1.
Paratrooper
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Paratroopers are military parachutists — military personnel trained in parachuting into an operation and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World War II for troop distribution and transportation, Paratroopers are often used to seize strategic objectives such as airfields or bridges. They are used for tactical advantage as they can be inserted into the battlefield from the air and they jump out of airplanes using their parachutes to land safely on the ground. It is one of the three types of forced entry strategic techniques for entering a theater of war, the two are by land and sea. Another common use for paratroopers is to establish an airhead for landing other units and this doctrine was first practically applied to warfare by the Italians and the Soviets. During World War II, however, the two countries ground forces were overstretched, leaving their elite paratroopers to be employed as regular infantry. The first extensive use of paratroopers was by the Germans during World War II and later in the war also by the Americans, owing to the limited capacity of cargo aircraft of the period they rarely, if ever, jumped in groups much larger than 20 from one aircraft. In English language parlance, this load of paratroopers is called a stick, the terms come from the common use of white chalk on the sides of aircraft and vehicles to mark and update numbers of personnel and equipment being emplaned. In World War II, paratroopers most often used parachutes of a circular or round design and these parachutes could be steered to a small degree by pulling on the risers and suspension lines which attach to the parachute canopy itself. German paratroopers, whose harnesses had only a single riser attached at the back, today, paratroopers still use round parachutes, or round parachutes modified as to be more fully controlled with toggles. The parachutes are deployed by a static line. Mobility of the parachutes is often limited to prevent scattering of the troops when a large number parachute together. Some military exhibition units and special forces units use ram-air parachutes, many countries have one or several paratrooper units, usually associated to the national Army or Air Force, but in some cases to the Navy. Argentina was the first country on the continent of South America to use Paratroopers, the first paratroopers were issued jump helmets similar to that used by the British at the time, as the rest of the equipment slightly based on the Fallschirmjäger. The 4th Parachute Brigade is a unit of the Argentine Army specialised in airborne assault operations and it is based in Córdoba, Córdoba Province. The Rapid Deployment Force is based on this unit, the members of the unit wear Boina Rojas of the paratroopers with unit badges. During the Second World War the Australian Army formed the 1st Parachute Battalion, however, in the post-war period Australias parachute capability was primarily maintained by special forces units. In the 1970s and 1980s a parachute capability was revived, while a Parachute Battalion Group based on the 3rd Battalion
2.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
3.
SWAT
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SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an urban counterinsurgency bulwark. Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, after the LAPDs establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano, though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano, inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each and these officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest, the LAPD SWAT units were organized as D Platoon in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPDs SWAT unit was on December 9,1969, the raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shoot-out in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured, all six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense
4.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
5.
State (polity)
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A state is a type of polity that is an organized political community living under a single system of government. States may or may not be sovereign, for instance, federated states are members of a federal union, and may have only partial sovereignty, but are, nonetheless, states. Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony, in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, States that are sovereign are known as sovereign states. The term state can also refer to the branches of government within a state, often as a manner of contrasting them with churches. Speakers of American English often use the state and government as synonyms. Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, over time a variety of different forms developed, employing a variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence. In the 21st century, the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subjected, there is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state. The term state refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, general categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious organizations. Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the Montevideo Convention on Rights, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is a. an organized political community under one government, a commonwealth, a nation. B. such a community forming part of a federal republic, confounding the definition problem is that state and government are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this schema, the states are nonphysical persons of international law. The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency, States may be classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation, such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government. One can commonly and sometimes readily classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus, the concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a nation, became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere or at other times. Imperial states have sometimes promoted notions of racial superiority, the concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world. To some extent, urban secession, the creation of a new city-state, a state can be distinguished from a government. The government is the group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at a given time
6.
Law of war
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The law of war is a legal term of art that refers to the aspect of public international law concerning acceptable justifications to engage in war and the limits to acceptable wartime conduct. Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, the earliest known instances are found in the Mahabharata and the Torah. One should not assail someone in distress, neither to him nor to defeat him. War should be waged for the sake of conquest, one should not be enraged toward an enemy who is not trying to kill him and you may eat from them, but you shall not cut them down. Are the trees in the human, that they should be besieged by you. 20 Only the trees that you know are not trees for food you may destroy and cut down, also, Deuteronomy 20, 10–12, requires the Israelites to make an offer of peace to the opposing party before laying siege to their city. When you draw near to a city to fight against it,11 And if it responds to you peaceably and it opens to you, then all the people who are found in it shall do forced labor for you and shall serve you. 12 But if it makes no peace with you, but makes war against you, similarly, Deuteronomy 21, 10–14 requires that female captives who were forced to marry the victors of a war could not be sold as slaves. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path and you must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man, bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services, in the history of the early Christian church, many Christian writers considered that Christians could not be soldiers or fight wars. Augustine of Hippo contradicted this and wrote about just war doctrine, in medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church also began promulgating teachings on just war, reflected to some extent in movements such as the Peace and Truce of God. The impulse to restrict the extent of warfare, and especially protect the lives and property of non-combatants continued with Hugo Grotius, the modern law of war is made up from three principal sources, Lawmaking treaties — see § International treaties on the laws of war below. Not all the law of war derives from or has been incorporated in such treaties, such customary international law is established by the general practice of nations together with their acceptance that such practice is required by law. Certain fundamental principles provide basic guidance, for instance, the principles of distinction, proportionality, and necessity, all of which are part of customary international law, always apply to the use of armed force. Positive international humanitarian law consists of treaties which directly affect the laws of war by binding consenting nations, the opposite of positive laws of war is customary laws of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. These laws define both the rights of states as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories
7.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities
8.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
9.
Light infantry
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Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the infantry but often in widely dispersed groups. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary, and would fight ahead of the line to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position. Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and these became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger regiments in German speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs, the Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum. Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments of light infantry, by the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice, some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments. On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments, today the term light denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, 25th Infantry Division, operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U. S. Forces, mostly light, during the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability
10.
Irregular military
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Irregular military is any non-standard military, that is, distinct from that of the regular army. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term and it can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used. An irregular military organization is one which is not part of the army organization. Without standard military unit organization, various more general names are used, such organizations may be called a troop, group, unit, column, band. Irregulars are soldiers or warriors that are members of these organizations and this also applies to irregular troops, irregular infantry and irregular cavalry. Irregular warfare is warfare employing the tactics used by irregular military organizations. This involves avoiding large-scale combat, and focusing on small, stealthy, hit, the words regular and irregular have been used to describe combat forces for hundreds of years, usually with little ambiguity. Due to a chain of command requirements, the regular army is very well defined. In cases where the legitimacy of the army or its opponents is questioned, the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, uses regular armed forces as a critical distinction. The ICRC provided commentary saying that armed forces satisfy four Hague Conventions conditions. The term irregular military describes the how and what, but it is common to focus on the why. Bypassing the legitimate military and taking up arms is an extreme measure, the motivation for doing so is often used as the basis of the primary label for any irregular military. Different terms come in and out of fashion, based on political and emotional associations that develop, here is a list of such terms, organized more or less from oldest to latest. Auxiliaries - foreign or allied troops supplementing the regular army, organized from provincial or tribal regions, in the Imperial Roman army it became common to maintain a number of auxiliaries about equal to the legionaries. Levies - feudal peasants and freemen liable to be called up for military duty. Revolutionary — someone part of a revolution, whether military or not, Guerrilla — someone who uses unconventional military tactics, tends to refer to groups engaged in open conflict rather than underground resistance. Term coined during the Peninsula War in Spain against France, franc-tireur — French irregular forces during the Franco-Prussian War. But is also used in legal cases as a synonym for unprivileged combatant
11.
Guerrilla warfare
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The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. The Guerrilla focuses on organizing in small units, depending on the support of the local population, tactically, the guerrilla army would avoid any confrontation with large units of enemy troops, but seek and eliminate small groups of soldiers to minimize losses and exhaust the opposing force. Not limiting their targets to personnel, enemy resources are preferred targets. All of that is to weaken the strength, to cause the enemy eventually to be unable to prosecute the war any longer. It is often misunderstood that guerrilla warfare must involve disguising as civilians to cause enemy troops to fail in telling friend from foe, however, this is not a primary feature of a guerrilla war. This type of war can be practiced anywhere there are places for combatants to cover themselves, at least one author credits the ancient Chinese work The Art of War with providing instruction in such tactics to Mao. The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War or 600 BC to 501 BC, was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare and this directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla tactics were employed by prehistoric tribal warriors against enemy tribes. Evidence of conventional warfare, on the hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt. Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, because of the innovative tactics he used during his command, he made himself the name of Terror Romanorum. A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency operation involves actions taken by the government of a nation to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions, the two most influential of scholars of counter-insurgency have been Westerners whose job it had been to fight insurgents. Robert Thompson fought during the Malayan Emergency and David Galula fought during the Algerian War, together these officers advocated multi-pronged strategies to win over the civilian population to the side of the counter-insurgent. The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, thompsons underlying assumption was that the counter-insurgent was committed to improving the rule of law and bettering local governance
12.
Insurgency
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An insurgency is a rebellion against authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents. The nature of insurgencies is an ambiguous concept, where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s, they are still common in recent studies. Sometimes there may be one or more simultaneous insurgencies occurring in a country, the Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War, have been rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two sides, MPLA and UNITA. At the same time, there was another separatist movement for the independence of the Cabinda region headed up by FLEC, if there is a rebellion against the authority and those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents, the rebellion is an insurgency. However, not all rebellions are insurgencies, as a state of belligerency may exist between one or more states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. The use of the term insurgency recognizes the political motivation of those who participate in an insurgency, if an uprising has little support, such a resistance may be described as brigandry and those who participate as brigands. The distinction on whether an uprising is an insurgency or a belligerency has not been as clearly codified as many other covered by the internationally accepted laws of war for two reasons. The dispute resulted in a compromise wording being included in the Hague Conventions known as the Martens Clause from the diplomat who drafted the clause. The United States Department of Defense defines it as this, An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a government through use of subversion. The United States counterinsurgency Field Manual, This definition does not consider the morality of the conflict, or the different viewpoints of the government and it is focused more on the operational aspects of the types of actions taken by the insurgents and the counter-insurgents. The Department of Defenses definition focuses on the type of violence employed towards specified ends and this characterization fails to address the argument from moral relativity that one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. The French expert on Indochina and Vietnam, Bernard Fall, who wrote Street Without Joy, insurgency has been used for years in professional military literature. Under the British, the situation in Malaya as often called the Malayan insurgency or the Troubles in Northern Ireland, each had different specifics but shared the property of an attempt to disrupt the central government by means considered illegal by that government. North points out, however, that insurgents today need not be part of an organized movement, Some are networked with only loose objectives
13.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
14.
State defense force
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State defense forces are authorized by state and federal law and are under the command of the governor of each state. State defense forces are distinct from their states National Guard in that they cannot become federal entities, all state National Guard personnel can be federalized under the National Defense Act of 1933 with the creation of the National Guard of the United States. This provides the basis for integrating units and personnel of the Army National Guard into the U. S. Army and, since 1947, units and personnel of the Air National Guard into the U. S. Air Force. However, under the law, individual members serving in the state defense force are not exempt from service in the armed forces. Under 32 USC §109, A person may not become a member of a defense force, if he is a member of a reserve component of the armed forces. Nearly every state has laws authorizing state defense forces, and 22 states, plus the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, have active SDFs with different levels of activity, support, State defense forces generally operate with emergency management and homeland security missions. Most SDFs are organized as units, but air and naval units also exist. In 1903, with passage of the Militia Act of 1903 and it required the states to divide their militias into two sections. The law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, the Secretary of War was authorized to furnish these Home Guard units with rifles, ammunition, and supplies. This law authorized the War Department to train and arm the new forces that would come to be known as State Guards. Many states took advantage of this law and maintained distinct state military forces throughout the war to defend their own territories, shorelines, Army Air Forces and would now be operationally gained by the newly established Air Force. In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War and at the urging of the National Guard, Congress reauthorized the separate state military forces for a time period of two years. These state military forces were authorized military training at federal expense, as well as arms, ammunition, clothing, at the end of the two years, however, they were not reauthorized under federal law. In 1956, Congress finally revised the law and authorized State defense forces permanently under Title 32, Section 109, two years later, Congress amended the law and changed the name from State defense forces to defense forces. By the late 1980s, however, a series of high-profile reports caused several states to shut down or significantly restructure their forces. Meanwhile, in 1990, the Virginia General Assembly launched an investigation, with the end of the Cold War came a general decrease of interest in state defense forces. In 2008, Alaska disarmed its state defense force after an investigation concluded the lack of training intensity or standardization was a legal liability to the state. Another former commander asserted he regularly awarded titles to members of the New York legislature in exchange for their support of budgetary allocations to the force
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Royal Guard
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A Royal Guard describes any group of military bodyguards, soldiers or armed retainers responsible for the protection of a royal person, such as Emperor/Empress, King/Queen, or Prince/Princess. They often are a unit of the regular armed forces, or are designated as such. An example of the first category would include the Tropas de la Casa Real of the Spanish Monarchy prior to 1930, comprising halberderos, examples of the second would include the Imperial Guards of the Russian and German Empires prior to 1917-18. Monarchs frequently modelled their Royal Guards upon those of fellow rulers, thus, Napoleon Is Garde Imperiale was imitated by his opponent Alexander I of Russia, his Bourbon successor Louis XVIII and his nephew Napoleon III. Because of their location, status, role and nature, Royal Guards have frequently been able to play a role beyond their intended military. In times of revolution, the loyalty or defection of such units has often played a key part in the outcome of wider unrest. Historical examples were England in 1688, Spain in 1808, Sweden in 1809, France in 1789 and again in 1814-15, Russia in 1917 and Persia in 1906 and again in 1953
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Imperial Guard
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An Imperial guard or palace guard is a special group of troops of an empire, typically closely associated directly with the Emperor or Empress. Usually these troops embody a more elite status than other forces, including the regular armed forces. Because the head of state often wishes to be protected by the best soldiers available, their numbers, napoleons Imperial Guard is an example of this. Some imperial guard units, such as used in the British Empire. In heterogeneous polities reliant on a degree of coercion to maintain central authority the political reliability and loyalty of the guard is the most important factor in their recruitment. The Equites singulares Augusti, Imperial Horse Guards of the Roman Emperors, somatophylakes, bodyguards of Alexander the Great. The 8000 Terracotta Warriors protecting the Emperor of China in the afterlife,312, in the West until the 490s, in Byzantine service until ca. Knights in the protection of the King of Jerusalem. The Northern Army of the Han Dynasty was the professional army branch of the Han Empire. Several units from this army would be given the honor of guarding the emperor in the capitol, the Great Monaspa Guard was an elite sub branch of the Kingdom of Georgia royal guard, which itself was an elite formation of the Georgian kings army. The Imperial Varangian Guard formed a corps of the Byzantine Army which served alongside the Byzantine navy, direct descendants of Roman legions. Alemannic Guard of Emperor of the Serbs Stefan Uroš IV Dušan the Mighty, Imperial Guard of the First French Empire Imperial Guard of the Second French Empire The Imperial Guard of the Russian Tsars. The Austrian Imperial Guard during the Austrian Empire and then the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, the Imperial Guard of the 1st Infantry Regiment of the Prussian Guard during the German Empire. The Bushi which appeared in 1185 and Samurai which appeared in 1615 governing Japan under the Shogun, Imperial Guard in service protection of the Emperor of Japan. Later part of the Japanese Army and since 1947, an integration of the National Police of Japan, Emperors Royal Guard, Emperor Palpatines personal protectors in the Star Wars universe. The Imperial Guard, the army of the Imperium in the Warhammer 40,000 tabletop miniature wargame, the Crimson Brigade, the Empire of Izmirs elite fighting unit in the 2000 film titled, Dungeons & Dragons. The Sardaukar of the Padishah Emperor and the Fremen Fedaykin of Paul Muaddib, the Imperial Guard of the planet Andor as seen on the TV series Star Trek, Enterprise List of empires List of largest empires List of extinct countries, empires, etc. Imperialism Colonialism Royal Guard Republican Guard National Guard
17.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
18.
Auxiliary police
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Auxiliary police, also called Special Police, are usually the part-time reserves of a regular police force. They may be armed or unarmed and they may be unpaid volunteers or paid members of the police service with which they are affiliated. In most jurisdictions, Auxiliary Police officers are empowered to make arrests for crimes that occur in their presence, the Australian Federal Police can appoint Special Members who do not have full police powers. The Western Australia Police has had auxiliary officers since 2009, the role of Police Auxiliary Officers was inserted into the Police Act 1892 by the Police Amendment Act 2009. They generally perform administrative and other duties which do not require full police powers, the Victoria Police recruited 3,100 auxiliary police to the Victoria Police Auxiliary Force during World War II to assist regular police in the event of emergencies. The Auxiliary Force was disbanded in 1946, a number of retired police were temporarily formed into a Police Reserve to assist with traffic control during the 1956 Summer Olympics. A permanent Retired Police Reserve was established under the Police Regulation Act 1958, the New South Wales Police Force formed a Police Reserve of around 500 special constables during World War I. The Police Reserve was formed again during World War II, in Canada, many police forces utilize the services of auxiliary constables. Auxiliary constables in Canada wear uniforms similar to regular force constables, also, auxiliary constables are usually unarmed, but are trained in firearms. They may, depending on legislation and policies, carry a baton, in the Federal Republic of Germany, auxiliary police forces do solely exist in a few States, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse and Saxony. The auxiliary police of Berlin was dissolved in 2002 and their jurisdictions widely vary among the particular states. Still they generally exist for the purpose of prevention through mere presence. Founded in May 1963, the Baden-Württemberg auxiliary police today consists of 1,201 members, the officers are obliged to absolve a training of two weeks after which they are usually in service with a regular police officer. In the eyes of law, they are fully authorized police officers, wear normal police uniforms with a patch and complete police gear, including pepper spray, handcuffs. The Bavarian auxiliary police was founded on 31 December 1996. Its officers possess little authority, apart from a citizens arrest, they may conduct a Terry Stop. Equipped with a radio and pepper spray, they usually patrol on foot or by bicycle and do not wear a full uniform, the auxiliary police in Hesse was introduced in October 2000 and employs around 750 members of which approximately 30% are women. The training of the police officers endures 50 hours and their patrol is limited to beats on foot and serves traffic control, assistance to major events and prevention of crime through mere police presence
19.
Mobile Brigade Corps
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The Mobile Brigade Corps abbreviated BRIMOB is the main special police operations force and paramilitary law enforcement of Indonesia. It is also known as for being one of the oldest units in the Indonesian National Police and its duties are counter-terrorism, high-threat law enforcement, riot control, police raid, search and rescue, anti-anarchist, and explosive disposal operations in urban settings. The Mobile Brigade Corps is a component of the Indonesian National Police trained for counter-separatist and counter-insurgency duties. The Mobile Brigade is also known as the special branch of the Indonesian National Police which deals with special operations. Historically, Brimob wore the Indonesian spot camouflage pattern during the early 1960s as their uniform, formed in late 1945 as a special police corps named Pasukan Polisi Istimewa with the task of disarming remnants of the Japanese Imperial Army and protecting the chief of state and the capital city. Under the Japanese, it was called Tokubetsu Keisatsutai and it fought in the revolution and was the first military unit to engage in the Battle of Surabaya under the command of Police Inspector Moehammad Jasin. On 14 November 1946, Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir reorganised the Polisi Istimewa into the Mobile Brigade and this day is celebrated as the anniversary of this Blue Beret Corps. This Corps was reconstituted to suppress military and police conflicts and even coups detat, after that, Brimob was placed under the command of the Indonesian National Police. In 1981, the Mobile Brigade spawned a new unit called the Jihandak, in 1992 the Mobile Brigade was essentially a paramilitary organisation trained and organised along military line. It had a strength of about 12,000, the brigade was used primarily as an elite unit for emergencies and supporting police operations as a rapid response unit. The unit was deployed in domestic security and defense operations, and they are trained to deal with mass demonstrations. Since the May 1998 upheaval, PHH have received special anti-riot training, elements of the unit are cross trained for airborne and Search and Rescue operations. In each Police HQ that represents a province in Indonesia must have a BRIMOB force which consists of several Detachments of Pelopor, Pelopor is the main reaction force of the Mobile Brigade Corps of Indonesia. In each BRIMOB unit of a Police HQ in a province, there are about several detachments of pelopor, Gegana is an Indonesian Brimob Police special response unit who have special abilities mainly in bomb disposal matters. On the other hand, it specializes in the field of anti-terrorism, intelligence, anti-riot, and the handling of Chemical, Biological. This unit was formed in 1976 as a detachment, at first, it was meant to deal with aircraft hijacking. Later in 1995, with the expansion of Brimob, the Gegana Detachment was expanded to become the 2nd BRIMOB Regiment, however, there are a select few specialists who are very skilled in these specialties. Gegana does not have battalions or companies, the regiment is broken down into several detachments
20.
Gendarmerie
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A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military component with jurisdiction in civil law enforcement. The term gendarmerie is derived from the medieval French expression gens darmes, in France and most Francophone nations, the gendarmerie is the branch of the armed forces responsible for internal security during wartime. This concept was introduced to several other Western European countries during the Napoleonic conquests, in the mid twentieth century, a number of former French mandates or colonial possessions such as Syria and the Republic of the Congo adopted a gendarmerie after independence. A somewhat related phenomenon has been the formation of units which fall under the authority of civilian police agencies. Since these are not strictly military forces, however, they are not considered gendarmerie, some of the more prominent modern gendarmerie organizations include the French National Gendarmerie, Italian Carabinieri, and Spanish Civil Guard. The word gendarme comes from the Old French gens darmes, meaning men-at-arms, during the Late Medieval to the Early Modern period, the term referred to a heavily armoured cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army. The word gained policing connotations only after the French Revolution when the Maréchaussée of the Ancien Régime was renamed the Gendarmerie, historically, the spelling in English was gendarmery, but now the French spelling gendarmerie is more common. The Oxford English Dictionary uses gendarmery as the spelling, Merriam-Webster uses gendarmerie as the principal spelling. Gendarmes are often deployed in situations, sometimes in their own country. A gendarmerie may come under the authority of a ministry of defence, generally there is some coordination between a ministry of defence and a ministry of the interior over the use of gendarmes. A few forces which are no longer considered military retain the title gendarmerie for reasons of tradition, since different countries may make different use of institutional terms such as gendarmerie, there are cases in which the term may become confusing. For instance, in the French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland the gendarmeries are the civil police. In Chile, the word gendarmerie refers for historic reasons to the prison service, in some cases, a police services military links are ambiguous and it can be unclear whether a force should be defined as a gendarmerie. Some historical military units, such as South-West Africas Koevoet, were defined as police for political reasons. In 2014 the Mexican Federal Police, an armed force which has many attributes of a gendarmerie. The new force would initially number 5,000 personnel and was created with the assistance of the French gendarmerie, in countries where the gendarmerie and civilian police co-exist there may be rivalries and tensions between the forces. This was one of the reasons cited for the decision to disband the Belgian Gendarmerie, since the year 2000 four European countries—Belgium, Luxembourg, Greece and Austria—have replaced long-established gendarmeries with civilian police forces having no military links or functions. The GNA often take part in UN peace keeping missions, the use of military organisations to police civilian populations is common to many time periods and cultures
21.
Central Security Forces
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They are a vital arm of Egypts National Security apparatus. The initial batch of recruits were drawn from the Police and had to undergo training under the Army. Later on, in 1970, a training institute was set up for the CSF. The CSF was set up to deal with the growing unrest, CSF units had to use force to disperse the rioting crowds in Tahrir Square which led to the shooting death of three protestors. The Treaty stipulated the Egyptian government refrain from deploying regular Egyptian Armed Forces units in the part of Sinai that directly border Israel. The Egyptian government then tasked the Central Security Forces to take up the task, the CSF force deployed is effectively a motorised light infantry force without the heavy weapons and equipment. The CSF was especially deployed to tackle armed Islamist insurgents, in 1986, hundreds of third category, low ranking, CSF personnel staged a four-day mutiny, in the Egyptian Conscription Riot. The riot was a reaction to the spread of false rumours among its conscripts that their time will be extended by a year. The insurrection was suppressed by the Egyptian Army and they rampaged through the suburb of Giza burning some hotels and shops in tourist areas. They also burned dozens of cars and buses, some reports related that mutiny to a conspiracy against the Minister of Interior in charge by then due to his policies. After the suppression the government promised to overhaul the force by raising its standards, increasing payment. The CSF is headed by a Director General, who is a 3-star Police General of the Interior Ministry, and is organised as follows, Main Headquarters. AOR Operational Regions – Cairo, Alexandria, Giza, Central & Western Nile Delta, Eastern Nile Delta, Suez Canal & Sinai, Southern Upper Egypt, and Northern Upper Egypt. Similar to other central paramilitary organizations in countries, CSF deployment is divided into three parts - Baton, Gas, and Armed. The basic unit formation of the CSF is a company which is commanded by a Police Captain or in some cases a Major who is a commissioned officer, a senior Lieutenant, is usually second-in-command. A CSF company consists of approximately 150 personnel and is composed of two Baton platoons, a Gas platoon, and an Armed platoon, each platoon is also commanded by a Captain or a Lieutenant with a Sergeant as second-in-command. Approximately 3 to 4 companies make up a CSF Battalion, which is commanded by an officer of full Colonel rank, also, the three-part deployment of CSF is not applicable in regions like the North Sinai, where all units are armed at all times. The Central Security Forces personnel consists of three categories, Commissioned Officers, who enter the service with the rank of Lieutenant, there is high competition among conscripts to extend their service and to become regularized troops, this is because of the high rate of unemployment in Egypt
22.
National Guard of Russia
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The National Guard is separate from the Russian Armed Forces. The establishment of the National Guard is seen an effort to enhance efficiency, the National Guard consolidated and replaced the forces of the MVD Internal Troops, SOBR, OMON and other internal military forces outside of the Russian Armed Forces. The ministrys full name is the Federal National Guard Troops Service of the Russian Federation, in official documents, it may be referred to by the romanized acronym FSVNG RF. In Russian, the less formal acronym Rosgvardiya is commonly used, the corps is a direct successor to Internal Troops of Russia and to OMON and SOBR units formerly under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. On 5 April 2016, President Putin created the National Guard of Russia by a Presidential Decree - a legal act having the status of a by-law, on 9 May 2016 the National Guard paraded for the first time. 400 National Guardsmen of the ODON Ind, motorized Division of the National Guard Forces Command, Federal National Guard Service of the Russian Federation Felix Dzerzhinsky formed part of the 2016 Moscow Victory Day Parade. On 18 May 2016, State Duma approved the first of the three readings of the law establishing the National Guard. On 22 June 2016, State Duma approved the last of the three readings of the law, thus establishing the National Guard, the Federation Council soon followed. The first National Guardsmen to be enlisted took their oaths on 1 June 2016. Presidential press secretary Peskov told reporters that the National Guard started operations before the legal basis for its work was actually finalized. According to Federal National Guard Service Director and National Guard Forces Director Viktor Zolotov, the first phase sees the transformation of the Interior Troops, of the OMON units and of the SOBR units into National Guard units. The second step involves the elaboration of the organizational and staff structure, harmonizing regulations. Finally, the third phase envisages the completion of all the organizational activities, the National Guard of Russia is directly subordinated to the supreme commander-in-chief with the incumbent head of this new structure included into the Security Council as a permanent member. In turn, the Federal Migration Service and the Federal Drug Service are to be incorporated into the structure of the Interior Ministry, in operation, the National Guard is expected to number some 350,000 to 400,000 men. However, as of May 2016 the Russian government did not propose the size of the actually needed. The establishing Presidential decree points out that the process should be completed by 1 June 2016. According to the presidential decree, the Federal National Guard Service is part of the executive branch. The Federal Service is led by a Director, and the director is simultaneously the commander of the National Guard Forces Command
23.
Border guard
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A border guard of a country is a national security agency that performs border control, i. e. enforces the security of the countrys national borders. Some of the border guard agencies also perform coast guard. In different countries, names of particular border guard services vary significantly, the service may be called police, guard, troops or sentinel and the name would refer to the nations official term for the state border - whether it is frontier or border. Most border guards of the world use dark green-colored elements on their uniform, patrols go out regularly from the Border outposts to patrol the international border to check illegal crossings and track any footprints of those who may have crossed over illegally or attempted to. The Border Guard may also perform delegated customs and immigration control duties, wartime assistance of the Border guard to the Army is essential as they are familiar with the local terrain having patrolled it on a daily basis during peacetime. During wars, Border outposts are reworked into well fortified dug-in positions from where regular Army units can operate to defend the integrity of the country. Border Guards Bangladesh is a border security and anti-smuggling force under the Ministry of Home Affairs of Bangladesh. BGB can trace back its origin to the establishment of the Ramgarh Local Battalion in 1795 and this force is lightly armed and although its primary duty is to protect the border, during national emergencies it can also be called upon to aid the government. Canada Border Services Agency is a law enforcement agency of the Department of Public Safety, created in 2003, it amalgamated the enforcement activities performed by three separate government entities. Traditionally unarmed, the arming of Border Services Officers, Investigators, Officers are found at entry points to Canada in some conflicts such as the Six Day War. Also, many border posts are staffed by Carabinieri, the Immigration and Border Police also performs border police duties. The State Border Guard Service is the charged with controlling and maintaining the Lithuanian Border. The State Border Guard Service falls under authority of the Ministry of the Interior, Border patrol and immigration control in Macau are conducted by Public Security Police Force of Macau at land entries with China and at Macau International Airport. Customs duties are performed by Macau Customs agency, both border guards and customs officers are responsibilities of the Secretariat for Security. Before the establishment of the agency, Malaysian borders was guarded by the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Royal Marechaussee is the fourth organization within the Dutch Royal Army, besides Army, Navy and Air Force. Besides patrolling the border it also has the function of Military Police, sometime thereafter, the Border Security Bureau was enlarged to corps level and renamed the Border Security Command. Previously headquartered in Chagang Province, the Border Security Command was relocated to P’yŏngyang in 2002, the Frontier Corps is a federal paramilitary force recruited mostly by people from the tribal areas and led by officers from the Pakistan Army. The FC is stationed in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan Province, are known as FC NWFP and FC Balochistan, the Pakistan Rangers are a paramilitary force under the control of the Ministry of the Interior of the Pakistani government
24.
Australian Border Force
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The ABF is a law enforcement agency operating under the Australian Border Force Act 2015 with broadened legislative powers including the introduction of sworn officers. A new uniform was introduced and following the transition there was increase in the number of officers authorised to carry firearms, as of 2016, approximately 15% of the Force is firearms trained which will increase by 2020 to less than 25%. Immigration Minister Scott Morrison MP announced the establishment of the Force on 9 May 2014 to be based on a hybrid of the United Kingdom Border Force model, the National Commission of Audit recommended the merger in February 2014. The Australian Border Force Bill 2015 was introduced on 25 February 2015, the ABF is the operational arm of the Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Its mission is to protect Australias border and manage the movement of people, the ABF contributes to three national outcomes including strong national security, a strong economy and a prosperous and cohesive society. The ABF has approximately 5800 employees, with about 1000 in corporate or close operational support roles, to achieve its mission the ABF structures itself into two Groups – the Operations Group and the Support Group. The Operations Group has responsibilities for all operational activity relating to the management of travellers, goods, the Maritime Border Command a multi agency task force with the Australian Defence Force sits within the Operations Group. The Australian Border Force has its own rank structure, uniformed Australian Border Force officers have their rank displayed on their shoulder epaulettes, attached to shirts, jumpers or jacket. The rank and epaulette styling is in line with other border agencies and shares close similarities with its United Kingdom counterpart. The ABF rank insignias have four components placed against an ink navy coloured field and these Officers were generally those that worked in Enforcement Operations, Investigations, and the Marine Unit. Since 1 July 2015, with the creation of the Australian Border Force came a change direction, as a result, the ABF has begun to arm trained officers to carry firearms and PDE at all major Australian international airports. ABF Officers are supplied with current generation Glock 17 9mm semi-automatic pistol, ASP21 inch telescopic baton, SAF-LOK MK5 hinged handcuffs, Oleoresin Capsicum Spray. The Marine Unit is a Coast Guard which operates alongside the Royal Australian Navy in the Maritime Border Command, the Marine Unit officers are equipped with the Glock 17 pistol and Remington Model 870 shotgun. The Marine Unit vessels are equipped similar to RAN vessels with the M2 Browning 12. 7mm machine gun that is on loan from the Australian Defence Force. The ABF also has an aviation Coast Guard component operating a fleet of ten privately contracted Dash 8 aircraft which operate alongside the Royal Australian Air Force in the Maritime Board Command. The Australian Border Force uses a big data analysis ecosystem to monitor people and this includes the use of machine learning capabilities across a range of analytical platforms that draw together multiple data sources to provide insights. CMAL comprises two databases, the Person Alert List and the Document Alert List, the PAL database stores the biographical details of identities of concern and DAL is a list of lost, fraudulent or stolen travel documents. PAL records are categorised according to the reason for listing the identity—the alert reason code, there are 19 ARCs with each being categorised as high, medium or low risk
25.
Border Security Force
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The Border Security Force is the primary Border guarding force of India. It is a Central Armed Police Force charged with guarding Indias land border during peacetime and it is a Union Government Agency under the administrative control of Ministry of Home Affairs. The BSF has its own cadre of officers but its head, designated as a Director-General and it is an Armed Force of the Union of India tasked with various assignments from time to time. It currently stands as the worlds largest border guarding force, BSF has been termed as the First Line of Defence of Indian Territories. From independence in 1947 to 1965, the protection of Indias international boundaries was the responsibility of local police belonging to each border state, BSF is a Central Armed Police force charged with guarding Indias land border during peacetime and preventing transnational crime. It is a Union Government Agency under the control of Ministry of Home Affairs. It is one of law enforcement agency of India. It currently stands as the worlds largest border guarding force, the KF Rustamji, from the Indian police service, was the first Director General of BSF. Till 1965 India’s borders with Pakistan were manned by the State Armed Police Battalion, Pakistan attacked Sardar Post, Chhar Bet and Beria Bet on 9 April 1965 in Kutch. As a result of the recommendations of the Committee of Secretaries, in fact, for BSF the war on eastern front had started well before the war actually broke out in Dec 71. BSF had trained, supported and formed part of Mukti Bahini and had entered erstwhile East Pakistan before the hostilities broke out. BSF had played an important role in Liberation of Bangladesh which Indira Gandhi. Over 100 women have been deployed on the highly volatile Indo-Pak border, in total,595 women constables will be deployed on the border in different phases. Mr K F Rustamji IPS was the first Director General of Border Security Force from 21 July 1965 to 30 September 1974 & current Director General is Mr K K Sharma IPS since 29 February 2016. This attracts a number of spectators from both countries, as well as international tourists. Similar parades are being organised at Mahavir/Sadqi border near Fazilka and Hussainiwala/Gandasinghwala border near Firozpur, BSF contribution in reducing militancy in J&K is widely acknowledged. The BSF killed Ghazi Baba—chief of Jaish-e-Mohammed and the mastermind of the 2001 Indian Parliament attack—in August 2003 along with his deputy commander, the BSF raided Babas hideout in Srinagar and he was killed in the ensuing gun battle along with his deputy chief. In 2006 the Indian government has decided to implement recommendations to each security agency to its mandate
26.
Fire department
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Other life safety services, such as technical rescue, hazardous materials, and emergency medical services may also be provided by the agency. In the United States a fire brigade is the private firefighting organization of a company or enterprise, a fire department usually contains one or more fire stations within its boundaries, and may be staffed by career firefighters, volunteer firefighters, or a combination thereof. A fire department may provide fire protection or fire prevention services, whereby firefighters visit homes and give fire safety advice. In many countries fire protection or prevention is seen as an important role for the service, as preventing a fire from occurring in the first place can save lives. Fire departments are organized in a system of administration, services, training, and operations, for example, Administration is responsible for supervision, budgets, policy, Service offers protection, safety, and education to the public. Training prepares skilled people with the knowledge to perform their duties, operations performs the tasks to successfully save the public from harm. Larger departments have branches within themselves to increase efficiency, composed of volunteers, support, volunteers give advantages to the department in a state of emergency. Support organizing the resources within and outside of the department, research is to give advantages in new technologies for the department. A fire departments jurisdiction is organized by the body that controls the department. This comes from a municipality, county, prefecture, state, province, the most common type of government control is at the municipality level. The jurisdiction size and organisation would be set up by a department or the government in charge of these duties and this deals with the placement of fire stations, equipment, and personnel within the area of control. Fire departments periodically survey their areas and use the data for redeploying proper coverage. This data comes from time, range from station, and/or a population survey. This brings equal service to the community and gives the department efficient places to launch operations. The earliest known firefighting service was formed in Ancient Rome by Egnatius Rufus who used his slaves to provide a fire service. These men fought fires using bucket chains and also patrolled the streets with the authority to impose corporal punishment upon those who violated fire-prevention codes, the Emperor Augustus established a public fire department in 24 BCE, composed of 600 slaves distributed amongst seven fire stations in Rome. Fire departments were formed by property insurance companies beginning in the 17th century after the Great Fire of London in 1666. The first insurance brigades were established the following year, each company had its own fire mark, a durable plaque that would be affixed to the building exterior
27.
Firefighting in the United States
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As of 2014, there are around 1,134,400 firefighters serving in 27,198 fire departments nationwide and responding to emergencies from 58,150 fire stations. Of those firefighters, 31% or 346,150 were career firefighters, a Fire department responds to a fire every 23 seconds throughout the United States. Fire departments responded to 33,602,500 calls for service in 2015,21,500,000 were for medical help,2,533,500 were false alarms, and 1,345,500 were for actual fires. Paid firefighters may be union or non-union, union American firefighters are represented and united in the International Association of Fire Fighters with headquarters in Washington, D. C. However, many municipalities still rely on volunteer, paid on call and these non full-time firefighters are rarely union, and their interests are represented by the National Volunteer Fire Council. The United States Fire Administration provides national leadership to local fire services, the fire departments report fires and other incidents according to the National Fire Incident Reporting System, which maintains records of the incidents in a uniform manner. The National Fire Protection Association sets and maintains minimum standards and requirements for firefighting duties, the suppression of wildfires is regulated by the United States Department of Agriculture, US Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This is done through the National Wildland Coordination Center, the two million fire calls that American fire departments respond to each year represent the highest figures in the industrialized world. Each year thousands of people die, tens of thousands of people are injured, indirect costs, such as temporary lodging expenses, lost time at work, medical expenses, and psychological damages are equally alarming. House fires in particular are one of the most common tragedies facing emergency disaster workers in recent history, according to the US Fire Administration, the United States has a more severe fire problem than generally perceived. In inner city Pennsylvania neighborhoods, house fires have greatly increased, an alarming trend in these specific house fires is that sixty percent of these houses do not have working smoke detectors. Additionally, these households are prone to using supplemental heating devices, UL compliant extension cords are labeled with valuable information as to the use, size, and rating of the cord. New Amsterdam established the colonies first firefighting system in 1647, Fire wardens inspected the houses and chimneys, fining for potential hazard. An eight-man team called a rattle watch patrolled the streets at night, when a fire was detected, they shook wooden rattles to alert townspeople. In 1711 the concerned Americans formed the so-called mutual fire societies of approximately twenty members each, when fire struck a society member, other members rushed for assistance. The first water-pumping engines were imported to New York in the 1730s, in 1736 Benjamin Franklin founded the first American volunteer fire company in Philadelphia. Such companies were organized in other colonies. Among those who served as volunteer firefighters were George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Volunteer firefighters were honored with frequent stanzas in urban newspapers and made the subject of heroizing prints by the popular American printmaking firm Currier & Ives
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Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps
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The program was originally created as part of the National Defense Act of 1916 and later expanded under the 1964 ROTC Vitalization Act. Additional objectives are established by the departments of the Department of Defense. Improving the ability to communicate well both orally and in writing, developing an appreciation of the importance of physical fitness. Increasing a respect for the role of the U. S, Armed Forces in support of national objectives. Developing a knowledge of building skills and basic military skills. Taking 3–4 years of the course grants cadets the ability to rank higher if they pursue a military career. Section 524.5 of the CFR National Defense title states in part that JROTC should provide meaningful leadership instruction of benefit to the student, the dual roles of citizen/soldier and soldier/citizen are studied. These programs will enable cadets to serve their country as leaders, as citizens. The JROTC and NDCC are not, of themselves, officer-producing programs but should create favorable attitudes and impressions toward the Services, the military has stated that JROTC will inform young Americans about the opportunities available in the military and may help motivate young Americans toward military service. A1999 Army policy memorandum stated that While not designed to be a recruiting tool. Work closely with school guidance counselors to sell the Army story. Jones, then Commandant of the Marine Corps, testified that the value of the Marine JROTC program is beyond contest, fully one-third of our young men and women who join a Junior ROTC program wind up wearing the uniform of a Marine. General Eric K. Shinseki, then Chief of Staff of the United States Army, testified that Our indications are about 30 percent of those youngsters—we dont recruit them and we are not permitted to do that. But by virtue of the things that they like about that experience, about 30 percent of them end up joining the Army, either enlisting or going on to ROTC and then joining the officer population. General Michael E. Admiral Jay L. Johnson, then Chief of Naval Operations, testified that Even if the number is only 30 percent, but think about what we get out of the other 70 percent. They have exposure to the military, so it is a long way around saying it is well worth the investment for lots of different reasons. Former United States Secretary of Defense William Cohen referred to JROTC as one of the best recruitment programs we could have, Armed Forces maintains a Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, organized into units. The cap was increased to 1,600 units in 1967 and again to 3,500 units in 1992 and their goal is to reach 3,500 units by Feb.2011 by encouraging program expansion into educationally and economically deprived areas
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Militarization of police
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Militarization of police refers to the use of military equipment and tactics by law enforcement officers. This includes the use of armored personnel carriers, assault rifles, submachine guns, flashbang grenades, grenade launchers, sniper rifles, observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests. Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets, tear gas, which was developed for riot control in 1919, is widely used against protesters in the 2000s. Canadian legal expert Michael Spratt wrote, there’s no question that Canadian police sometimes look more like post-apocalyptic military mercenaries than protectors of the peace. Our police services have been acquiring more and more military toys — a dangerous trend that’s gotten little in the way of critical analysis in the mainstream media, growing numbers of Canadian police agencies have acquired armored vehicles in recent years. The G20 protests in Toronto in 2010 showed that the militarization of protest policing is not only occurring in the United States. Police in Toronto used a cannon, or Long Range Acoustic Device -- a weapon that was developed for use in conflicts in the Middle East, as well as barricades, pre-emptive arrests. White argues that the C8 carbines would give officers a much longer shooting range than the short-barreled MP5 submachine guns, the RCMP is issuing more than 2,200 C8 carbines to its officers but the RCMP has not indicated whether the C8s will be issued to Parliament Hill officers. In 2013. Brazil saw countrywide demonstrations protesting a lack of basic services while the country was spending billions on the World Cup, the unprepared and overreacting police forces responded in a way that shocked the largely middle-class protesters. Must be noted, the units that responded to the protests were Shock Police, and, actually, the Military Police is an ancilliary and reserve force of the Army, under the General Inspectorate of Military Police, being that a part of Land Operations Command. This assistance promote militarization to address organized crime, due to these U. S. policies, civilian forces. In 2016, the German police introduced a new unit, BFE+. Criminologist Rafael Behr states that the new BFE+ mainly serves as a reassurance for the public, serving as a symbolic effort. The functional aspect is that with the BFE+, the government can use armed forces with military weapons inside Germany, the 250 person BFE+ will be added to the existing GSG-9 unit. Behr states that the BFE+ will be able to launch large-scale manhunts, mexicos new national police force, the Gendarmería, is partially staffed with active duty soldiers, part of a longstanding trend towards militarization of the countrys Federal Police. Indonesian militarized police are deployed to mass gatherings, especially in areas with ethnic conflict. Throughout the 20th century, the United States has faced large and heavily armed criminal organizations, during the late 1920s through the early 1930s, gunmen from criminal gangs in the United States began wearing bulletproof vests made from thick layers of cotton padding and cloth. These early vests could absorb the impact of handgun rounds such as.22 Long Rifle.25 ACP.32 S&W Long.32 S&W.380 ACP.38 Special and.45 ACP traveling at speeds of up to 300 m/s
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Panamanian Public Forces
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The Panamanian Public Forces are the national security forces of Panama. Panama is the country in Latin America to permanently abolish standing armies. This came as a result of a U. S. invasion that overthrew a military dictatorship which ruled Panama from 1968 to 1989. The final military dictator, Manuel Noriega, had been belligerent toward the U. S. culminating in the killing of a U. S. Marine lieutenant, Panama maintains armed police and security forces, and small air and maritime forces. They are tasked with law enforcement and can perform limited military actions, since 2010 they have reported to the Ministry of Public Security. Panamas first army was formed in 1903, when the commander of a brigade of the Colombian army defected to the side during Panamas fight for independence. His brigade became the Panamanian army, in 1904, the army tried to overthrow the government, but failed. The United States persuaded Panama that an army could threaten the security of the Panama Canal Zone. Instead, the set up a National Police. For 48 years, this was the armed force in Panama. However, starting in the late 1930s, the National Police attracted several new recruits who had attended military academies in other Latin American countries, combined with increased spending on the police, this began a process of militarization. The process sped up under José Remón, who became the Polices commandant in 1947 and he himself had graduated from Mexicos military academy. He began promoting fewer enlisted men to officer rank, giving the police a more military character, after playing a role in overthrowing two presidents, Remón resigned his commission and ran for president for a coalition that won the elections in 1952. One of his first acts as President was to reorganize the National Police along military lines with a new name, the new grouping retained police functions as well. With a new name came increased American funding and they completed the process of converting the Guard into a full-fledged army. In the process, they promoted themselves to full colonels, torrijos thrust Martínez aside in 1969, promoted himself to brigadier general, and was de facto ruler of the country until his death in a 1981 plane crash. He built the PDF into a force, and further consolidated his political power. Under Noriega, the PDF was more a tool of control, than a force dedicated to national defense
31.
Fourth-generation warfare
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Fourth-generation warfare is conflict characterized by a blurring of the lines between war and politics, combatants and civilians. The term was first used in 1989 by a team of United States analysts, including paleoconservative William S. Lind, to describe warfares return to a decentralized form. In terms of modern warfare, the fourth generation signifies the nation states loss of their near-monopoly on combat forces. The simplest definition includes any war in one of the major participants is not a state. Classical examples of type of conflict, such as the slave uprising under Spartacus. In 2006, the concept was expanded upon by USMC Colonel Thomas X. Hammes in his book, The Sling. The generations of warfare described by authors are, 1st Generation, tactics of line and column. Lind describes First Generation of warfare as beginning after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and establishing the states need to organize, 1GW consisted of tightly ordered soldiers with top-down discipline. These troops would fight in order and advance slowly. This began to change as the battlefield changed, old line and column tactics are now considered suicidal as the bow and arrow/sword morphed into the rifle and machine gun. 2nd Generation, tactics of linear fire and movement, with reliance on indirect fire and this type of warfare can be seen in the early stages of World War I where there was still strict adherence to drill and discipline of formation and uniform. However, there remained a dependence on artillery and firepower to break the stalemate, 3rd Generation, tactics of infiltration to bypass and collapse the enemys combat forces rather than seeking to close with and destroy them, and defence in depth. These aspects of 3GW bleed into 4GW as it is also warfare of speed, however, it targets both military forces and home populations. The use of warfare can be traced to the Cold War period, as superpowers and major powers attempted to retain their grip on colonies. Many of these occur in the geographic area described by author Thomas P. M. Barnett as the Non-Integrating Gap. Fourth-generation warfare has much in common with traditional low-intensity conflict in its forms of insurgency. As in those wars, the conflict is initiated by the weaker party through actions which can be termed offensive. The difference lies in the manner in which 4GW opponents adapt those traditional concepts to present day conditions and this amalgamation and metamorphosis produces novel ways of war for both the entity on the offensive and that on the defensive
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Death squad
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A death squad is an armed group that conducts extrajudicial killings or forced disappearances of persons for the purposes of political repression, genocide, or revolutionary terror. These killings are often conducted in ways meant to ensure the secrecy of the killers identities, Death squads may have the support of domestic or foreign governments. They may comprise a secret force, paramilitary groups, government soldiers, policemen. They may also be organized as vigilantes, when death squads are not controlled by the state, they may consist of insurgent forces or organized crime. Historically, the origins of what are known as death squads goes back many decades to the Bolshevik Cheka as a part of the Red Terror in Russia. The Cheka were initially a party organization and later were given official powers and authority for extrajudicial secret arrest, internment and they ultimately institutionalized the practices into the Gulag system. Einsatzgruppen were used by Nazi Germany as a part of the Holocaust, apparently, the term was first used by the fascist Iron Guard in Romania. It officially installed Iron guard death squads in 1936 in order to kill political enemies and it was also used during the Battle of Algiers by Paul Aussaresses. In Southeast Asia, extrajudicial killings were conducted by both sides during the Vietnam War, Nguyễn Văn Lém, a member of the Viet Cong, commanded a death squad targeting South Vietnamese policemen and their families during the Tet Offensive in Saigon. On February 1,1968, Captain Bay Lop was arrested by South Vietnamese police while dumping the bodies of his units victims, Captain Bay Lop was then shot in the head by South Vietnamese Police Major General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan. A photograph taken of the event by American reporter Eddie Adams horrified people throughout the Western World, Argentina used extrajudicial killings as way of crushing the liberal and communist opposition to the military junta during the Dirty war of the 1970s. For example, Alianza Anticomunista Argentina was a death squad mainly active during the Dirty War. The Chilean military regime of 1973–1990 also committed such killings, during the Salvadoran civil war, death squads achieved notoriety on March 24,1980, when a sniper assassinated Archbishop Óscar Romero as he said Mass inside a convent chapel. Death squads were instrumental in killing hundreds of real and suspected Communists, priests who were spreading Liberation Theology, such as Father Rutilio Grande, were often targeted as well. The murderers were found to have soldiers of the Salvadoran military. These events prompted outrage in the U. S. and led to a cutoff in military aid at the end of his presidency. Death Squad activity stretched well into the Reagan years as well, honduras also had death squads active through the 1980s, the most notorious of which was the army unit Battalion 316. Hundreds of people, teachers, politicians, and union bosses were assassinated by government-backed forces, Battalion 316 received substantial training from the United States Central Intelligence Agency
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Violent non-state actor
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Violent non-state actors, also known as armed non-state actors, are non-state actors, i. e. The term has been used in papers published by the U. S. military. There are many reasons why violent non-state actors develop, in the United States there are fears that the gangs have gotten so out of control they may become violent non-state actors. Thomas, Kiser and Casebeer in 2005 asserted that VNSA play a prominent, often destabilizing role in nearly every humanitarian, phil Williams, in an overview article, states that violent non-state actors have become a pervasive challenge to nation-states in the 21st century. Williams argues that VNSAs develop out of state governance but also contribute to further undermining governance by the state. This causes the family, tribe, clan etc. to become the reference points for political action. According to Williams, globalization has not only, challenged individual state capacity to manage economic affairs, it has also provided facilitators and force multipliers for VNSAs. Transnational flows of arms, for example, are no longer under the surveillance of states. With the onset of globalization, development of social capital and alliances. However, humanitarian agencies too often fail to engage strategically with VNSAs, in their opinion further study is necessary to identify ways in which humanitarian agencies can develop productive dialogue with VNSAs. Modeling Violent Non-State Actors, A Summary of Concepts and Methods, Colorado, Institute for Information Technology Applications, United States Air Force Academy. Deterring Violent Non-State Actors in the New Millenium, archived from the original on March 6,2008. Briefing Paper, Talking to the side, Humanitarian engagement with armed non-state actors. Thomas, Troy S. Casebeer, William D, Violent Non-State Actors, Countering Dynamic Systems. Archived from the original on March 1,2009, shultz, Richard H. Farah, Douglas, Lochard, Itamara V. Armed Groups, A Tier-One Security Priority, USAF Institute for National Security Studies, USAF Academy. Thomas, Troy S. Kiser, Stephen D. Casebeer, zurich, International Relations and Security Network. Violent Non-State Actors in World Politics, thomas, Troy S. Kiser, Stephen D
34.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
35.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
36.
Armed Forces & Society
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It is the official publication of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society and published by SAGE Publications. The current editor-in-chief is Patricia M. Shields and it covers a variety of topics, from Dutch peacekeeping missions, to gender-military and veterans issues. Furthermore, the attempts to include a broad focus on larger theoretical and policy connections. Armed Forces & Society has been the subject of scholarly publications. Camacho and Atwood reviewed publications in Armed Forces & Society between 1974 and 2006 regarding veterans and proposed new projects on the subject. The journal has also been the subject of study by students in the MPA program at Texas State University. Sexton established descriptive categories for 117 articles between 1998 and 2003, using Seibolds military sociology as a framework for issue categories, bowman conducted a descriptive study of manuscripts and reviewers for the journal, utilizing content analysis and archival records analysis. Bradys study concluded that there is a potential for publication on the wider political. According to Google Scholar, Armed Forces & Society is ranked 14th among the Top 20 Military Studies publications, the following persons have been Editor-in-Chief of the journal, Morris Janowitz David R. Segal Claude E. Welch Jr. Jay Stanley James Burk Mark Eitelberg Patricia M. Shields The following persons have been Editorial Assistants of the Journal, in April 2017, Armed Forces & Society published a special issue on women in the military. This issue was guest edited by Brenda L. Moor, professor of Sociology, notable authors included Lindy Heinecken, Tood Woodruff, Ryan Kelty, and Anastasia Prokos. In January 2017, Armed Forces & Society published a Symposium (forum_ on the Ethics of Senior Officer Resignation in the United States, notable authors included Don M. Snider, GEN James M. Dubik, Peter D. Feaver, and Richard H. Kohn. The symposium included a collection of four papers, each looking at principled resignation in different ways, conversely, Feaver and Kohn believe principled resignation is almost never justified as this action weakens the military profession and ultimately threatens national security. In July 2016, Armed Forces & Society published a Continuum of Employment Related Issues, Active Duty, Family, notable authors included Irina Goldenberg, Sarah O. Meadows, P. Wesley Routon, and Katharine A. Neill-Harris. Topics addressed in the include the fairness of military employment. In July 2015, Armed Forces & Society published a a special section on military families, notable authors included John J. Hisnanick, Elizabeth P. Van Winkle, and Victoria Bellou. Topics included the impact of multiple deployments on active duty military spouses, earnings penalties of a spouse. In April 2015, Armed Forces & Society published a section on transgender issues in the military
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