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Paramilitary

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Emergency Response Team (RCMP)

A paramilitary is a semi-militarized force whose organizational structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not included as part of a state's formal armed forces.^[1]

Under the law of war, a state may incorporate a paramilitary organization or armed agency (such as a national police, a private volunteer militia) into its combatant armed forces. The other parties to a conflict have to be notified thereof.^[2]

Though a paramilitary is not a military force, it is usually equivalent to a military's light infantry force in terms of intensity, firepower, and organizational structure. A paramilitary may also commonly fall under the command of a military, even despite not being part of the military or play an assisting role for the military in times of war.

1 Types
- 1.1 Examples of paramilitary units
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links

Types[edit]

Depending on the standards used, "paramilitaries" may include:

Irregular military forces: militias, guerrillas, insurgents, terrorists, and so forth
The auxiliary forces of a state's military: National Guard, Presidential Guard, Republican Guard, State Guard
Some police forces, such as police SWAT Teams, or auxiliary police
Gendarmeries, such as Egyptian Central Security Forces and Russia's National Guard
Border guards, such as Russia's Border Guard Service
The United States' Federal Protective Forces,
Security forces of ambiguous military status: internal troops, railroad guards or railway troops
Semi-militarized law enforcement personnel, such as SWAT teams in the United States and a number of other countries
Foreign volunteers
Youth Military Cadet Organisations, such as Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, Bangladesh National Cadet Corps
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the term is often restricted to the various armed groups involved in the Northern Ireland Troubles, such as the Ulster Volunteer Force or the Provisional Irish Republican Army.

Examples of paramilitary units[edit]

References[edit]

^ "paramilitary". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. June 2011 [online edition; original published in June 2005]. Retrieved 2011-09-13. Designating, of, or relating to a force or unit whose function and organization are analogous or ancillary to those of a professional military force, but which is not regarded as having professional or legitimate status.
^ "Customary IHL - Section B. Incorporation of paramilitary or armed law enforcement agencies into armed forces". Icrc.org. Retrieved 2013-07-27.

External links[edit]

Look up paramilitary in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paramilitary&oldid=801318654"

Categories:

Paratrooper – Paratroopers are military parachutists — military personnel trained in parachuting into an operation and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World War II for troop distribution and transportation, Paratroopers are often used to seize strategic objectives such as airfields or bridges. They are used for tactical advantage as they can be inserted into the battlefield from the air and they jump out of airplanes using their parachutes to land safely on the ground. It is one of the three types of forced entry strategic techniques for entering a theater of war, the two are by land and sea. Another common use for paratroopers is to establish an airhead for landing other units and this doctrine was first practically applied to warfare by the Italians and the Soviets. During World War II, however, the two countries ground forces were overstretched, leaving their elite paratroopers to be employed as regular

1. A British paratrooper from the 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment comes in to land on a Spanish drop zone during Exercise Iberian Eagle.

2. Brazilian Army paratroopers.

3. U.S. Army paratroopers with the 82nd Airborne Division parachute from a C-130 Hercules aircraft during Operation Toy Drop 2007 at Pope Air Force Base

4. Elite soldiers of Indian Army's 9 Para Commandos

Emergency Response Team (RCMP) – The Emergency Response Team is the paramilitary arm of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. According to the RCMP, the ERT is a group of highly-trained RCMP members capable of employing specialized weapons, equipment, the ERT offers consulting services to its fellow officers such as firearms files and shootings that involve police officers. ERTs operate as a floating work-site team, which allows them to be called up for duty from their residences and they also operate under a threat-based priority system if multiple emergency calls require ERT presence. ERT teams are legally bound to operate in Canada and overseas when required, the RCMP established the ERT in 1977 in 31 centres throughout Canada, which operates under a geographical basis. The creation of the ERT was modeled after the RCMPs Hostage Assault, the SERT was eventually disbanded in 1993 since they were not suited for quasi-military operations with problems on whether lethal force is necessary or not, given its RCMP status. MS

1. RCMP MSERT operators detain individuals in a simulated illegal migrant vessel in a training exercise as a part of Exercise Frontier Sentinel 2012 in Sydney, Nova Scotia.

Military – The task of the military is usually defined as defense of the state, and its citizens, and the prosecution of war against another state. The profession of soldiering as part of a military is older than recorded history itself, some of the most enduring images of the classical antiquity portray the power and feats of its military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC was one of the points of Pharaoh Ramses IIs reign. A thousand years later, the first emperor of unified China, Qin Shi Huang, was so determined to impress the gods with his military might, he was buried with an army of terracotta soldiers. The Romans were dedicated to military matters, leaving to posterity many treatises and writings, as well as a number of lavishly carved triumphal arches. Issue, Possibly cognate with Thousand, cf. Latin and Romance language root word mil-) The first recorded use of the military in English. It comes from the Latin militaris through French, but is of uncertain etymology, the word is now

1. Soldiers from the Canadian Grenadier Guards in the Kandahar Province of Afghanistan

2. CF-18 Hornet launches a laser-guided bomb

3. The Kawasaki C-1 is a tactical military transport of the Japan Air Self-Defence Force.

4. Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of the I Canadian Corps in Utrecht as the Canadian Army liberates the Netherlands from Nazi occupation

State (polity) – A state is a type of polity that is an organized political community living under a single system of government. States may or may not be sovereign, for instance, federated states are members of a federal union, and may have only partial sovereignty, but are, nonetheless, states. Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony, in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, States that are sovereign are known as sovereign states. The term state can also refer to the branches of government within a state, often as a manner of contrasting them with churches. Speakers of American English often use the state and government as synonyms. Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, over time a variety of different forms developed, employing a variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence. In the 21st century, the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subjected, there is no academic consensus on the most ap

1. The frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes ' Leviathan

2. IWW poster " Pyramid of Capitalist System " (c. 1911), depicting an anti-capitalist perspective on statist/capitalist social structures

3. Painting of Roman Senators encircling Julius Caesar

Armed forces – The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counte

1. Military spending in 2007, in USD, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

Law of war – The law of war is a legal term of art that refers to the aspect of public international law concerning acceptable justifications to engage in war and the limits to acceptable wartime conduct. Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, the earliest known instances are found in the Mahabharata and the Torah. One should not assail someone in distress, neither to him nor to defeat him. War should be waged for the sake of conquest, one should not be enraged toward an enemy who is not trying to kill him and you may eat from them, but you shall not cut them down. Are the trees in the human, that they should be besieged by you. 20 Only the trees that you know are not trees for food you may destroy and cut down, also, Deuteronomy 20, 10–12, requires the Israelites to make an offer of peace to the opposing party before laying siege to their city. When you draw near to a city to fight against it,11 And if it responds to you peaceably and it opens to you, then all the peo

1. The First Geneva Convention governing the sick and wounded members of armed forces was signed in 1864.

2. The signing of the First Geneva Convention by some of the major European powers in 1864.

Law enforcement agency – A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between internation

1. A police officer and a police car are traditional identifiers of a locally based law enforcement agency.

2. Two military police officers and a police car from the Żandarmeria Wojskowa (Poland)

Militia – For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, t

1. The Lexington Minuteman, a statue commemorating Captain John Parker, a commander of Massachusetts militia forces during the American Revolutionary War.

2. Peshmurga Kurdish Militia, cleaning weapons

3. The war standard of the Imeretian militia of the Imperial Russian Army. The inscription reads in Russian and Georgian: "To the Militia of Our Faithful Imeretian People for Exceptional Courage Displayed against the Mountaineers in 1838.".

4. Captain John Smith's 1624 map of the Somers Isles (Bermuda), showing St. George's Town and related fortifications, including the Castle Islands Fortifications with their garrisons of militiamen

Light infantry – Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition.

1. Portuguese Army light infantry (caçador) of the Peninsular War

2. Chasseurs from a light infantry regiment of Napoléon's Grande Armée

3. A historical reenactment with the British 95th Rifles regiment.

Irregular military – Irregular military is any non-standard military, that is, distinct from that of the regular army. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term and it can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used. An irregular military organization is one which is not part of the army organization. Without standard military unit organization, various more general names are used, such organizations may be called a troop, group, unit, column, band. Irregulars are soldiers or warriors that are members of these organizations and this also applies to irregular troops, irregular infantry and irregular cavalry. Irregular warfare is warfare employing the tactics used by irregular military organizations. This involves avoiding large-scale combat, and focusing on small, stealthy, hit, the words regular and irregular have been used to describe combat forces for hundreds of years, usually with little ambiguity. Due to a chain of command req

1. Irregular soldiers in Beauharnois, Quebec, 19th century.

2. Bashi-bazouk of the Ottoman Empire by Jean-Léon Gérôme, French. 1869

Guerrilla warfare – The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. T

1. Spanish guerrilla resistance to the French invasion in 1808

2. Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War in South Africa

3. Female Soviet partisans operating under Sydir Kovpak in German-occupied Ukraine

4. Mass shootings of Vendée royalist rebels in western France, 1793

Insurgency – An insurgency is a rebellion against authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents. The nature of insurgencies is an ambiguous concept, where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s, they are still common in recent studies. Sometimes there may be one or more simultaneous insurgencies occurring in a country, the Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War, have been rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two sides, M

1. The so-called kuruc were armed anti- Habsburg rebels in Royal Hungary between 1671 and 1711.

Terrorist – Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes fro

1. United Airlines Flight 175, which had been taken over by hijackers, hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, in New York City, United States.

2. Mass killings in the Vendée during the Reign of Terror in France, 1793

3. Attack at the Bologna railway station on 2 August 1980 by the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari. With 85 deaths, it is the deadliest massacre in the history of Italy as a Republic.

4. The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

State defense force – State defense forces are authorized by state and federal law and are under the command of the governor of each state. State defense forces are distinct from their states National Guard in that they cannot become federal entities, all state National Guard personnel can be federalized under the National Defense Act of 1933 with the creation of the National Guard of the United States. This provides the basis for integrating units and personnel of the Army National Guard into the U. S. Army and, since 1947, units and personnel of the Air National Guard into the U. S. Air Force. However, under the law, individual members serving in the state defense force are not exempt from service in the armed forces. Under 32 USC §109, A person may not become a member of a defense force, if he is a member of a reserve component of the armed forces. Nearly every state has laws authorizing state defense forces, and 22 states, plus the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, have active SDFs with different levels of a

1. Members of the Virginia Defense Force and the Virginia National Guard operate a mobile command post.

2. State defense forces: army units highlighted in red, naval units in blue, those with both in green, inactive in purple

3. A Virginia National Guardsman speaks to a member of the Virginia Defense Force during the 2015 Apple Blossom Festival in Winchester, Virginia.

4. SDF Branch Insignia

Police forces – A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang te

1. German State Police officer in Hamburg, with the rank of Polizeihauptmeister mit Zulage (Confirmed Police Sergeant Major)

2. The hermandades of Medieval Spain were formed to protect pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela.

3. Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, founder of the first uniformed police force in the world.

4. Patrick Colquhoun, founder of the Thames River Police.

SWAT Team – SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University prof

1. US FBI agents undergoing hostage rescue training and helicopter fast rope insertion training.

2. U.S. Air Force 37th Training Wing's Emergency Services Team use a team lift technique to enter a target building during training at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas on April 24, 2007.

3. SWAT officers respond to the 2009 Fort Hood shooting.

4. Marion County SWAT Team members during a training exercise.

Auxiliary police – Auxiliary police, also called Special Police, are usually the part-time reserves of a regular police force. They may be armed or unarmed and they may be unpaid volunteers or paid members of the police service with which they are affiliated. In most jurisdictions, Auxiliary Police officers are empowered to make arrests for crimes that occur in their presence, the Australian Federal Police can appoint Special Members who do not have full police powers. The Western Australia Police has had auxiliary officers since 2009, the role of Police Auxiliary Officers was inserted into the Police Act 1892 by the Police Amendment Act 2009. They generally perform administrative and other duties which do not require full police powers, the Victoria Police recruited 3,100 auxiliary police to the Victoria Police Auxiliary Force during World War II to assist regular police in the event of emergencies. The Auxiliary Force was disbanded in 1946, a number of retired police were temporarily formed into a Poli

1. A Certis CISCO auxiliary police officer stands guard beside an armoured truck while his colleagues deliver high-valued goods to and from commercial clients at Change Alley, Singapore.

2. Matrix-Police system

3. Matrix Police logo

4. Indian Home Guard Triservices Crest

Gendarmerie – A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military component with jurisdiction in civil law enforcement. The term gendarmerie is derived from the medieval French expression gens darmes, in France and most Francophone nations, the gendarmerie is the branch of the armed forces responsible for internal security during wartime. This concept was introduced to several other Western European countries during the Napoleonic conquests, in the mid twentieth century, a number of former French mandates or colonial possessions such as Syria and the Republic of the Congo adopted a gendarmerie after independence. A somewhat related phenomenon has been the formation of units which fall under the authority of civilian police agencies. Since these are not strictly military forces, however, they are not considered gendarmerie, some of the more prominent modern gendarmerie organizations include the French National Gendarmerie, Italian Carabinieri, and Spanish Civil Guard. The word gendarme comes from the Old Frenc

1. Gendarmes in the rue Vernet, near the Champs-Élysées, in Paris

2. Cavalry of the French Republican Guard, a gendarmerie, on parade

3. Members of Italy's gendarmerie, the Carabinieri, on public order duties in Florence

4. Officers of the Polish Żandarmeria Wojskowa ("Military Gendarmerie")

Central Security Forces – They are a vital arm of Egypts National Security apparatus. The initial batch of recruits were drawn from the Police and had to undergo training under the Army. Later on, in 1970, a training institute was set up for the CSF. The CSF was set up to deal with the growing unrest, CSF units had to use force to disperse the rioting crowds in Tahrir Square which led to the shooting death of three protestors. The Treaty stipulated the Egyptian government refrain from deploying regular Egyptian Armed Forces units in the part of Sinai that directly border Israel. The Egyptian government then tasked the Central Security Forces to take up the task, the CSF force deployed is effectively a motorised light infantry force without the heavy weapons and equipment. The CSF was especially deployed to tackle armed Islamist insurgents, in 1986, hundreds of third category, low ranking, CSF personnel staged a four-day mutiny, in the Egyptian Conscription Riot. The riot was a reaction to the spread of false ru

1. Paramilitary riot police of the Central Security Forces deployed during the 25 January 2011 protests.

2. Central Security Forces Emblem

3. Rows of Egyptian Central Security Forces on the Day of Anger during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.

4. Destroyed Central Security Forces vehicle during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.

Border guard – A border guard of a country is a national security agency that performs border control, i. e. enforces the security of the countrys national borders. Some of the border guard agencies also perform coast guard. In different countries, names of particular border guard services vary significantly, the service may be called police, guard, troops or sentinel and the name would refer to the nations official term for the state border - whether it is frontier or border. Most border guards of the world use dark green-colored elements on their uniform, patrols go out regularly from the Border outposts to patrol the international border to check illegal crossings and track any footprints of those who may have crossed over illegally or attempted to. The Border Guard may also perform delegated customs and immigration control duties, wartime assistance of the Border guard to the Army is essential as they are familiar with the local terrain having patrolled it on a daily basis during peacetime. Durin

1. Soviet Border Troops patrol alpine section of the border, 1984.

2. Chinese border guards' booth on the sea coast in Guangdong.

3. Chinese and Pakistani border guards at Khunjerab Pass

4. A Border Guard Bangladesh Senior Warrant Officer (left in yellow/green outfit) applies a mechanical advantage control/hold to a US Marine during training.

Border Guard Service of Russia – The Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation is a branch of Federal Security Service of Russia tasked with patrol of the Russian border. The terms Border Service of Russia and Border Force of Russia are also common, while in English, the Border service includes the Russian maritime border guard units. One can trace the origin of the Russian border service to Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, in 1782 the Empress Catherine II of Russia established Border Customs Guard units, originally manned by Russian Cossacks as well as by low-ranking cavalry troops. General Mikhail Barklay de Tolly organized in 1810 numerous border posts with 11 regiments of Don, within two years Russian Border Guards became the first to oppose Napoleons invasion of Russia (June 1812}. In 1832 Cossacks and cavalry were replaced by armed customs officials subordinate to the Ministry of Finance in peacetime, in the same year a coast guard was set up, originally to observe Black sea and Azov sea

1. Logo of the Border Service of the FSB of the Russian Federation Пограничная служба Федеральной службы безопасности Российской Федерации

2. Border guards of the Federal Security Service in Kaliningrad region, 2011

3. 1990s emblem

SWAT – SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University prof

1. US FBI agents undergoing hostage rescue training and helicopter fast rope insertion training.

2. U.S. Air Force 37th Training Wing's Emergency Services Team use a team lift technique to enter a target building during training at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas on April 24, 2007.

3. SWAT officers respond to the 2009 Fort Hood shooting.

4. Marion County SWAT Team members during a training exercise.

United Kingdom – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birm

1. Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.

2. Flag

3. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.

4. The Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.

Ireland – Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and

1. Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010

2. The Gowran Ogham Stone, Christianised c.6th Century. On display in St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.

3. The Uragh Stone Circle a Neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park, County Kerry

Northern Ireland Troubles – The Troubles is the common name for the ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland during the late 20th century. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it is described as a guerrilla war or low-level war. The most recent instalment of violence began in the late 1960s and is deemed to have ended with the Good Friday Belfast Agreement of 1998. Although the Troubles mainly took place in Northern Ireland, violence spilled over at times parts of the Republic of Ireland, England and mainland Europe. The conflict was political and nationalistic, fuelled by historical events. It also had an ethnic or sectarian dimension, although it was not a religious conflict, a key issue was the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Unionists/loyalists, who are mostly Protestants and consider themselves British, want Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, Irish nationalists/republicans, who are predominantly Catholics, want Northern Ireland to be reunited with t

1. 2009: the Ulster Banner flying over an Ulster loyalist area (foreground) of Derry, and the Irish tricolour flying over an Irish republican area (background) of the same city

2. Political map of Ireland

3. The fencing on the Belfast " peace line ". The peace lines are a series of high border barriers in Northern Ireland that separate Irish nationalist and unionist neighbourhoods. They have been built at urban interface areas in Belfast, Derry, Portadown and elsewhere. The stated purpose of the peace lines is to minimise inter-communal violence.

4. The Battle of the Boyne (12 July 1690) by Jan van Huchtenburg

Ulster Volunteer Force – The Ulster Volunteer Force is an Ulster loyalist paramilitary group in Northern Ireland. It emerged in 1966 and is named after the original UVF of the early 20th century and its first leader was Gusty Spence, a former British soldier. The group undertook a campaign of almost thirty years during the Troubles. It declared a ceasefire in 1994 and officially ended its campaign in 2007, although some of its members have continued to engage in violence, the group is classified as a terrorist organisation by the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and United States. The UVFs declared goals were to combat Irish republicanism – particularly the Irish Republican Army – and it was responsible for more than 500 deaths. The vast majority of its victims were Irish Catholic civilians, who were killed at random. During the conflict, its deadliest attack in Northern Ireland was the 1971 McGurks Bar bombing, the group also carried out attacks in the Republic of Ireland from 1969 onward. The biggest of t

1. A UVF publicity photo showing masked and armed UVF members

2. Above: the UVF emblem, with the Red Hand of Ulster and the motto "For God and Ulster" Below: the UVF flag

3. A UVF mural on the Shankill Road

4. An old UVF mural on Shankill Road, where the group was formed

Provisional Irish Republican Army – It was the biggest and most active republican paramilitary group during the Troubles. It saw itself as the successor to the original IRA and called simply the Irish Republican Army. It was also referred to as such by others. The Provisional IRA emerged in December 1969, following a split in the republican movement, the IRA initially focused on defence, but it began an offensive campaign in 1971. The IRAs primary goal was to force the British to negotiate a withdrawal from Northern Ireland and it used guerrilla tactics against the British Army and RUC in both rural and urban areas. It also carried out a campaign in Northern Ireland and England against what it saw as political. The IRA called a ceasefire in July 1997, after Sinn Féin was re-admitted into the Northern Ireland peace talks. It supported the 1998 Good Friday Agreement and in 2005 it disarmed under international supervision, the campaign was supported by arms and funding from Libya and from some Irish American groups. As a re

1. IRA members showing an improvised mortar and an RPG (1992)

2. IRA re-enactment in Galbally, County Tyrone (2009)

3. Republican colour party in Dublin, March 2009. The blue flag being carried at the front is that of "Dublin Brigade IRA".

4. An IRA badge – the phoenix is frequently used to symbolise the origins of the Provisional IRA.

Militarization of police – Militarization of police refers to the use of military equipment and tactics by law enforcement officers. This includes the use of armored personnel carriers, assault rifles, submachine guns, flashbang grenades, grenade launchers, sniper rifles, observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests. Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets, tear gas, which was developed for riot control in 1919, is widely used against protesters in the 2000s. Canadian legal expert Michael Spratt wrote, there’s no question that Canadian police sometimes look more like post-apocalyptic military mercenaries than protectors of the peace. Our police services have been acquiring more and more military toys — a dangerous trend that’s gotten little in the way of critical analysis in the mainstream media, growing numbers of Canadian police agencies have acquired armored vehicles in recent years. The G20 protests in Toronto in 2010 showed

1. A large group of Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers in tactical gear at a Lakers parade in 2009.

2. A Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer in tactical gear.

3. The Lenco BearCat Armored Personnel Carrier

4. Paul Muni 's depiction of gangster Al Capone armed with a Thompson submachine gun in the 1932 film Scarface. Changes in popular culture, such as an increased focus on heavily armed gangsters in news, film, literature and urban legend, have contributed to police militarization.

Fourth generation warfare – Fourth-generation warfare is conflict characterized by a blurring of the lines between war and politics, combatants and civilians. The term was first used in 1989 by a team of United States analysts, including paleoconservative William S. Lind, to describe warfares return to a decentralized form. In terms of modern warfare, the fourth generation signifies the nation states loss of their near-monopoly on combat forces. The simplest definition includes any war in one of the major participants is not a state. Classical examples of type of conflict, such as the slave uprising under Spartacus. In 2006, the concept was expanded upon by USMC Colonel Thomas X. Hammes in his book, The Sling. The generations of warfare described by authors are, 1st Generation, tactics of line and column. Lind describes First Generation of warfare as beginning after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and establishing the states need to organize, 1GW consisted of tightly ordered soldiers w

1. Guerillas in Maguindanao, 1999

Death squad – A death squad is an armed group that conducts extrajudicial killings or forced disappearances of persons for the purposes of political repression, genocide, or revolutionary terror. These killings are often conducted in ways meant to ensure the secrecy of the killers identities, Death squads may have the support of domestic or foreign governments. They may comprise a secret force, paramilitary groups, government soldiers, policemen. They may also be organized as vigilantes, when death squads are not controlled by the state, they may consist of insurgent forces or organized crime. Historically, the origins of what are known as death squads goes back many decades to the Bolshevik Cheka as a part of the Red Terror in Russia. The Cheka were initially a party organization and later were given official powers and authority for extrajudicial secret arrest, internment and they ultimately institutionalized the practices into the Gulag system. Einsatzgruppen were used by Nazi Germany as a part o

1. Members of the Einsatzgruppen, a Nazi death squad, observe their Jewish victims during the liquidation of the Mizocz Ghetto in Poland on October 14, 1942

2. Cristero rebels publicly hanged on telegraph poles in Jalisco, Mexico. The bodies often remained on the poles until the pueblo or town renounced public religious practice.

3. Jewish victims of Arrow Cross men in the court of the Dohány Street Synagogue

4. The Cairo Gang, most of whom were assassinated by the IRA on the morning of 21 November 1920.

Violent non-state actor

1. Contras in Nicaragua, 1987

2. MS-13 gang graffiti.

Oxford English Dictionary

1. Seven of the twenty volumes of the printed version of the second edition of the OED

2. Frederick Furnivall, 1825–1910

3. James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road

4. The 78 Banbury Road, Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary

Oxford University Press

1. Oxford University Press on Walton Street.

2. 2008 conference booth

LIST OF IMAGES

1. Paratrooper – Paratroopers are military parachutists — military personnel trained in parachuting into an operation and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World War II for troop distribution and transportation, Paratroopers are often used to seize strategic objectives such as airfields or bridges. They are used for tactical advantage as they can be inserted into the battlefield from the air and they jump out of airplanes using their parachutes to land safely on the ground. It is one of the three types of forced entry strategic techniques for entering a theater of war, the two are by land and sea. Another common use for paratroopers is to establish an airhead for landing other units and this doctrine was first practically applied to warfare by the Italians and the Soviets. During World War II, however, the two countries ground forces were overstretched, leaving their elite paratroopers to be employed as regular infantry. The first extensive use of paratroopers was by the Germans during World War II and later in the war also by the Americans, owing to the limited capacity of cargo aircraft of the period they rarely, if ever, jumped in groups much larger than 20 from one aircraft. In English language parlance, this load of paratroopers is called a stick, the terms come from the common use of white chalk on the sides of aircraft and vehicles to mark and update numbers of personnel and equipment being emplaned. In World War II, paratroopers most often used parachutes of a circular or round design and these parachutes could be steered to a small degree by pulling on the risers and suspension lines which attach to the parachute canopy itself. German paratroopers, whose harnesses had only a single riser attached at the back, today, paratroopers still use round parachutes, or round parachutes modified as to be more fully controlled with toggles. The parachutes are deployed by a static line. Mobility of the parachutes is often limited to prevent scattering of the troops when a large number parachute together. Some military exhibition units and special forces units use ram-air parachutes, many countries have one or several paratrooper units, usually associated to the national Army or Air Force, but in some cases to the Navy. Argentina was the first country on the continent of South America to use Paratroopers, the first paratroopers were issued jump helmets similar to that used by the British at the time, as the rest of the equipment slightly based on the Fallschirmjäger. The 4th Parachute Brigade is a unit of the Argentine Army specialised in airborne assault operations and it is based in Córdoba, Córdoba Province. The Rapid Deployment Force is based on this unit, the members of the unit wear Boina Rojas of the paratroopers with unit badges. During the Second World War the Australian Army formed the 1st Parachute Battalion, however, in the post-war period Australias parachute capability was primarily maintained by special forces units. In the 1970s and 1980s a parachute capability was revived, while a Parachute Battalion Group based on the 3rd Battalion

Paratrooper – A British paratrooper from the 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment comes in to land on a Spanish drop zone during Exercise Iberian Eagle.
Paratrooper – Brazilian Army paratroopers.
Paratrooper – U.S. Army paratroopers with the 82nd Airborne Division parachute from a C-130 Hercules aircraft during Operation Toy Drop 2007 at Pope Air Force Base
Paratrooper – Elite soldiers of Indian Army's 9 Para Commandos

2. Emergency Response Team (RCMP) – The Emergency Response Team is the paramilitary arm of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. According to the RCMP, the ERT is a group of highly-trained RCMP members capable of employing specialized weapons, equipment, the ERT offers consulting services to its fellow officers such as firearms files and shootings that involve police officers. ERTs operate as a floating work-site team, which allows them to be called up for duty from their residences and they also operate under a threat-based priority system if multiple emergency calls require ERT presence. ERT teams are legally bound to operate in Canada and overseas when required, the RCMP established the ERT in 1977 in 31 centres throughout Canada, which operates under a geographical basis. The creation of the ERT was modeled after the RCMPs Hostage Assault, the SERT was eventually disbanded in 1993 since they were not suited for quasi-military operations with problems on whether lethal force is necessary or not, given its RCMP status. MSERT teams were involved in protecting participants and the public during the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver, the ERT received armoured vehicles from the RCMP as a means of bolstering their effectiveness in the field. Surplus AVGP Cougars were handed to the ERTs in 2010 as a means of transporting ERT operators in situation where firearms are known to be involved. These vehicles are used without any turrets or other weapons as they were removed prior to ERT adoption since they are used for transportation purposes only. They were first used by RCMP ERT teams to bust a drug grow op in Chilliwack, in 2012, the RCMP and Navistar Defense Canada Inc. Known as the Tactical Armored Vehicle, these were made at the cost of $USD14,019,826.74 with a lifespan of 15 years. 18 TAVs were delivered to various ERTs throughout Canada as their main support vehicle when on call, the ERT was found to be justified in shooting Delbert Kenneth Pelletier at the Muskowekwan First Nation in Melville, Saskatchewan. ERT was deployed to the area on November 13,2006 due to reports of Pelletier being armed with a gun while acting irrational and suicidal, pelletiers wife fled the residence prior to police arrival. Pelletier was shot by police shortly after Pelletier shot at a police vehicle, striking the door. Among the recommendations made after the inquiry include cultural relations training, including the presence of a program at the RCMP Deport before ERTs would be officially deployed. Bob Hrycan, a lawyer for Calvin and Fisher Pelletier, accuses the RCMP of conducting excessive force, the Pelletier family has made calls for a wider probe into the shooting death of Delbert Pelletier. In 2009, ERT tactical gear was reported to be stolen in Kamloops, no weapons or firearms were taken. Some of items that were missing are now believed to have been sold/bought in the underground black market. ERT operators were involved in the death of ex-Canadian soldier Gregory Matters in 2012

Emergency Response Team (RCMP) – RCMP MSERT operators detain individuals in a simulated illegal migrant vessel in a training exercise as a part of Exercise Frontier Sentinel 2012 in Sydney, Nova Scotia.

3. Military – The task of the military is usually defined as defense of the state, and its citizens, and the prosecution of war against another state. The profession of soldiering as part of a military is older than recorded history itself, some of the most enduring images of the classical antiquity portray the power and feats of its military leaders. The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC was one of the points of Pharaoh Ramses IIs reign. A thousand years later, the first emperor of unified China, Qin Shi Huang, was so determined to impress the gods with his military might, he was buried with an army of terracotta soldiers. The Romans were dedicated to military matters, leaving to posterity many treatises and writings, as well as a number of lavishly carved triumphal arches. Issue, Possibly cognate with Thousand, cf. Latin and Romance language root word mil-) The first recorded use of the military in English. It comes from the Latin militaris through French, but is of uncertain etymology, the word is now identified as denoting someone that is skilled in use of weapons, or engaged in military service, or in warfare. As a noun, the military usually refers generally to an armed forces, or sometimes, more specifically. In general, it refers to the physicality of armed forces, their personnel, equipment, as an adjective, military originally referred only to soldiers and soldiering, but it soon broadened to apply to land forces in general, and anything to do with their profession. The names of both the Royal Military Academy and United States Military Academy reflect this, as such, it now connotes any activity performed by armed force personnel. Military history is considered to be the history of all conflicts. Military history has a number of facets, one main facet is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes, so as to more effectively wage war in the future. Another is to create a sense of tradition, which is used to create cohesive military forces. Still another may be to learn to prevent wars more effectively, human knowledge about the military is largely based on both recorded and oral history of military conflicts, their participating armies and navies and, more recently, air forces. In the whole history of humanity, every nation had different needs for military forces, how these needs are determined forms the basis of their composition, equipment, and use of facilities. It also determines what military does in terms of peacetime, All military forces, whether large or small, are military organizations that have official state, and world recognition as such. Organisations with similar features are paramilitary, civil defense, militia and these commonalities of the states military define them. Another role of military personnel is to ensure a continuous replacement of departing servicemen and women through recruitment

Military – Soldiers from the Canadian Grenadier Guards in the Kandahar Province of Afghanistan
Military – CF-18 Hornet launches a laser-guided bomb
Military – The Kawasaki C-1 is a tactical military transport of the Japan Air Self-Defence Force.
Military – Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of the I Canadian Corps in Utrecht as the Canadian Army liberates the Netherlands from Nazi occupation

4. State (polity) – A state is a type of polity that is an organized political community living under a single system of government. States may or may not be sovereign, for instance, federated states are members of a federal union, and may have only partial sovereignty, but are, nonetheless, states. Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony, in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, States that are sovereign are known as sovereign states. The term state can also refer to the branches of government within a state, often as a manner of contrasting them with churches. Speakers of American English often use the state and government as synonyms. Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, over time a variety of different forms developed, employing a variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence. In the 21st century, the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subjected, there is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state. The term state refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, general categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious organizations. Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the Montevideo Convention on Rights, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is a. an organized political community under one government, a commonwealth, a nation. B. such a community forming part of a federal republic, confounding the definition problem is that state and government are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this schema, the states are nonphysical persons of international law. The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency, States may be classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation, such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government. One can commonly and sometimes readily classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus, the concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a nation, became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere or at other times. Imperial states have sometimes promoted notions of racial superiority, the concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world. To some extent, urban secession, the creation of a new city-state, a state can be distinguished from a government. The government is the group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at a given time

State (polity) – The frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes ' Leviathan
State (polity) – IWW poster " Pyramid of Capitalist System " (c. 1911), depicting an anti-capitalist perspective on statist/capitalist social structures
State (polity) – Painting of Roman Senators encircling Julius Caesar

5. Armed forces – The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly

Armed forces – Military spending in 2007, in USD, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

6. Law of war – The law of war is a legal term of art that refers to the aspect of public international law concerning acceptable justifications to engage in war and the limits to acceptable wartime conduct. Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, the earliest known instances are found in the Mahabharata and the Torah. One should not assail someone in distress, neither to him nor to defeat him. War should be waged for the sake of conquest, one should not be enraged toward an enemy who is not trying to kill him and you may eat from them, but you shall not cut them down. Are the trees in the human, that they should be besieged by you. 20 Only the trees that you know are not trees for food you may destroy and cut down, also, Deuteronomy 20, 10–12, requires the Israelites to make an offer of peace to the opposing party before laying siege to their city. When you draw near to a city to fight against it,11 And if it responds to you peaceably and it opens to you, then all the people who are found in it shall do forced labor for you and shall serve you. 12 But if it makes no peace with you, but makes war against you, similarly, Deuteronomy 21, 10–14 requires that female captives who were forced to marry the victors of a war could not be sold as slaves. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path and you must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man, bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services, in the history of the early Christian church, many Christian writers considered that Christians could not be soldiers or fight wars. Augustine of Hippo contradicted this and wrote about just war doctrine, in medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church also began promulgating teachings on just war, reflected to some extent in movements such as the Peace and Truce of God. The impulse to restrict the extent of warfare, and especially protect the lives and property of non-combatants continued with Hugo Grotius, the modern law of war is made up from three principal sources, Lawmaking treaties — see § International treaties on the laws of war below. Not all the law of war derives from or has been incorporated in such treaties, such customary international law is established by the general practice of nations together with their acceptance that such practice is required by law. Certain fundamental principles provide basic guidance, for instance, the principles of distinction, proportionality, and necessity, all of which are part of customary international law, always apply to the use of armed force. Positive international humanitarian law consists of treaties which directly affect the laws of war by binding consenting nations, the opposite of positive laws of war is customary laws of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. These laws define both the rights of states as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories

Law of war – The First Geneva Convention governing the sick and wounded members of armed forces was signed in 1864.
Law of war – The signing of the First Geneva Convention by some of the major European powers in 1864.

7. Law enforcement agency – A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities

Law enforcement agency – A police officer and a police car are traditional identifiers of a locally based law enforcement agency.
Law enforcement agency – Two military police officers and a police car from the Żandarmeria Wojskowa (Poland)

8. Militia – For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene

Militia – The Lexington Minuteman, a statue commemorating Captain John Parker, a commander of Massachusetts militia forces during the American Revolutionary War.
Militia – Peshmurga Kurdish Militia, cleaning weapons
Militia – The war standard of the Imeretian militia of the Imperial Russian Army. The inscription reads in Russian and Georgian: "To the Militia of Our Faithful Imeretian People for Exceptional Courage Displayed against the Mountaineers in 1838.".
Militia – Captain John Smith's 1624 map of the Somers Isles (Bermuda), showing St. George's Town and related fortifications, including the Castle Islands Fortifications with their garrisons of militiamen

9. Light infantry – Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the infantry but often in widely dispersed groups. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary, and would fight ahead of the line to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position. Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and these became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger regiments in German speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs, the Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum. Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments of light infantry, by the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice, some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments. On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments, today the term light denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, 25th Infantry Division, operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U. S. Forces, mostly light, during the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability

Light infantry – Portuguese Army light infantry (caçador) of the Peninsular War
Light infantry – Chasseurs from a light infantry regiment of Napoléon's Grande Armée
Light infantry – A historical reenactment with the British 95th Rifles regiment.

10. Irregular military – Irregular military is any non-standard military, that is, distinct from that of the regular army. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term and it can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used. An irregular military organization is one which is not part of the army organization. Without standard military unit organization, various more general names are used, such organizations may be called a troop, group, unit, column, band. Irregulars are soldiers or warriors that are members of these organizations and this also applies to irregular troops, irregular infantry and irregular cavalry. Irregular warfare is warfare employing the tactics used by irregular military organizations. This involves avoiding large-scale combat, and focusing on small, stealthy, hit, the words regular and irregular have been used to describe combat forces for hundreds of years, usually with little ambiguity. Due to a chain of command requirements, the regular army is very well defined. In cases where the legitimacy of the army or its opponents is questioned, the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, uses regular armed forces as a critical distinction. The ICRC provided commentary saying that armed forces satisfy four Hague Conventions conditions. The term irregular military describes the how and what, but it is common to focus on the why. Bypassing the legitimate military and taking up arms is an extreme measure, the motivation for doing so is often used as the basis of the primary label for any irregular military. Different terms come in and out of fashion, based on political and emotional associations that develop, here is a list of such terms, organized more or less from oldest to latest. Auxiliaries - foreign or allied troops supplementing the regular army, organized from provincial or tribal regions, in the Imperial Roman army it became common to maintain a number of auxiliaries about equal to the legionaries. Levies - feudal peasants and freemen liable to be called up for military duty. Revolutionary — someone part of a revolution, whether military or not, Guerrilla — someone who uses unconventional military tactics, tends to refer to groups engaged in open conflict rather than underground resistance. Term coined during the Peninsula War in Spain against France, franc-tireur — French irregular forces during the Franco-Prussian War. But is also used in legal cases as a synonym for unprivileged combatant

Irregular military – Irregular soldiers in Beauharnois, Quebec, 19th century.
Irregular military – Bashi-bazouk of the Ottoman Empire by Jean-Léon Gérôme, French. 1869

11. Guerrilla warfare – The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. The Guerrilla focuses on organizing in small units, depending on the support of the local population, tactically, the guerrilla army would avoid any confrontation with large units of enemy troops, but seek and eliminate small groups of soldiers to minimize losses and exhaust the opposing force. Not limiting their targets to personnel, enemy resources are preferred targets. All of that is to weaken the strength, to cause the enemy eventually to be unable to prosecute the war any longer. It is often misunderstood that guerrilla warfare must involve disguising as civilians to cause enemy troops to fail in telling friend from foe, however, this is not a primary feature of a guerrilla war. This type of war can be practiced anywhere there are places for combatants to cover themselves, at least one author credits the ancient Chinese work The Art of War with providing instruction in such tactics to Mao. The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War or 600 BC to 501 BC, was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare and this directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla tactics were employed by prehistoric tribal warriors against enemy tribes. Evidence of conventional warfare, on the hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt. Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, because of the innovative tactics he used during his command, he made himself the name of Terror Romanorum. A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency operation involves actions taken by the government of a nation to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions, the two most influential of scholars of counter-insurgency have been Westerners whose job it had been to fight insurgents. Robert Thompson fought during the Malayan Emergency and David Galula fought during the Algerian War, together these officers advocated multi-pronged strategies to win over the civilian population to the side of the counter-insurgent. The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, thompsons underlying assumption was that the counter-insurgent was committed to improving the rule of law and bettering local governance

Guerrilla warfare – Spanish guerrilla resistance to the French invasion in 1808
Guerrilla warfare – Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War in South Africa
Guerrilla warfare – Female Soviet partisans operating under Sydir Kovpak in German-occupied Ukraine
Guerrilla warfare – Mass shootings of Vendée royalist rebels in western France, 1793

12. Insurgency – An insurgency is a rebellion against authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents. The nature of insurgencies is an ambiguous concept, where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s, they are still common in recent studies. Sometimes there may be one or more simultaneous insurgencies occurring in a country, the Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War, have been rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two sides, MPLA and UNITA. At the same time, there was another separatist movement for the independence of the Cabinda region headed up by FLEC, if there is a rebellion against the authority and those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents, the rebellion is an insurgency. However, not all rebellions are insurgencies, as a state of belligerency may exist between one or more states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. The use of the term insurgency recognizes the political motivation of those who participate in an insurgency, if an uprising has little support, such a resistance may be described as brigandry and those who participate as brigands. The distinction on whether an uprising is an insurgency or a belligerency has not been as clearly codified as many other covered by the internationally accepted laws of war for two reasons. The dispute resulted in a compromise wording being included in the Hague Conventions known as the Martens Clause from the diplomat who drafted the clause. The United States Department of Defense defines it as this, An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a government through use of subversion. The United States counterinsurgency Field Manual, This definition does not consider the morality of the conflict, or the different viewpoints of the government and it is focused more on the operational aspects of the types of actions taken by the insurgents and the counter-insurgents. The Department of Defenses definition focuses on the type of violence employed towards specified ends and this characterization fails to address the argument from moral relativity that one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. The French expert on Indochina and Vietnam, Bernard Fall, who wrote Street Without Joy, insurgency has been used for years in professional military literature. Under the British, the situation in Malaya as often called the Malayan insurgency or the Troubles in Northern Ireland, each had different specifics but shared the property of an attempt to disrupt the central government by means considered illegal by that government. North points out, however, that insurgents today need not be part of an organized movement, Some are networked with only loose objectives

Insurgency – The so-called kuruc were armed anti- Habsburg rebels in Royal Hungary between 1671 and 1711.

13. Terrorist – Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization

Terrorist – United Airlines Flight 175, which had been taken over by hijackers, hits the South Tower of the former World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, in New York City, United States.
Terrorist – Mass killings in the Vendée during the Reign of Terror in France, 1793
Terrorist – Attack at the Bologna railway station on 2 August 1980 by the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari. With 85 deaths, it is the deadliest massacre in the history of Italy as a Republic.
Terrorist – The Baghdad bus station was the scene of a triple car bombing in August 2005 that killed 43 people.

14. State defense force – State defense forces are authorized by state and federal law and are under the command of the governor of each state. State defense forces are distinct from their states National Guard in that they cannot become federal entities, all state National Guard personnel can be federalized under the National Defense Act of 1933 with the creation of the National Guard of the United States. This provides the basis for integrating units and personnel of the Army National Guard into the U. S. Army and, since 1947, units and personnel of the Air National Guard into the U. S. Air Force. However, under the law, individual members serving in the state defense force are not exempt from service in the armed forces. Under 32 USC §109, A person may not become a member of a defense force, if he is a member of a reserve component of the armed forces. Nearly every state has laws authorizing state defense forces, and 22 states, plus the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, have active SDFs with different levels of activity, support, State defense forces generally operate with emergency management and homeland security missions. Most SDFs are organized as units, but air and naval units also exist. In 1903, with passage of the Militia Act of 1903 and it required the states to divide their militias into two sections. The law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, the Secretary of War was authorized to furnish these Home Guard units with rifles, ammunition, and supplies. This law authorized the War Department to train and arm the new forces that would come to be known as State Guards. Many states took advantage of this law and maintained distinct state military forces throughout the war to defend their own territories, shorelines, Army Air Forces and would now be operationally gained by the newly established Air Force. In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War and at the urging of the National Guard, Congress reauthorized the separate state military forces for a time period of two years. These state military forces were authorized military training at federal expense, as well as arms, ammunition, clothing, at the end of the two years, however, they were not reauthorized under federal law. In 1956, Congress finally revised the law and authorized State defense forces permanently under Title 32, Section 109, two years later, Congress amended the law and changed the name from State defense forces to defense forces. By the late 1980s, however, a series of high-profile reports caused several states to shut down or significantly restructure their forces. Meanwhile, in 1990, the Virginia General Assembly launched an investigation, with the end of the Cold War came a general decrease of interest in state defense forces. In 2008, Alaska disarmed its state defense force after an investigation concluded the lack of training intensity or standardization was a legal liability to the state. Another former commander asserted he regularly awarded titles to members of the New York legislature in exchange for their support of budgetary allocations to the force

State defense force – Members of the Virginia Defense Force and the Virginia National Guard operate a mobile command post.
State defense force – State defense forces: army units highlighted in red, naval units in blue, those with both in green, inactive in purple
State defense force – A Virginia National Guardsman speaks to a member of the Virginia Defense Force during the 2015 Apple Blossom Festival in Winchester, Virginia.
State defense force – SDF Branch Insignia

15. Police forces – A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain

Police forces – German State Police officer in Hamburg, with the rank of Polizeihauptmeister mit Zulage (Confirmed Police Sergeant Major)
Police forces – The hermandades of Medieval Spain were formed to protect pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela.
Police forces – Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, founder of the first uniformed police force in the world.
Police forces – Patrick Colquhoun, founder of the Thames River Police.

16. SWAT Team – SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an urban counterinsurgency bulwark. Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, after the LAPDs establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano, though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano, inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each and these officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest, the LAPD SWAT units were organized as D Platoon in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPDs SWAT unit was on December 9,1969, the raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shoot-out in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured, all six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense

SWAT Team – US FBI agents undergoing hostage rescue training and helicopter fast rope insertion training.
SWAT Team – U.S. Air Force 37th Training Wing's Emergency Services Team use a team lift technique to enter a target building during training at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas on April 24, 2007.
SWAT Team – SWAT officers respond to the 2009 Fort Hood shooting.
SWAT Team – Marion County SWAT Team members during a training exercise.

17. Auxiliary police – Auxiliary police, also called Special Police, are usually the part-time reserves of a regular police force. They may be armed or unarmed and they may be unpaid volunteers or paid members of the police service with which they are affiliated. In most jurisdictions, Auxiliary Police officers are empowered to make arrests for crimes that occur in their presence, the Australian Federal Police can appoint Special Members who do not have full police powers. The Western Australia Police has had auxiliary officers since 2009, the role of Police Auxiliary Officers was inserted into the Police Act 1892 by the Police Amendment Act 2009. They generally perform administrative and other duties which do not require full police powers, the Victoria Police recruited 3,100 auxiliary police to the Victoria Police Auxiliary Force during World War II to assist regular police in the event of emergencies. The Auxiliary Force was disbanded in 1946, a number of retired police were temporarily formed into a Police Reserve to assist with traffic control during the 1956 Summer Olympics. A permanent Retired Police Reserve was established under the Police Regulation Act 1958, the New South Wales Police Force formed a Police Reserve of around 500 special constables during World War I. The Police Reserve was formed again during World War II, in Canada, many police forces utilize the services of auxiliary constables. Auxiliary constables in Canada wear uniforms similar to regular force constables, also, auxiliary constables are usually unarmed, but are trained in firearms. They may, depending on legislation and policies, carry a baton, in the Federal Republic of Germany, auxiliary police forces do solely exist in a few States, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse and Saxony. The auxiliary police of Berlin was dissolved in 2002 and their jurisdictions widely vary among the particular states. Still they generally exist for the purpose of prevention through mere presence. Founded in May 1963, the Baden-Württemberg auxiliary police today consists of 1,201 members, the officers are obliged to absolve a training of two weeks after which they are usually in service with a regular police officer. In the eyes of law, they are fully authorized police officers, wear normal police uniforms with a patch and complete police gear, including pepper spray, handcuffs. The Bavarian auxiliary police was founded on 31 December 1996. Its officers possess little authority, apart from a citizens arrest, they may conduct a Terry Stop. Equipped with a radio and pepper spray, they usually patrol on foot or by bicycle and do not wear a full uniform, the auxiliary police in Hesse was introduced in October 2000 and employs around 750 members of which approximately 30% are women. The training of the police officers endures 50 hours and their patrol is limited to beats on foot and serves traffic control, assistance to major events and prevention of crime through mere police presence

Auxiliary police – A Certis CISCO auxiliary police officer stands guard beside an armoured truck while his colleagues deliver high-valued goods to and from commercial clients at Change Alley, Singapore.
Auxiliary police – Matrix-Police system
Auxiliary police – Matrix Police logo
Auxiliary police – Indian Home Guard Triservices Crest

18. Gendarmerie – A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military component with jurisdiction in civil law enforcement. The term gendarmerie is derived from the medieval French expression gens darmes, in France and most Francophone nations, the gendarmerie is the branch of the armed forces responsible for internal security during wartime. This concept was introduced to several other Western European countries during the Napoleonic conquests, in the mid twentieth century, a number of former French mandates or colonial possessions such as Syria and the Republic of the Congo adopted a gendarmerie after independence. A somewhat related phenomenon has been the formation of units which fall under the authority of civilian police agencies. Since these are not strictly military forces, however, they are not considered gendarmerie, some of the more prominent modern gendarmerie organizations include the French National Gendarmerie, Italian Carabinieri, and Spanish Civil Guard. The word gendarme comes from the Old French gens darmes, meaning men-at-arms, during the Late Medieval to the Early Modern period, the term referred to a heavily armoured cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army. The word gained policing connotations only after the French Revolution when the Maréchaussée of the Ancien Régime was renamed the Gendarmerie, historically, the spelling in English was gendarmery, but now the French spelling gendarmerie is more common. The Oxford English Dictionary uses gendarmery as the spelling, Merriam-Webster uses gendarmerie as the principal spelling. Gendarmes are often deployed in situations, sometimes in their own country. A gendarmerie may come under the authority of a ministry of defence, generally there is some coordination between a ministry of defence and a ministry of the interior over the use of gendarmes. A few forces which are no longer considered military retain the title gendarmerie for reasons of tradition, since different countries may make different use of institutional terms such as gendarmerie, there are cases in which the term may become confusing. For instance, in the French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland the gendarmeries are the civil police. In Chile, the word gendarmerie refers for historic reasons to the prison service, in some cases, a police services military links are ambiguous and it can be unclear whether a force should be defined as a gendarmerie. Some historical military units, such as South-West Africas Koevoet, were defined as police for political reasons. In 2014 the Mexican Federal Police, an armed force which has many attributes of a gendarmerie. The new force would initially number 5,000 personnel and was created with the assistance of the French gendarmerie, in countries where the gendarmerie and civilian police co-exist there may be rivalries and tensions between the forces. This was one of the reasons cited for the decision to disband the Belgian Gendarmerie, since the year 2000 four European countries—Belgium, Luxembourg, Greece and Austria—have replaced long-established gendarmeries with civilian police forces having no military links or functions. The GNA often take part in UN peace keeping missions, the use of military organisations to police civilian populations is common to many time periods and cultures

Gendarmerie – Gendarmes in the rue Vernet, near the Champs-Élysées, in Paris
Gendarmerie – Cavalry of the French Republican Guard, a gendarmerie, on parade
Gendarmerie – Members of Italy's gendarmerie, the Carabinieri, on public order duties in Florence
Gendarmerie – Officers of the Polish Żandarmeria Wojskowa ("Military Gendarmerie")

19. Central Security Forces – They are a vital arm of Egypts National Security apparatus. The initial batch of recruits were drawn from the Police and had to undergo training under the Army. Later on, in 1970, a training institute was set up for the CSF. The CSF was set up to deal with the growing unrest, CSF units had to use force to disperse the rioting crowds in Tahrir Square which led to the shooting death of three protestors. The Treaty stipulated the Egyptian government refrain from deploying regular Egyptian Armed Forces units in the part of Sinai that directly border Israel. The Egyptian government then tasked the Central Security Forces to take up the task, the CSF force deployed is effectively a motorised light infantry force without the heavy weapons and equipment. The CSF was especially deployed to tackle armed Islamist insurgents, in 1986, hundreds of third category, low ranking, CSF personnel staged a four-day mutiny, in the Egyptian Conscription Riot. The riot was a reaction to the spread of false rumours among its conscripts that their time will be extended by a year. The insurrection was suppressed by the Egyptian Army and they rampaged through the suburb of Giza burning some hotels and shops in tourist areas. They also burned dozens of cars and buses, some reports related that mutiny to a conspiracy against the Minister of Interior in charge by then due to his policies. After the suppression the government promised to overhaul the force by raising its standards, increasing payment. The CSF is headed by a Director General, who is a 3-star Police General of the Interior Ministry, and is organised as follows, Main Headquarters. AOR Operational Regions – Cairo, Alexandria, Giza, Central & Western Nile Delta, Eastern Nile Delta, Suez Canal & Sinai, Southern Upper Egypt, and Northern Upper Egypt. Similar to other central paramilitary organizations in countries, CSF deployment is divided into three parts - Baton, Gas, and Armed. The basic unit formation of the CSF is a company which is commanded by a Police Captain or in some cases a Major who is a commissioned officer, a senior Lieutenant, is usually second-in-command. A CSF company consists of approximately 150 personnel and is composed of two Baton platoons, a Gas platoon, and an Armed platoon, each platoon is also commanded by a Captain or a Lieutenant with a Sergeant as second-in-command. Approximately 3 to 4 companies make up a CSF Battalion, which is commanded by an officer of full Colonel rank, also, the three-part deployment of CSF is not applicable in regions like the North Sinai, where all units are armed at all times. The Central Security Forces personnel consists of three categories, Commissioned Officers, who enter the service with the rank of Lieutenant, there is high competition among conscripts to extend their service and to become regularized troops, this is because of the high rate of unemployment in Egypt

Central Security Forces – Paramilitary riot police of the Central Security Forces deployed during the 25 January 2011 protests.
Central Security Forces – Central Security Forces Emblem
Central Security Forces – Rows of Egyptian Central Security Forces on the Day of Anger during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.
Central Security Forces – Destroyed Central Security Forces vehicle during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.

20. Border guard – A border guard of a country is a national security agency that performs border control, i. e. enforces the security of the countrys national borders. Some of the border guard agencies also perform coast guard. In different countries, names of particular border guard services vary significantly, the service may be called police, guard, troops or sentinel and the name would refer to the nations official term for the state border - whether it is frontier or border. Most border guards of the world use dark green-colored elements on their uniform, patrols go out regularly from the Border outposts to patrol the international border to check illegal crossings and track any footprints of those who may have crossed over illegally or attempted to. The Border Guard may also perform delegated customs and immigration control duties, wartime assistance of the Border guard to the Army is essential as they are familiar with the local terrain having patrolled it on a daily basis during peacetime. During wars, Border outposts are reworked into well fortified dug-in positions from where regular Army units can operate to defend the integrity of the country. Border Guards Bangladesh is a border security and anti-smuggling force under the Ministry of Home Affairs of Bangladesh. BGB can trace back its origin to the establishment of the Ramgarh Local Battalion in 1795 and this force is lightly armed and although its primary duty is to protect the border, during national emergencies it can also be called upon to aid the government. Canada Border Services Agency is a law enforcement agency of the Department of Public Safety, created in 2003, it amalgamated the enforcement activities performed by three separate government entities. Traditionally unarmed, the arming of Border Services Officers, Investigators, Officers are found at entry points to Canada in some conflicts such as the Six Day War. Also, many border posts are staffed by Carabinieri, the Immigration and Border Police also performs border police duties. The State Border Guard Service is the charged with controlling and maintaining the Lithuanian Border. The State Border Guard Service falls under authority of the Ministry of the Interior, Border patrol and immigration control in Macau are conducted by Public Security Police Force of Macau at land entries with China and at Macau International Airport. Customs duties are performed by Macau Customs agency, both border guards and customs officers are responsibilities of the Secretariat for Security. Before the establishment of the agency, Malaysian borders was guarded by the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Royal Marechaussee is the fourth organization within the Dutch Royal Army, besides Army, Navy and Air Force. Besides patrolling the border it also has the function of Military Police, sometime thereafter, the Border Security Bureau was enlarged to corps level and renamed the Border Security Command. Previously headquartered in Chagang Province, the Border Security Command was relocated to P’yŏngyang in 2002, the Frontier Corps is a federal paramilitary force recruited mostly by people from the tribal areas and led by officers from the Pakistan Army. The FC is stationed in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan Province, are known as FC NWFP and FC Balochistan, the Pakistan Rangers are a paramilitary force under the control of the Ministry of the Interior of the Pakistani government

Border guard – Soviet Border Troops patrol alpine section of the border, 1984.
Border guard – Chinese border guards' booth on the sea coast in Guangdong.
Border guard – Chinese and Pakistani border guards at Khunjerab Pass
Border guard – A Border Guard Bangladesh Senior Warrant Officer (left in yellow/green outfit) applies a mechanical advantage control/hold to a US Marine during training.

21. Border Guard Service of Russia – The Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation is a branch of Federal Security Service of Russia tasked with patrol of the Russian border. The terms Border Service of Russia and Border Force of Russia are also common, while in English, the Border service includes the Russian maritime border guard units. One can trace the origin of the Russian border service to Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, in 1782 the Empress Catherine II of Russia established Border Customs Guard units, originally manned by Russian Cossacks as well as by low-ranking cavalry troops. General Mikhail Barklay de Tolly organized in 1810 numerous border posts with 11 regiments of Don, within two years Russian Border Guards became the first to oppose Napoleons invasion of Russia (June 1812}. In 1832 Cossacks and cavalry were replaced by armed customs officials subordinate to the Ministry of Finance in peacetime, in the same year a coast guard was set up, originally to observe Black sea and Azov sea coasts. In 1906 about 40,000 soldiers and officers served in the IBGC - maintaining the defence of the leggthy Imperial border and they served in 8 division-sized districts as well as in the Saint Petersburg headquarters unit. Accordingly, they were known as NKVD Border Troops and KGB Border Troops, unlike border guards of many other countries, Soviet Border Troops were a centralized force including also the maritime border guard units. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Federal Border Guard Service of Russia was created on December 30,1993 and this organization retained some old traditions, most notably the dark green-colored uniform and Border Guarders Day. First minister of FBS was Andrei Nikolayev, young and outspoken general who became deputy of the State Duma. Russian Border Guards were also stationed outside of Russia most notably in southern Tajikistan, in order to guard the border with Afghanistan, on Afghan-Tajik border on many occasions they were engaged in heavy fighting with drug-traffickers and Islamic extremists. Armenias closed border with Turkey and open border with Iran is also guarded by the Russians. On March 11,2003, Russian president Vladimir Putin changed the status of Border Guard Service from a separate agency into a branch of Russian Federal Security Service, the current head of Border Guard Service of Russia is General Vladimir Pronichev. Border Guard Service of Russia is still tasked with a defence of the longest national border in the world, in April 2012 Vladimir Pronichev announced that the country was planning to build 20 frontier posts in the Arctic region. Reasons for this development can be found in the abilities to explore hydrocarbon deposits in the north. It will also give Russia an ability to patrol and service the Northern Sea Route, responsibilities of Border Guard Service of Russia include, Defence of the Russian national border, prevention of illegal crossing of the land and sea border by people and goods. Combat any threats to security in the border area, including terrorism. Enterprises, institutions and organizations which are subordinate to the Border Service, Medical and health institutions, Repair plant, Parts logistics, technical, in 1992 - a Border troops of the Russian Federation, which have been subordinated to the Ministry of Security. In 1993 - Federal Border Service - General Command of Border Troops of Russian Federation with the status of federal ministries, in 1994 - renamed the Federal Border Service

Border Guard Service of Russia – Logo of the Border Service of the FSB of the Russian Federation Пограничная служба Федеральной службы безопасности Российской Федерации
Border Guard Service of Russia – Border guards of the Federal Security Service in Kaliningrad region, 2011
Border Guard Service of Russia – 1990s emblem

22. SWAT – SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an urban counterinsurgency bulwark. Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, after the LAPDs establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano, though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano, inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each and these officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest, the LAPD SWAT units were organized as D Platoon in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPDs SWAT unit was on December 9,1969, the raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shoot-out in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured, all six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense

SWAT – US FBI agents undergoing hostage rescue training and helicopter fast rope insertion training.
SWAT – U.S. Air Force 37th Training Wing's Emergency Services Team use a team lift technique to enter a target building during training at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas on April 24, 2007.
SWAT – SWAT officers respond to the 2009 Fort Hood shooting.
SWAT – Marion County SWAT Team members during a training exercise.

23. United Kingdom – The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

United Kingdom – Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom – Flag
United Kingdom – The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom – The Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.

24. Ireland – Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time

Ireland – Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010
Ireland – The Gowran Ogham Stone, Christianised c.6th Century. On display in St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.
Ireland – The Uragh Stone Circle a Neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park, County Kerry

25. Northern Ireland Troubles – The Troubles is the common name for the ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland during the late 20th century. Also known internationally as the Northern Ireland conflict, it is described as a guerrilla war or low-level war. The most recent instalment of violence began in the late 1960s and is deemed to have ended with the Good Friday Belfast Agreement of 1998. Although the Troubles mainly took place in Northern Ireland, violence spilled over at times parts of the Republic of Ireland, England and mainland Europe. The conflict was political and nationalistic, fuelled by historical events. It also had an ethnic or sectarian dimension, although it was not a religious conflict, a key issue was the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Unionists/loyalists, who are mostly Protestants and consider themselves British, want Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom, Irish nationalists/republicans, who are predominantly Catholics, want Northern Ireland to be reunited with the 26 counties which make up the Republic of Ireland in an independent united Ireland. This campaign was met with violence by loyalists who viewed the campaign as a stalking horse. This eventually led to the deployment of British troops, initially to protect Catholic civilians, the security forces of the Republic played a smaller role. More than 3,500 people were killed in the conflict, of whom 52% were civilians, 32% were members of the British security forces, there has been sporadic violence since the Good Friday Agreement was signed, including a campaign by anti-ceasefire republicans. The Troubles refers to the recent three-decade conflict between nationalists and unionists, the term the Troubles was previously used to refer to the Irish revolutionary period, it was adopted to refer to the escalating violence in Northern Ireland after 1969. The violence was characterised by the campaigns of Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups. It thus became the focus for the longest major campaign in the history of the British Army, nationalists regard the state forces as forces of occupation or partisan combatants in the conflict. One part of the Agreement is that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom unless a majority of the Northern Irish electorate vote otherwise and it also established the Northern Ireland Executive, a devolved power-sharing government, which must consist of both unionist and nationalist parties. In 1609, Scottish and English settlers, known as planters, were given land escheated from the native Irish in the Plantation of Ulster. As the Penal Laws started to be phased out in the part of the 18th century, there was more competition for land. With Roman Catholics allowed to buy land and enter trades from which they had formerly been banned, tensions arose resulting in the Protestant Peep ODay Boys and Catholic Defenders. This created polarisation between the communities and a reduction in reformers among Protestants, many of whom had been growing more receptive to democratic reform

Northern Ireland Troubles – 2009: the Ulster Banner flying over an Ulster loyalist area (foreground) of Derry, and the Irish tricolour flying over an Irish republican area (background) of the same city
Northern Ireland Troubles – Political map of Ireland
Northern Ireland Troubles – The fencing on the Belfast " peace line ". The peace lines are a series of high border barriers in Northern Ireland that separate Irish nationalist and unionist neighbourhoods. They have been built at urban interface areas in Belfast, Derry, Portadown and elsewhere. The stated purpose of the peace lines is to minimise inter-communal violence.
Northern Ireland Troubles – The Battle of the Boyne (12 July 1690) by Jan van Huchtenburg

26. Ulster Volunteer Force – The Ulster Volunteer Force is an Ulster loyalist paramilitary group in Northern Ireland. It emerged in 1966 and is named after the original UVF of the early 20th century and its first leader was Gusty Spence, a former British soldier. The group undertook a campaign of almost thirty years during the Troubles. It declared a ceasefire in 1994 and officially ended its campaign in 2007, although some of its members have continued to engage in violence, the group is classified as a terrorist organisation by the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and United States. The UVFs declared goals were to combat Irish republicanism – particularly the Irish Republican Army – and it was responsible for more than 500 deaths. The vast majority of its victims were Irish Catholic civilians, who were killed at random. During the conflict, its deadliest attack in Northern Ireland was the 1971 McGurks Bar bombing, the group also carried out attacks in the Republic of Ireland from 1969 onward. The biggest of these was the 1974 Dublin and Monaghan bombings, the no-warning car bombings had been carried out by units from the Belfast and Mid-Ulster brigades. Two UVF men were blown up in this poorly planned attack. The UVFs last major attack was the 1994 Loughinisland massacre, in which its members shot dead six Catholic civilians in a rural pub, until recent years, it was noted for secrecy and a policy of limited, selective membership. The other main loyalist paramilitary group during the conflict was the Ulster Defence Association, since the ceasefire, the UVF has been involved in rioting, organised crime, vigilantism and feuds with other loyalist groups. Some members have also found responsible for orchestrating a series of racist attacks. The UVFs stated goal was to combat Irish republicanism – particularly the Provisional Irish Republican Army –, the vast majority of its victims were Irish Catholic civilians, who were often killed at random. Whenever it claimed responsibility for its attacks, the UVF usually claimed that those targeted were IRA members or were giving help to the IRA. Other times, attacks on Catholic civilians were claimed as retaliation for IRA actions, many retaliatory attacks on Catholics were claimed using the covername Protestant Action Force, which first appeared in autumn 1974. They always signed their statements with the fictitious name Captain William Johnston, like the Ulster Defence Association, the UVFs modus operandi involved assassinations, mass shootings, bombings and kidnappings. It used sub machine-guns, assault rifles, pistols, grenades, incendiary bombs, booby trap bombs, referring to its activity in the early and mid-1970s, journalist Ed Moloney described no-warning pub bombings as the UVFs forte. Members were trained in bomb-making and it developed home-made explosives, however, from 1977 bombs largely disappeared from the UVFs arsenal owing to a lack of explosives and bomb-makers, plus a conscious decision to abandon their use in favour of more contained methods

Ulster Volunteer Force – A UVF publicity photo showing masked and armed UVF members
Ulster Volunteer Force – Above: the UVF emblem, with the Red Hand of Ulster and the motto "For God and Ulster" Below: the UVF flag
Ulster Volunteer Force – A UVF mural on the Shankill Road
Ulster Volunteer Force – An old UVF mural on Shankill Road, where the group was formed

27. Provisional Irish Republican Army – It was the biggest and most active republican paramilitary group during the Troubles. It saw itself as the successor to the original IRA and called simply the Irish Republican Army. It was also referred to as such by others. The Provisional IRA emerged in December 1969, following a split in the republican movement, the IRA initially focused on defence, but it began an offensive campaign in 1971. The IRAs primary goal was to force the British to negotiate a withdrawal from Northern Ireland and it used guerrilla tactics against the British Army and RUC in both rural and urban areas. It also carried out a campaign in Northern Ireland and England against what it saw as political. The IRA called a ceasefire in July 1997, after Sinn Féin was re-admitted into the Northern Ireland peace talks. It supported the 1998 Good Friday Agreement and in 2005 it disarmed under international supervision, the campaign was supported by arms and funding from Libya and from some Irish American groups. As a result, the IRA launched a new strategy known as the Long War and this saw them conduct a war of attrition against the British and increased emphasis on political activity, via the political party Sinn Féin. The success of the 1981 Irish hunger strike in mobilising support and winning elections led to the Armalite and ballot box strategy, with more time, the British demand was quickly dropped after the May 1997 general election in the UK. The IRA ceasefire was reinstated in July 1997 and Sinn Féin was admitted into all-party talks. The IRAs armed campaign, primarily in Northern Ireland but also in England and mainland Europe, the dead included around 1,100 members of the British security forces, and about 640 civilians. The IRA itself lost 275–300 members and an estimated 10,000 imprisoned at times over the 30-year period. The organisation remains classified as a proscribed terrorist group in the UK, two small groups split from the Provisional IRA, the Continuity IRA in 1986, and the Real IRA in 1997. Both reject the Good Friday Agreement and continue to engage in paramilitary activity and this new IRA group is estimated by Police Service of Northern Ireland intelligence sources to have between 250 and 300 active militants and many more supporting associates. The Provisional IRA was organised hierarchically, at the top of the organisation was the IRA Army Council, headed by the IRA Chief of Staff. All levels of the organisation were entitled to send delegates to IRA General Army Conventions, the GAC was the IRAs supreme decision-making authority. Since 1969, there have only three, in 1970,1986, and 2005, owing to the difficulty in organising such a large gathering of an illegal organisation in secret

Provisional Irish Republican Army – IRA members showing an improvised mortar and an RPG (1992)
Provisional Irish Republican Army – IRA re-enactment in Galbally, County Tyrone (2009)
Provisional Irish Republican Army – Republican colour party in Dublin, March 2009. The blue flag being carried at the front is that of "Dublin Brigade IRA".
Provisional Irish Republican Army – An IRA badge – the phoenix is frequently used to symbolise the origins of the Provisional IRA.

28. Militarization of police – Militarization of police refers to the use of military equipment and tactics by law enforcement officers. This includes the use of armored personnel carriers, assault rifles, submachine guns, flashbang grenades, grenade launchers, sniper rifles, observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests. Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets, tear gas, which was developed for riot control in 1919, is widely used against protesters in the 2000s. Canadian legal expert Michael Spratt wrote, there’s no question that Canadian police sometimes look more like post-apocalyptic military mercenaries than protectors of the peace. Our police services have been acquiring more and more military toys — a dangerous trend that’s gotten little in the way of critical analysis in the mainstream media, growing numbers of Canadian police agencies have acquired armored vehicles in recent years. The G20 protests in Toronto in 2010 showed that the militarization of protest policing is not only occurring in the United States. Police in Toronto used a cannon, or Long Range Acoustic Device -- a weapon that was developed for use in conflicts in the Middle East, as well as barricades, pre-emptive arrests. White argues that the C8 carbines would give officers a much longer shooting range than the short-barreled MP5 submachine guns, the RCMP is issuing more than 2,200 C8 carbines to its officers but the RCMP has not indicated whether the C8s will be issued to Parliament Hill officers. In 2013. Brazil saw countrywide demonstrations protesting a lack of basic services while the country was spending billions on the World Cup, the unprepared and overreacting police forces responded in a way that shocked the largely middle-class protesters. Must be noted, the units that responded to the protests were Shock Police, and, actually, the Military Police is an ancilliary and reserve force of the Army, under the General Inspectorate of Military Police, being that a part of Land Operations Command. This assistance promote militarization to address organized crime, due to these U. S. policies, civilian forces. In 2016, the German police introduced a new unit, BFE+. Criminologist Rafael Behr states that the new BFE+ mainly serves as a reassurance for the public, serving as a symbolic effort. The functional aspect is that with the BFE+, the government can use armed forces with military weapons inside Germany, the 250 person BFE+ will be added to the existing GSG-9 unit. Behr states that the BFE+ will be able to launch large-scale manhunts, mexicos new national police force, the Gendarmería, is partially staffed with active duty soldiers, part of a longstanding trend towards militarization of the countrys Federal Police. Indonesian militarized police are deployed to mass gatherings, especially in areas with ethnic conflict. Throughout the 20th century, the United States has faced large and heavily armed criminal organizations, during the late 1920s through the early 1930s, gunmen from criminal gangs in the United States began wearing bulletproof vests made from thick layers of cotton padding and cloth. These early vests could absorb the impact of handgun rounds such as.22 Long Rifle.25 ACP.32 S&W Long.32 S&W.380 ACP.38 Special and.45 ACP traveling at speeds of up to 300 m/s

Militarization of police – A large group of Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers in tactical gear at a Lakers parade in 2009.
Militarization of police – A Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer in tactical gear.
Militarization of police – The Lenco BearCat Armored Personnel Carrier
Militarization of police – Paul Muni 's depiction of gangster Al Capone armed with a Thompson submachine gun in the 1932 film Scarface. Changes in popular culture, such as an increased focus on heavily armed gangsters in news, film, literature and urban legend, have contributed to police militarization.

29. Fourth generation warfare – Fourth-generation warfare is conflict characterized by a blurring of the lines between war and politics, combatants and civilians. The term was first used in 1989 by a team of United States analysts, including paleoconservative William S. Lind, to describe warfares return to a decentralized form. In terms of modern warfare, the fourth generation signifies the nation states loss of their near-monopoly on combat forces. The simplest definition includes any war in one of the major participants is not a state. Classical examples of type of conflict, such as the slave uprising under Spartacus. In 2006, the concept was expanded upon by USMC Colonel Thomas X. Hammes in his book, The Sling. The generations of warfare described by authors are, 1st Generation, tactics of line and column. Lind describes First Generation of warfare as beginning after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and establishing the states need to organize, 1GW consisted of tightly ordered soldiers with top-down discipline. These troops would fight in order and advance slowly. This began to change as the battlefield changed, old line and column tactics are now considered suicidal as the bow and arrow/sword morphed into the rifle and machine gun. 2nd Generation, tactics of linear fire and movement, with reliance on indirect fire and this type of warfare can be seen in the early stages of World War I where there was still strict adherence to drill and discipline of formation and uniform. However, there remained a dependence on artillery and firepower to break the stalemate, 3rd Generation, tactics of infiltration to bypass and collapse the enemys combat forces rather than seeking to close with and destroy them, and defence in depth. These aspects of 3GW bleed into 4GW as it is also warfare of speed, however, it targets both military forces and home populations. The use of warfare can be traced to the Cold War period, as superpowers and major powers attempted to retain their grip on colonies. Many of these occur in the geographic area described by author Thomas P. M. Barnett as the Non-Integrating Gap. Fourth-generation warfare has much in common with traditional low-intensity conflict in its forms of insurgency. As in those wars, the conflict is initiated by the weaker party through actions which can be termed offensive. The difference lies in the manner in which 4GW opponents adapt those traditional concepts to present day conditions and this amalgamation and metamorphosis produces novel ways of war for both the entity on the offensive and that on the defensive

Fourth generation warfare – Guerillas in Maguindanao, 1999

30. Death squad – A death squad is an armed group that conducts extrajudicial killings or forced disappearances of persons for the purposes of political repression, genocide, or revolutionary terror. These killings are often conducted in ways meant to ensure the secrecy of the killers identities, Death squads may have the support of domestic or foreign governments. They may comprise a secret force, paramilitary groups, government soldiers, policemen. They may also be organized as vigilantes, when death squads are not controlled by the state, they may consist of insurgent forces or organized crime. Historically, the origins of what are known as death squads goes back many decades to the Bolshevik Cheka as a part of the Red Terror in Russia. The Cheka were initially a party organization and later were given official powers and authority for extrajudicial secret arrest, internment and they ultimately institutionalized the practices into the Gulag system. Einsatzgruppen were used by Nazi Germany as a part of the Holocaust, apparently, the term was first used by the fascist Iron Guard in Romania. It officially installed Iron guard death squads in 1936 in order to kill political enemies and it was also used during the Battle of Algiers by Paul Aussaresses. In Southeast Asia, extrajudicial killings were conducted by both sides during the Vietnam War, Nguyễn Văn Lém, a member of the Viet Cong, commanded a death squad targeting South Vietnamese policemen and their families during the Tet Offensive in Saigon. On February 1,1968, Captain Bay Lop was arrested by South Vietnamese police while dumping the bodies of his units victims, Captain Bay Lop was then shot in the head by South Vietnamese Police Major General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan. A photograph taken of the event by American reporter Eddie Adams horrified people throughout the Western World, Argentina used extrajudicial killings as way of crushing the liberal and communist opposition to the military junta during the Dirty war of the 1970s. For example, Alianza Anticomunista Argentina was a death squad mainly active during the Dirty War. The Chilean military regime of 1973–1990 also committed such killings, during the Salvadoran civil war, death squads achieved notoriety on March 24,1980, when a sniper assassinated Archbishop Óscar Romero as he said Mass inside a convent chapel. Death squads were instrumental in killing hundreds of real and suspected Communists, priests who were spreading Liberation Theology, such as Father Rutilio Grande, were often targeted as well. The murderers were found to have soldiers of the Salvadoran military. These events prompted outrage in the U. S. and led to a cutoff in military aid at the end of his presidency. Death Squad activity stretched well into the Reagan years as well, honduras also had death squads active through the 1980s, the most notorious of which was the army unit Battalion 316. Hundreds of people, teachers, politicians, and union bosses were assassinated by government-backed forces, Battalion 316 received substantial training from the United States Central Intelligence Agency

Death squad – Members of the Einsatzgruppen, a Nazi death squad, observe their Jewish victims during the liquidation of the Mizocz Ghetto in Poland on October 14, 1942
Death squad – Cristero rebels publicly hanged on telegraph poles in Jalisco, Mexico. The bodies often remained on the poles until the pueblo or town renounced public religious practice.
Death squad – Jewish victims of Arrow Cross men in the court of the Dohány Street Synagogue
Death squad – The Cairo Gang, most of whom were assassinated by the IRA on the morning of 21 November 1920.

Paramilitary

Contents

Types[edit]

Examples of paramilitary units[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]