S. college and it became a symbol of the late 1960s, and for many it defined an attitude and lifestyle that were lived out across the country in the ensuing years
Arlo Guthrie
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Guthrie in 1979
Arlo Guthrie
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Guthrie performing during his 2005 Alice's Restaurant Massacree 40th Anniversary tour.
Arlo Guthrie
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Arlo Guthrie in 2010 in Nuremberg
24.
Blues music
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Blues is a genre and musical form originated by African Americans in the Deep South of the United States around the end of the 19th century. The genre developed from roots in African musical traditions, African-American work songs, spirituals, Blues incorporated spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts, chants, and rhymed simple narrative ballads. Blue notes, usually thirds or fifths flattened in pitch, are also a part of the sound. Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-like rhythm and form a repetitive effect known as the groove, Blues as a genre is also characterized by its lyrics, bass lines, and instrumentation. Early traditional blues verses consisted of a single line repeated four times, Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative, often relating the troubles experienced in African-American society. Many elements, such as the format and the use of blue notes. The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the Afro-American community. The first appearance of the blues is often dated to after the ending of slavery and, later and it is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the former slaves. Chroniclers began to report about blues music at the dawn of the 20th century, the first publication of blues sheet music was in 1908. Blues has since evolved from unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of slaves into a variety of styles and subgenres. Blues subgenres include country blues, such as Delta blues and Piedmont blues, as well as urban blues styles such as Chicago blues, World War II marked the transition from acoustic to electric blues and the progressive opening of blues music to a wider audience, especially white listeners. In the 1960s and 1970s, a form called blues rock evolved. The term blues may have come from blue devils, meaning melancholy and sadness, the phrase blue devils may also have been derived from Britain in the 1600s, when the term referred to the intense visual hallucinations that can accompany severe alcohol withdrawal. As time went on, the phrase lost the reference to devils, by the 1800s in the United States, the term blues was associated with drinking alcohol, a meaning which survives in the phrase blue law, which prohibits the sale of alcohol on Sunday. Though the use of the phrase in African-American music may be older, it has been attested to in print since 1912, in lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood. The lyrics of traditional blues verses probably often consisted of a single line repeated four times. Two of the first published songs, Dallas Blues and Saint Louis Blues, were 12-bar blues with the AAB lyric structure. Handy wrote that he adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times, the lines are often sung following a pattern closer to rhythmic talk than to a melody
Blues music
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John Lomax (left) shaking hands with musician "Uncle" Rich Brown in Sumterville,
Alabama
Blues music
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A minor
pentatonic scale; play (
help ·
info)
Blues music
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Charley Patton, one of the originators of the Delta blues style, playing with a
pick or a
bottleneck slide.
Blues music
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Sheet music from "
Saint Louis Blues " (1914)
25.
Bukka White
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Booker T. Washington Bukka White was an African-American Delta blues guitarist and singer. Bukka is a spelling of Whites first name, placed on the labels of his early recordings. He preferred the spelling of his name, Booker, as he was named after the well-known African-American educator. White was born south of Houston, Mississippi and he was a first cousin of B. B. He is remembered as a player of National resonator guitars and he also played piano, but less adeptly. He typically played slide guitar, in an open tuning and he was one of the few, along with Skip James, to use a crossnote tuning in E minor, which he may have learned, as James did, from Henry Stuckey. White started his playing the fiddle at square dances. He claimed to have met Charlie Patton soon after, but some have doubted this recollection, nonetheless, Patton was a strong influence on White. He first recorded for Victor Records in 1930 and his recordings for Victor, like those of many other bluesmen, included country blues and gospel music. Victor published his photograph in 1930 and his gospel songs were done in the style of Blind Willie Johnson, with a female singer accentuating the last phrase of each line. Nine years later, while serving time for assault, he recorded for the folklorist John Lomax, the few songs he recorded around this time became his most well known, Shake Em On Down, and Po Boy. His 1937 version of the oft-recorded song Shake Em on Down, is considered definitive, it became a hit while White was serving time in Parchman. Bob Dylan covered his song Fixin to Die Blues, which aided a rediscovery of White in 1963 by guitarist John Fahey and Ed Denson, White had recorded the song simply because his other songs had not particularly impressed the Victor record producer. It was a composition of which White had thought little until it re-emerged thirty years later. Fahey and Denson found White easily enough, Fahey wrote a letter to Bukka White, c/o General Delivery, Aberdeen, Fahey had assumed, given Whites song Aberdeen, Mississippi, that White still lived there or nearby. The postcard was forwarded to Memphis, Tennessee, where White worked in a tank factory, Fahey and Denson soon traveled to meet White, and White and Fahey remained friends through the remainder of Whites life. He recorded a new album for Denson and Faheys Takoma Records, White was at one time also managed by experienced blues manager Arne Brogger. Later in his life, White was friends with the musician Furry Lewis, the two recorded an album, Furry Lewis, Bukka White & Friends, Party
Bukka White
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Bukka White
Bukka White
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"Parchman Farm Blues" was about the
Mississippi State Penitentiary
Bukka White
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Memorial marker for Bukka White
26.
Folk music
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Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is applied to music older than that. Some types of music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways, as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and it has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. Starting in the century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times and this type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two, a consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions and they are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music, however, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used, Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers, the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character. Such definitions depend upon processes rather than abstract musical types, one widely used definition is simply Folk music is what the people sing. For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, Folk music was already. seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear, particularly in a community uninfluenced by art music and by commercial and printed song. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a schema comprising four types, primitive or tribal, elite or art, folk. Music in this genre is often called traditional music. Although the term is only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre
Folk music
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Béla Bartók recording Slovak peasant singers in 1908
Folk music
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Indians always distinguished between classical and folk music, though in the past even classical Indian music used to rely on the unwritten transmission of repertoire.
Folk music
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Armenian traditional musicians
Folk music
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Assyrians playing
zurna and
Davul, the typically used instruments for their folk music.
27.
Tom Rush
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Tom Rush is an American folk and blues singer, songwriter, musician and recording artist. Rush was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the son of a teacher at St. Pauls School, in Concord. Tom began performing in 1961 while studying at Harvard University after having graduated from the Groton School, many of his early recordings are versions of Lowland Scots and Appalachian folk songs. He regularly performed at the Club 47 coffeehouse in Cambridge, the Unicorn in Boston, Rush is credited by Rolling Stone magazine with ushering in the era of the singer/songwriter. His 1968 composition No Regrets has become a standard, with numerous cover versions having been recorded. On March 1,2007 a video of his performance of Steven Walters The Remember Song was uploaded to YouTube. writing on his website, Rush said, Ive been waiting 45 years to be an overnight sensation, and its finally happened. A video clip of my performance of The Remember Song has gone viral, I felt terrible at first, thinking I was being accused of being a musical equivalent of Ebola, but my children explained to me that this was a good thing. One of the earliest music videos produced for an artist by a company, Elektra, can be found at his website. It was used to promote his song, No Regrets for his The Circle Game album. A number of recent videos from a 2010 concert performed in Old Saybrook, Tom Rush is married to author Renée Askins and was formerly married to singer Beverly Rush. Over the years Tom Rush has used a number of guitars on stage, in February 2012, Rush appeared on stage in Colorado with a new instrument, a cedar-top Dreadnought with an inlay of a snake wrapped around a reclining nude woman. The guitar, crafted by McKenzie & Marr Guitars is a re-incarnation of one of Rushs earliest acoustics - the famous Naked Lady, on Dec.28,2012, Rush appeared at Boston Symphony Hall to celebrate fifty years in the music business
Tom Rush
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Tom Rush performing in 2006.
28.
Doug MacLeod (musician)
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Doug MacLeod is an American storytelling bluesman. Although predominantly associated with guitar, his skills were developed as a blues bass player. Unable or unwilling to use his name, George always called him Dubb, a name also adopted by his loyal followers. He has also been a contributor to Blues Revue magazine with his column Dougs Back Porch. MacLeods live performances preserve the tradition of the blues as a medium, expressed by his soulful voice. He usually plays a National Delphi guitar, with stories or introductions between pieces, the tales come from his early performances when he felt that he did not have enough music to fill a show. He has appeared in blues and jazz festivals and his own shows around the world and he has won three Blues Music Awards, Acoustic Artist of the Year and Acoustic Album Of The Year in 2014, and Acoustic Artist of the Year in 2016. He has been nominated for several years for, Best Song in 2006, in 2014 and in 2016. Acoustic Album of the Year in 2012,2014 and 2016 and his portrait is displayed in the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale, Mississippi. He received the Golden Note award for Best Original Recording and his songs have featured in Grammy Award-nominated albums, Albert Kings Im in a Phone Booth, Baby, and Albert Collins Cold Snap. Resonate is a story of contemporary players of National Reso-Phonic Guitars, official Website, www. doug-macleod. com Myspace profile, www. myspace. com/dougmacleod Interviews and stories in audio format, www. dubbheads. com/tapes. html Fan site, www. dubbheads. com
Doug MacLeod (musician)
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Doug Macleod
29.
Allmusic
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AllMusic is an online music guide service website. It was launched in 1991 by All Media Guide which later became All Media Network, AllMusic was launched in 1991 by Michael Erlewine of All Media Guide. The aim was to discographic information on every artist whos made a record since Enrico Caruso gave the industry its first big boost and its first reference book was published the following year. When first released onto the Internet, AMG predated the World Wide Web and was first available as a Gopher site, the AMG consumer web properties AllMusic. com, AllMovie. com and AllGame. com were sold by Rovi in July 2013 to All Media Network, LLC. All Media Network, LLC. was formed by the founders of SideReel. com. The following are contributors to AllMusic, as of this date, All Media Network also produced the AllMusic guide series that includes the AllMusic Guide to Rock, the All Music Guide to Jazz and the All Music Guide to the Blues. Vladimir Bogdanov is the president of the series, in August 2007, PC Magazine included AllMusic in its Top 100 Classic Websites list. All Media Network AllGame AllMovie SideReel All Music Guide to the Blues All Music Guide to Jazz Stephen Thomas Erlewine Official website
Allmusic
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AllMusic's
logotype and logo (since July 2013)
30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
