1.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
2.
Jainism
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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. The majority of Jains reside in India, with 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
3.
Neminatha
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Neminatha was the twenty-second tirthankara of the avasarpini. According to Jain beliefs, he lived 84,000 years before the 23rd Tirthankara and his full name was Aristanemi, which is an epithet of the sun-chariot. He was the youngest son of King Samudravijaya and Queen Shivadevi, and he was born at Sauripura in the Harivamsa clan. His birth date is the 5th day of Shravana Shukla in the Hindu calendar and he became a Siddha, a liberated soul which has destroyed all of its karma. Neminatha was the twenty-second tirthankara of the avasarpini, according to Jain beliefs, he lived 84,000 years before the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha. His full name was Aristanemi which is an epithet of the sun-chariot and he was the youngest son of King Samudravijaya and Queen Shivadevi, and the cousin brother of Krishna. He was born at Sauripura in the Harivamsa clan and belonged to Saurashtra region of Gujarat and his birth date is the 5th day of Shravana Shukla in the Hindu calendar. Neminatha was a handsome but a shy young man. On being taunted by Satyabhama, the wife of Krishna, Neminatha blew Panchajanya and it was believed that no one could lift this jewel except Krishna, let alone blow it. After this event, Krishna decided to test Neminathas strength and challenged him for a duel, Neminatha, being a Tirthankara, defeated Krishna without any effort. In the war between Krishna and Jarasandha, Neminatha participated alongside Krishna, Neminathas marriage was arranged with Rajulakumari or Rajimati, the daughter of King Ugrasena of Gujarat. On being informed about the slaughter of animals for his wedding procession, he gave up the idea of getting married, became monk and his bride-to-be followed him, became a nun and joined the ascetic order. After a life of about 1,000 years, he is said to have attained Moksha from Mount Girnar, secular scholars accept the existence of Jainism as far back before BCE, but for Jains the story goes back much further than Parshvanatha. Jain texts mention the names of twenty-one Tirthankaras before him, Neminatha was the grandson of Andhakavrishni. Jains and some Hindus consider Neminatha to be the cousin of Krishna - the son of Samudravijaya, in the Chandogya Upanishads, the sage Ghora Angirasa relates the life of a man to the Soma sacrifice, and the daksina to austerity, liberality, simplicity, non-violence and truthfulness. In the process, he contributes the first recorded mention of ahimsa in the sense of non-violent behaviour, alois Anton Führer declared Neminatha to be a historical figure based on the Mathura Jain antiquities. His images are found dating back to Indo-Scythian period bearing his name in inscriptions. The Jain traditions about Neminatha or Arishtanemi is incorporated in the Harivamsa Purana of Acharya Jinasena, a palm leaf manuscript on the life of Neminatha, named Neminatha-Charitra, was written in 1198-1142 AD
4.
Mahavira
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Mahavira, also known as Vardhamāna, was the twenty-fourth and last Jain Tirthankara. Mahavira was born into a family in what is now Bihar, India. At the age of 30, he left his home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, and abandoned worldly things, including his clothes, for the next twelve-and-a-half years, Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe penance, after which he became kevalī. For the next 30 years, he travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent to teach Jain philosophy, Mahavira taught that the observance of the vows ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha is necessary to elevate the quality of life. He gave the principle of Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada, the teachings of Mahavira were compiled by Gautama Swami and were called Jain Agamas. Most of these Agamas are not available today, jains believe Mahavira attained moksha at the age of 72. In Jainism, a Tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths, according to the Jain texts, twenty-four Tirthankaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpani, Samantabhadra, an illustrious Digambara monk, who lived in the 2nd century A. D. called the tīrtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya. Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but this was not the case because the Jain tradition recognizes his predecessors, in addition to that, Parshvanatha is accepted as a historical figure. According to Jain texts, Mahaviras childhood name was Vardhamāna, because of the prosperity in the kingdom at the time of his birth. He was called Mahavira because of the acts of bravery he performed during his childhood, Mahavira was given the title Jīnā, which later became synonymous with Tirthankara. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta, Nigaṇṭha means without knot, tie, or string and Jñātaputta, refers to his clan of origin as Jñāta or Naya. He is also known as Sramana, in the Gregorian calendar, this date falls in March or April and is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti. Traditionally, Kundalpur in the ancient city of Kashtriya Kund Lachhuar is regarded as his birthplace, in the present-day Sikandra Division of Jamui district, according to Jainism, after his birth, anointment and abhisheka —carried out by Indra on Mount Meru. Most modern historians agree he was born at Kundagrama, now Basokund in Muzaffarpur district in the state of Bihar, Jain traditions date Mahavira as living from 599 B. C. to 527 B. C. Western historians date Mahavira as living from 480 BC to 408 BC, some Western scholars suggest Mahavira died around 425 BC. His height was seven cubits as per the description given in Aupapatika Sutra, as the son of a king, Mahavira had all luxuries of life at his disposal. According to the chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Acharanga Sutra
5.
Snake
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Snakes are elongated, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales, many species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws. To accommodate their bodies, snakes paired organs appear one in front of the other instead of side by side. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of claws on either side of the cloaca. Additionally, sea snakes are widespread throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans, more than 20 families are currently recognized, comprising about 500 genera and about 3,400 species. They range in size from the tiny,10.4 cm -long thread snake to the reticulated python of 6.95 meters in length, the fossil species Titanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 meters long. Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards, perhaps during the Jurassic period, the diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period. The oldest preserved descriptions of snakes can be found in the Brooklyn Papyrus, most species are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause injury or death to humans. Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by constriction, the word ousted adder, as adder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre was the general word for snake. The other term, serpent, is from French, ultimately from Indo-European *serp-, the fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small and fragile making fossilization uncommon. Fossils readily identifiable as snakes first appear in the record during the Cretaceous period. The earliest known snake fossils come from the marine simoliophiids. Based on comparative anatomy, there is consensus that snakes descended from lizards, pythons and boas—primitive groups among modern snakes—have vestigial hind limbs, tiny, clawed digits known as anal spurs, which are used to grasp during mating. The families Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae also possess remnants of the pelvic girdle, front limbs are nonexistent in all known snakes. This is caused by the evolution of Hox genes, controlling limb morphogenesis, the axial skeleton of the snakes’ common ancestor, like most other tetrapods, had regional specializations consisting of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal vertebrae. Early in snake evolution, the Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became dominant, as a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds all have the same thoracic-like identity. In other words, most of a skeleton is an extremely extended thorax
6.
Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue
7.
Varanasi
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The spiritual capital of India, it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities in Hinduism and Jainism, and played an important role in the development of Buddhism. Varanasi lies along National Highway 2, which connects it to Kolkata, Kanpur, Agra, and Delhi, Varanasi is also one of 72 districts in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. At the time of the 2011 census, there were a total 8 blocks and 1329 villages in this district, Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre, famous for its muslin and silk fabrics, perfumes, ivory works, and sculpture. Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon, The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma, at nearby Sarnath. The citys religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century, Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Ramas life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi. Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, including Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507, a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism. The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737, silk weaving, carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population, as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964, Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years, and is closely associated with the Ganges. Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation, making it a centre for pilgrimage. The city is known worldwide for its ghats, embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions. Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat, the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat, the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead. The Ramnagar Fort, near the bank of the Ganges, was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies, open courtyards. Among the estimated 23,000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva, the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, the Kashi Naresh is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi, and an essential part of all religious celebrations. One of Asias largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University, the Hindi-language nationalist newspaper, Aj, was first published in 1920. The old city is located on the shores of the Ganges, bounded by Varuna. The name was used by pilgrims dating from Buddhas days. Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi, such as Kāśikā, Avimukta, Ānandavana, according to legend, Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva. It is regarded as one of seven cities which can provide Moksha, Ayodhyā, Mathurā, Gayā, Kāśi, Kañchi, Avantikā
8.
Shikharji
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Shikharji, Giridih district, Jharkhand, India, is located on Parasnath, the highest mountain of the Parasnath Range. It is a Jain Tirtha believed to be the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain tirthankaras along with other monks attained Moksha, according to Nirvana Kanda. The site is also called Sammed Śikhar or Sammet Shikhar peak of concentration because it is a place where twenty of twenty-four Tirthankaras attained Moksha. The word Parasnath is derived from Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara, shikarji is located in an inland part of rural east India. It lies on NH-2, the Delhi-Kolkata highway in a called the Grand Trunk road. Shikharji rises to 4,429 feet making it the highest mountain in Jharkhand state, the earliest reference to Shikharji as a tirth is found in the Jñātṛdhārmakātha, one of the twelve core texts of Jainism, at Shikharji, Māllīnātha, the nineteenth tirthankara, practiced samadhi. Shikharji is also mentioned in the Pārśvanāthacarita, a twelfth century biography of Pārśva, the popularity of Shikharji as a site of pilgrimage followed that of Vulture Peak, Bihar, where it is believed the Buddhist Sariputta attained enlightenment. Jharkhand acquired Shikharji under the Bihar Land Reforms Act, leaving the rights of Jains in doubt, use of Shikharji as a tourist destination also impacts on the religious beliefs of the Jain. Sports such as paragliding and parasailing may take place at Shikharji, the pilgrimage to Shikharji is a round trip of 30 km through the Madhuban forest. The section from Gandharva Nala stream to the summit is the most sacred to Jains, the pilgrimage is made on foot or by a litter or doli carried by a doliwallah along a concrete paved track. Along the track are shrines to each of the twenty four tirthankaras and vendors of tea, coffee, water, fruits, there is an option for parikrama of the entire Parasnath Hill, a pilgrimage of 54 kilometres. The parikrama path is through the forest and is walking only, the temple at Shikharji is a new construction with some parts dating to the eighteenth century. However, the idol itself is very old, sanskrit inscriptions at the foot of the image date to 1678. At the base of Shikharji is a temple to Bhomiyaji, on the walls of the Jain temple at the village of Madhuban, there is a mural painting depicting all the temples on Parasnath Hill. Temples along the track include, In Jainism, the building of temples is seen as auspicious. There is a scale replica of Shikharji at Dadabari, New Delhi. A full size replica was opened on 13 August,2012 in the US, Nearest railway station named Parasnath Station is situated in Isri bazar, Dumri Jharkhand. Its around 25 km from Madhuban, Parasnath station is situated on Delhi-Howrah Grand Chord via Kanpur, Allahbad, Mugalsarai, Gaya, Asansol
9.
Bhaktamara Stotra
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Bhaktamara Stotra is a famous Jain sanskrit prayer. It was composed by Acharya Manatunga, the name Bhaktamara comes from a combination of two sanskrit names, Bhakta and Amar. The prayer praises Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, there are forty-eight verses in total. The last verse gives the name of the author Manatunga, Bhaktamar verses have been recited as a stotra, and sung as a stavan, somewhat interchangeably. Other Jain prayers have taken after these, additional verses here praise the omniscience of Adinatha, according to legends, the Jain monk Manatunga was chained and imprisoned by the local King Bhoja. The shasandevi yakshi Chakreshvari of Bhagwan Adinath appeared before Acharya Manatunga, mantungacharya composed this stotra in the prison. With the completion of each verse, a broke, or a door opened. Manatunga was free all the verses were finished. Legends associate Manatunga with a ruler named Bhoja, however Manatunga probably lived a few centuries before Raja Bhoja of Dhara. He is identified by scholars as Kshapanaka, one of the Navaratnas in the court of legendary Vikramaditya. An unidentified Sanskrit poet Matanga, composer of Brahaddeshi on music theory, Bhaktamara stotra was composed sometime in the Gupta or the post-Gupta period, making Manatunga approximately contemporary with other navaratnas like Kalidasa and Varahamihira. Several spots near Bhopal and Dhar are traditionally associated with Manatunga, Bhaktamara Stotra is believed to be at least a thousand years old, though many believe it to be still older. Bhaktamara Stotra has been passed down generation to generation. The importance and effectiveness is believed to have increased with the passage of time, Bhaktamara Stotra is recited by many with religious regularity. The original Stotra is in Sanskrit and written in Devnagiri script, the Bhaktamar Stotra has 48 stanzas. The complete panegyric is formed by 2888 letters and it is said that some specific stanzas are miraculously effective for fulfilment of different purposes. Bhaktamara stotra is widely illustrated in paintings, at the Sanghiji temple at Sanganer, there is a panel illustrating each verse. The verses of Bhaktamar are thought to possess magical properties, a mystical diagram, yantra, is associated with each verse
10.
Namokar Mantra
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Ṇamōkāra mantra is the most significant mantra in Jainism. This is the first prayer recited by the Jains while meditating, the mantra is also variously referred to as the Pancha Namaskāra Mantra, Navakāra Mantra or Namaskāra Mantra. The prayer is done towards the guṇa of the gods, teachers, Jains do not ask for any favors or material benefits from the tirthankaras or monastics. This mantra simply serves as a gesture of respect towards beings whom they believe are spiritually ahead. Navkar Mantra consists of 68 /69 alphabets A162 BCE inscription and it was inscribed by the Jain monarch Kharavela. Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the teachings of the Preceptor
11.
Anekantavada
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It is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim the sole monopoly on truth with andhagajanyāyah, which can be illustrated through the parable of the blind men, in this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant. All the men claimed to understand and explain the appearance of the elephant. According to the Jains, only the Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, consequently, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth. The origins of anekāntavāda can be traced back to the teachings of Mahāvīra, the dialectical concepts of syādvāda conditioned viewpoints and nayavāda partial viewpoints arose from anekāntavāda, providing it with more detailed logical structure and expression. The Sanskrit compound an-eka-anta-vāda literally means doctrine of uncertainty (an- not, ekānta certainty or single-natured, vāda, an-ekānta uncertainty, non-exclusivity is the opposite of ekānta exclusiveness, absoluteness, necessity. Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals, the principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahiṃsā and satyagraha. The etymological root of anekāntavāda lies in the compound of two Sanskrit words, anekānta and vāda, the word anekānta is a compound of the Sanskrit negative prefix an, eka, and anta. Hence, anekānta means not of solitary attribute, the Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva, that is, rationality and logic. According to Jains, the principle should always be logical. Thus, the Jain texts contain deliberative exhortations on every subject, whether they are constructive or obstructive, inferential or analytical, Anekāntavāda is one of the three Jain doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning. The other two are, syādvāda—the theory of conditioned predication and, nayavāda—the theory of partial standpoints and these Jain philosophical concepts made important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. -, i. e. generally by prefacing each sentence with the verb syāt, the optative conveys uncertainty, questioning or conditionality. According to Jain texts, a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters, each individual character is called a naya. Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality, a synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance. Highlighting the indispensability of syādvāda, Acharya Samantabhadra asserts, Affirmation, only when affirmation and negation are juxtaposed in mutually non-conflicting situation, one is able to decide whether to accept or reject the assertion. This is how the doctrine of conditional predications establishes the truth. ”Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology, as reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus syāt should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a point of view
12.
Jain cosmology
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Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe and its constituents according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe, as an entity, existing since infinity. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and this Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. It is characterised by chetana and upayoga, though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of another state, ajīva Pudgala - Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter i. e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and indestructible, Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed, dharma-dravya and Adharma-dravya - Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe, dharma and Adharma are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe, Ākāśa - Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points, Kāla - Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain text, Dravyasaṃgraha, Conventional time is perceived by the senses through the transformations and modifications of substances, real time, however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes that go on incessantly in all substances. The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on natural laws. The existence of a deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajju high and its breadth is seven Rajjus at the bottom and decreases gradually till the middle where it is one Rajju. The width then increases gradually till it is five Rajju and again till it is one Rajju. The apex of the universe is one Rajju long, one Rajju wide, the total space of the world is thus 343 cubic Rajju. The svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is constant increase and decrease in the breadth, apart from the apex which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts
13.
Ahimsa in Jainism
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Ahimsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term ahimsa means nonviolence, non-injury or absence of desire to harm any life forms, vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa. The Jain concept of ahimsa is very different from the concept of found in other philosophies. Violence is usually associated with causing harm to others, but according to the Jain philosophy, violence refers primarily to injuring ones own self – behaviour which inhibits the souls own ability to attain moksha. At the same time it also means violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms ones own soul. Furthermore, the Jains extend the concept of not only to humans but to all animals, plants, micro-organisms. All life is sacred and everyone has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential, the living beings do not have any fear from those who have taken the vow of ahimsa. According to Jainism, protection of life, also known as abhayadānam, is the charity that a person can make. Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of violence, but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence. Jains have strongly advocated vegetarianism and nonviolence throughout the ages, Ahimsa being central to the Jain philosophy, Jain Ācāryas have produced, through ages, quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects. According to Aidan Rankin, the concept of ahimsa is very much intertwined with Jainism, Jain texts expound that there are ten vitalities or life-principles, these are, the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Living beings are classified on the basis of their sensory organs, According to Jain texts, The one-sensed lives possess four vitalities – sense organ of touch, strength of body or energy, respiration, and life-duration. The two-sensed beings have six, namely the sense of taste, the three-sensed beings have seven with the addition of the sense of smell. The four-sensed beings have eight with the addition of the sense of sight, the five- sensed beings without mind have nine life-principles with the addition of the sense of hearing. Those endowed with mind are said to have ten vitalities with the addition of the mind, According to Tattvarthasutra, a major Jain text, the severance of vitalities out of passion is injury. Therefore, the higher the number of senses and vitalities a being has, out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest. But, the ascetic is required to avoid injuring the one-sensed form of life to the best of his ability. Hence Jainism enjoins its adherents to completely avoid violence to higher-sensed beings, in Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five major vows
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Karma in Jainism
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Karma is the basic principle within an overarching psycho-cosmology in Jainism. Human moral actions form the basis of the transmigration of the soul, the soul is constrained to a cycle of rebirth, trapped within the temporal world, until it finally achieves liberation. Liberation is achieved by following a path of purification, Karma not only encompasses the causality of transmigration, but is also conceived of as an extremely subtle matter, which infiltrates the soul—obscuring its natural, transparent and pure qualities. Karma is thought of as a kind of pollution, that taints the soul with various colours, based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals. Jains cite inequalities, sufferings, and pain as evidence for the existence of karma, various types of karma are classified according to their effects on the potency of the soul. The Jain theory seeks to explain the process by specifying the various causes of karmic influx and bondage, placing equal emphasis on deeds themselves. The Jain karmic theory attaches great responsibility to individual actions, the Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities and purity of conduct. According to Jains, all souls are pure in their inherent and ideal state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss. However, in experience, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed. The soul has been associated with karma in this way throughout an eternity of beginningless time and this bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by analogy with gold ore, which—in its natural state—is always found unrefined of admixture with impurities. Similarly, the pure state of the soul has always been overlaid with the impurities of karma. This analogy with gold ore is also taken one step further, Jainism speaks of karmic dirt, as karma is thought to be manifest as very subtle and microscopically imperceptible particles pervading the entire universe. They are so small that one space-point—the smallest possible extent of space—contains an infinite number of karmic particles and it is these karmic particles that adhere to the soul and affect its natural potency. This material karma is called dravya karma, and the resultant emotions—pleasure, pain, love, hatred, the relationship between the material and psychic karma is that of cause and effect. The material karma gives rise to the feelings and emotions in worldly souls, which—in turn—give rise to psychic karma and these emotions, yet again, result in influx and bondage of fresh material karma. Jains hold that the matter is actually an agent that enables the consciousness to act within the material context of this universe. They are the carrier of a souls desire to physically experience this world. When attracted to the consciousness, they are stored in an interactive karmic field called kārmaṇa śarīra, thus, karma is a subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul
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Moksha (Jainism)
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Sanskrit moksha or Prakrit mokkha means liberation or salvation. It is a state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from saṃsāra. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge, such a soul is called siddha and is revered in Jainism. In Jainism, it is the highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve, in fact, it is the only objective that a person should have, other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With the right view, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state and that is why Jainism is also known as mokṣamārga or the path to liberation. According to the Sacred Jain Text, Tattvartha sutra, Owing to the absence of the cause of bondage, from the point of view of potentiality of mokṣa, Jain texts bifurcates the souls in two categories–bhavya and abhavya. Bhavya souls are those souls who have faith in mokṣa and hence will make some efforts to achieve liberation and this potentiality or quality is called bhavyata. However, bhavyata itself does not guarantee mokṣa, as the needs to expend necessary efforts to attain it. On the other hand, abhavya souls are those souls who cannot attain liberation as they do not have faith in mokṣa, according to Jainism, the Ratnatraya or three Gems, samyagdarśana, samyagjñāna and samyakcāritra, together constitute the mokṣamarga or the path to liberation. According to Acharya KundaKundas Samayasara, Belief in the nine substances as they are is right faith, Knowledge of these substances without doubt, delusion or misapprehension, is right knowledge. Being free from attachment etc. is right conduct and these three, together, constitute the path to liberation. Samyak Darsana or rational perception is the faith in the true nature of every substance of the universe. Samyak Caritra or rational conduct is the conduct of a living being. It consists in following austerities, engaging in activities and observance of vows, carefulness. Once a soul secures samyaktva, mokṣa is assured within a few lifetimes, the fourteen stages on the path to liberation are called Gunasthāna. These are, Those who pass the last stage are called siddha and become established in Right Faith, Right Knowledge. Nirvāna means final release from the karmic bondage, when an enlightened human, such as an Arhat or a Tirthankara, extinguishes his remaining aghatiya karmas and thus ends his worldly existence, it is called nirvāna. Technically, the death of an Arhat is called their nirvāṇa, as he has ended his worldly existence, however, the terms moksa and nirvana are often used interchangeably in the Jain texts
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Kevala Jnana
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Kevala jñāna means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as absolute knowledge or supreme knowledge. Kevala jnana is believed to be a quality of all souls. This quality is masked by karmic particles that surround the soul, every soul has the potential to obtain omniscience by shedding off these karmic particles. Jain scriptures speak of stages through which the soul achieves this goal. A soul who has attained kevala jnana is called a kevalin According to the Jains, only kevalins can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, the views of two sects of Jainism, Digambara and Śvētāmbara Jains differ on the subject of kevalins. According to Digambaras, a kevalin does not experience hunger or thirst, whereas according to Svetambaras, According to both traditions, the last kevalin was a disciple of one of the eleven chief disciples of the last tirthankara, Mahāvīra, his name is recorded as Jambuswami. It is also believed that no one after Jambuswami will have the ability to obtain kevala jnana, the claim of existence of omniscience by Jains, who deny the existence of a creator god, is a unique phenomenon. The Sutrakritanga text of the Svetambara school, elaborates the concept as all-knowing, immediately after the death of Mahavira, his disciple Indrabhuti Gautama became a kevalin. As per the tradition, the teachings of the tirthankara were memorized and preserved over many centuries, in the second Upanga Agama, the Rājapraśnīya, there is a dialogue between Kesi, a disciple of Pārśva, and Payasi, a materialist king. In this dialogue, Kesi proves the existence of jiva and its ability to obtain kevala jñana to the king, the Jains have a long debate with Hindus and Buddhists regarding omniscience. Bhikkhu Dhamakriti criticized the Jain notion of omniscience in his Pramanavartika, the Hindu philosopher Kumarila argued that only Veda had the authority to define human moral values since they were beginningless, authorless and of self-sufficient validity. In response, the Jain monk Haribhadra wrote that already had knowledge of everything knowable. It only had to be illuminated or uncovered, omniscience was, according to Haribhadra, inherent to living beings. The one who perceives directly the objects of knowledge that are minute, past, and distant is the Omniscient, akalanka put forward the concept of suniscita-asambhavad-badhaka-pramana as a reason for the existence of omniscience. This concept is a fact which is we have no valid methods of knowing to deny the existence of omniscience. Hemacandra combined Samantabhadra and Akalankas ideas of sarvajña in his Pramanamimasa to establish the existence of omniscience, in Jain epistemology, there are two kinds of valid methods of knowledge, pratyakṣa or direct knowledge and parokṣa or indirect knowledge. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with Anekantavada, which can be explained through the parable of the blind men, in this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant. All the men claimed to understand and explain the appearance of the elephant
17.
Ethics of Jainism
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Jain ethical code prescribes two dharmas or rules of conduct. One for those who wish to become ascetic and another for the śrāvaka, five fundamental vows are prescribed for both votaries. These vows are observed by śrāvakas partially and are termed as anuvratas, ascetics observe these fives vows more strictly and therefore observe complete abstinence. Falsehood etc. have been mentioned only to make the disciple understand through illustrations. Apart from five main vows, a householder is expected to observe seven supplementary vows, mahavrata are the five fundamental observed by the Jain ascetics. Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow, according to the Jain text, Tattvarthsutra, The severance of vitalities out of passion is injury. Not to lie or speak what is not commendable, the underlying cause of falsehood is passion and therefore, it is said to cause hiṃsā. According to the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi, that causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable. The fourth great vow of asceticism is concerned with abrahma, brahmacharya refers to the self-control in respect of sex-function. It means avoiding all the kinds of natural and unnatural sex-gratification, according to Tattvarthsutra, Infatuation is attachment to possessions. Jain texts mentions that attachment to possessions is of two kinds, attachment to internal possessions, and attachment to external possessions, according to Jain texts, both internal and external possessions are proved to be hiṃsā. Apart from five fundamental vows seven supplementary vows are prescribed for a śrāvaka and these include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas. The vow of sallekhanâ is observed by the votary at the end of his life and it is prescribed both for the ascetics and householders. Digvrata- restriction on movement with regard to directions, bhogopabhogaparimana- vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things Anartha-dandaviramana- refraining from harmful occupations and activities. Samayika- vow to meditate and concentrate periodically, desavrata- limiting movement to certain places for a fixed period of time. Atihti samvibhag- Vow of offering food to the ascetic and needy people, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the prescribed vows to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhanā at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, there are five, five transgressions respectively for the vows and the supplementary vows. Institute of Indology, This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain
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Sallekhana
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Sallekhana is the last vow prescribed by the Jain ethical code of conduct. The vow of sallekhana is observed by the Jain ascetics and lay votaries at the end of their life by reducing the intake of food. Sallekhana is allowed when normal life according to religion is not possible due to old age and it is a highly respected practice among the members of the Jain community. According to Jain texts, sallekhana leads to ahimsā, as a person observing sallekhana subjugates the passions, in 2015, the Rajasthan High Court banned the practice, calling it suicide. On 31 August 2015, the Supreme Court of India stayed the decision of the Rajasthan High Court, Sallekhana is made up from two words sal and lekhana, which means to thin out. Properly thinning out of the passions and the body is sallekhana, Sallekhana is prescribed both for householders and ascetics. In Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five fundamental vows, ascetics must observe complete abstinence and their vows are thus called mahavratas, the vows of the laity are called anuvratas. Jain ethical code also prescribes seven supplementary vows, which include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the vows prescribed to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhana at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, Sallekhana is treated as a supplementary to the twelve vows taken by Jains. However, some Jain Acharyas such as Kundakunda, Devasena, Padmanandin and Vasunandin have included it under the last vow, according to famous Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, the sallekhana can be observed only on the arrival of unavoidable calamity, distress, senescence and disease. The duration of the practice could be up to years or more. Sixth part of the Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is on sallekhana, the procedure expounded is as follows— Giving up solid food by degrees, one should take to milk and whey, then giving them up, to hot or spiced water. Giving up hot water also, and observing fasting with full determination, he should give up his body, the purpose is to purge old karmas and prevent the creation of new ones. The vow of Sallekhana can not be taken by a lay person on his own without being permitted by a monk, in around 300 BC, Chandragupta Maurya undertook sallekhana atop Chandragiri Hill, Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa, Karnataka. Chandragupta basadi at Shravanabelagola marks the place where the saint Chandragupta died, the Doddahundi nishidhi inscription, a hero stone from Doddahundi,18 km from Tirumakudalu Narasipura in the Mysore district, Karnataka state, India. It has an undated old Kannada language inscription which historians J. F. Fleet, I. K. Sarma, rice have dated by context to 840 or 869 C. E. The hero stone has a depiction in frieze of the ritual death of the Western Ganga Dynasty king Ereganga Nitimarga I. The memorial was raised by the kings son Satyavakya, such nishidhis were raised in medieval India in honor of important Jain personalities who ended their life voluntarily after following severe ritual vow
19.
Tirthankara
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In Jainism, a tirthankara is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the dharma. The word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which is a passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. According to Jains, a tirthankara is an individual who has conquered the saṃsāra. After understanding the nature of the Self or soul, the Tīrthaṅkara attains Kevala Jnana. Tirthankara provides a bridge for others to follow the new teacher from saṃsāra to moksha, according to Jain cosmology, in each half of the cosmic time cycle, exactly twenty-four tirthankaras grace this part of the universe. The first tirthankara was Rishabhanatha, who is credited for formulating and organising humans to live in a society harmoniously, the 24th and last tirthankara of present half-cycle was Mahavira. History records the existence of Mahavira and his predecessor, Parshvanatha, a tirthankara organises the sangha, a fourfold order of male and female monastics, srāvakas and śrāvikās. The tirthankaras teachings form the basis for the Jain canons, the inner knowledge of tirthankara is believed to be perfect and identical in every respect and their teachings do not contradict one another. However, the degree of elaboration varies according to the spiritual advancement, the higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind of the society, the lower the elaboration required. While tirthankaras are documented and revered by Jains, their grace is said to be available to all living beings, Tīrthaṅkaras are arihants who after attaining kevalajñāna preach the true dharma. An Arihant is also called Jina, that is one who has conquered inner enemies such as anger, attachment, pride and they dwell exclusively within the realm of their Soul, and are entirely free of kashayas, inner passions, and personal desires. As a result of this, unlimited siddhis, or spiritual powers, are available to them – which they use exclusively for the spiritual elevation of living beings. Through darśana, divine vision, and deshna, divine speech, they help others in attaining kevalajñana, the word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Tirthankaras are variously called Teaching Gods, Ford-Makers, Crossing Makers and Makers of the River-Crossing, Jain texts propound that a special type of karma, the tīrthaṅkara nama-karma, raises a soul to the supreme status of a Tīrthaṅkara. Five auspicious events called, Pañca kalyāṇaka marks the life of tirthankara, Gārbha kalyāṇaka. Janma kalyāṇaka, Birth of a tirthankara, indra performs a ceremonial bath on tirthankara on Mount Meru. Dīkṣā kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara renounces all worldly possessions and become an ascetic, jñāna kalyāṇaka, The event when a tirthankara attains kevalajñāna. A samavasarana is erected from where he delivers sermons and restores sangha after that, nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara leaves his mortal body, it is known as nirvana
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Rishabhanatha
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Rishabhanatha also Ṛṣabhadeva, Rishabhadeva, or Ṛṣabha is the first Tirthankara of the present half cycle of time in Jainism. The word Tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across a sea, the Tirthankara shows the fordable path across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is also known as Ādinātha which translates into First Lord and he was born to King Nabhi and Queen Marudevi in Ayodhya. He is associated with his Bull emblem, the Nyagrodha tree, Gomukha Yaksha and he had two wives, Sunanda and Sumangala. Sumangala was the mother of sons and one daughter, Brahmi. Sunanda was the mother of Bahubali and Sundari, the sudden fatal death of Nilanjana, one of the dancers of Indra, reminded him of the worlds transitory nature and he developed a desire for renunciation. After being initiated as a Digambara monk, he is said to have wandered without food for a whole year, the day on which he got his first ahara, is celebrated as Akshaya Tritiya by Jains. He is said to have attained Moksha from Mount Kailash, adi Purana contains the information over legends related to Rishabhanatha. His colossal statues include Statue of Ahimsa, Bawangaja and those erected in Gopachal hill, Jain cosmology divides the Worldly Time cycle into two halves with six aras in each half. Twenty-four Tirthankaras grace this part of the universe in the period, known as duşamā-suşamā. The present half cycle being a case, Rishabhanatha, the first tīrthaṅkara was born at the end of the third period itself. This cycle will start reversing at the onset of utsarpinī kāl with the Dukhama-dukhamā being the first period, according to Jain texts, Rishabhanatha was born in the age when there was happiness all around with no work for men to do. Gradually as the cycle moved, and Kalpavriksha disappeared, people rushed to their King for help, Rishabhanatha is then said to have taught the men six main professions. These were, Asi, Masi, Krishi, Vidya, Vanijya, in other words, he is credited with introducing karma-bhumi by teaching these professions to householders to enable them to earn a livelihood. The institution of marriage is said to have come into existence after he married to set an example for humans to follow. In total, Rishabhanatha is said to have taught seventy-two sciences which include, arithmetic, the plastic and visual arts, Jain chronology places the date of Rishabhanatha at an almost immeasurable antiquity in the past. Rishabhanatha is said to be the founder of Jainism in the present half cycle, there is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamāna or Pārśvanātha. The Yajurveda mentions the name of three Tīrthaṅkaras - Ṛṣabha, Ajitnātha and Ariṣṭanemi, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa endorses the view that Ṛṣabha was the founder of Jainism
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Arihant (Jainism)
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Arihant or jina, is a soul who has conquered inner passions such as attachment, anger, pride and greed. Arihant are also called kevalins as they possess Kevala Jnana, an arihant is also called a Jina conqueror. At the end of their life, arihants destroy all four gathiya karmas and attain moksha, the Ṇamōkāra mantra, fundamental prayer dedicated to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi begin with, Ṇnamō arihantāṇnamṁ--Obeisance to the arihants. Kevalī are said to be of two kinds- Tirthankara kevalī-24 human spiritual guides who after attaining omniscience teach the path to salvation, sāmānya kevalī- Kevalī who are concerned with their own liberation. According to Jains, every soul has the potential to become arihant, a soul which destroys all kashayas or inner enemies like anger, ego, deception, and greed - responsible for the perpetuation of ignorance - becomes an Arihant. According to Jain texts, omniscience is attained on the destruction of the deluding, the knowledge-obscuring, the perception-obscuring, according to Jain texts, omniscience is the natural attribute of the pure souls. The Self attaining omniscience becomes a kevalī, the four infinitudes are, ananta jñāna, infinite knowledge ananta darśana, perfect perception due to the destruction of all darshanavarniya karmas. Ananta sukha, infinite bliss, and ananta vīrya – infinite energy and those Arihants who re-establish Jain faith are called Tirthankaras. Tirthankaras revitalize the sangha, the order consisting of male saints, female saints, male householders. The first Tirthankara of the current time cycle was R̥ṣabhadēva, and the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara was Mahavira, Jain texts mention forty-six attributes of arihants or tirthankaras. These attributes comprise four infinitudes, thirty-four miraculous happenings, and eight splendours, at the time of nirvana, the arihant sheds off the remaining four aghati karmas, Nam Karma Gotra Karma, Vedniya Karma, Ayushya Karma. These four karmas do not affect the nature of the soul and are therefore called aghati karmas. After attaining salvation from these arihants become siddhas, since siddhas have attained ultimate liberation, they are not accessible. However arihants are accessible for spiritual guidance to human society until their nirvana, Jains Jainism and Jainness, Living Jainism, An Ethical Science, John Hunt Publishing, ISBN 978-1780999111 Jain, Vijay K. Ācārya Nemichandras Dravyasaṃgraha
22.
Kundakunda
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Acharya Kundakunda is a revered Digambara Jain monk and philosopher. He authored many Jain texts such as, Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pancastikayasara, Pravachanasara, Atthapahuda and he occupies the highest place in the tradition of the Jain acharyas. Modern scholarship has found it difficult to locate him chronologically, with a possible low date in the 2nd-3rd centuries CE and a late date in 8th century. His proper name was Padmanandin, he is referred to as Kundakunda possibly because the modern village of Kondakunde in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh might represent his native home. Upadhye has shown that possibly apart from the name Elacarya, all the other names ascribed to Kundakunda go against the tradition of the epigraphic records. Acharya Kundakunda belonged to the Mula Sangh order and he is closely associated with the Digambara sect, also in recent decades, his books have become popular among Śvētāmbaras also. He is dated to have flourished around second century CE by Natubhai Shah, for Digambaras, his name has auspicious significance and occupies third place after Lord Mahavira and Gautama Ganadhara in the sacred litany. This would make him the first significant and independent thinker of the period whose views are accepted as representing the Jain thought. The mundane aspect is associated with the qualities of the soul mainly the influx of karmic particles. The ultimate perspective meanwhile, is that of the soul or atman, the jiva, which is blissful, energetic, perceptive. According to Long, this view shows influence from Buddhism and Vedanta, the works attributed to Kundakunda, all of them in Prakrit, can be divided in three groups. The first group comprises four original works described as The Essence — namely, the Niyamasara, the Pancastikayasara, the Samayasara, and the Pravachanasara. The second group is a collection of ten bhaktis, short compositions in praise of the acharya, the scriptures, the mendicant conduct, and so forth. The last group consists of eight short texts called Prabhrta, probably compilations from some sources, on such topics as the right view, right conduct, the scripture. Various Jain texts mention that Acharya Kundkunda wrote 84 Pahurs, simandhar Swami Jain, Vijay K. Essays in Jaina Philosophy and Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1977-2 Cort, John E
23.
Siddhasena
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Siddhasēna Divākara was an Digambara monk in the fifth century CE who wrote works on Jain philosophy and epistemology. He was like the lamp of the Jain order and therefore came to be known as Divākara Lamp-Maker. He is credited with the authorship of books, most of which are not available. Sanmatitarka is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit, Siddhasena Divakara is said to have lived from 500 CE to 610 CE. He was a Brahmin by birth and a scholar and he was initiated by Acharya Vruddhavadi. According to the tradition, Siddhasena Divakara once planned to all the Jaina works from prakrit to Sanskrit. He was asked by his master to all the Jain temples as a punishment. He thus visited the Jain temples for twelve years and he then came upon a Linga temple in Ujjain. He slept at the temple with his feet towards the Linga, king Vikramaditya had him beaten for the sin on request of the devotees. However, with powers, Siddhasena Divakara made that the Kings wife received the beating instead of him. He broke the Linga by raising his hand and an idol of Parshvanatha emerged from there, siddhasenas main contribution in the Sanmatitarka is his analysis of the Jain theory of Anekantavada. This view sees the best account of reality as one which includes permanence and impermanence, identity, Siddhasena also argued that the number of possible nayas or viewpoints of reality is potentially limitless. He then goes on to each of the nayas with the positions of Indian philosophical schools, showing how each view is only a partial. He was the author of Sammati-tarka-prakarana and is said to have written the Nyāyāvatāra, Sanmati sutra, shrotri, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1376-6
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Digambara
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Digambara is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being Śvētāmbara. The word Digambara is a combination of two words, dig and ambara, referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space, Digambara monks do not wear any clothes. The monks carry picchi, a made up of fallen peacock feathers, kamandalu. One of the most important scholar-monks of Digambara tradition was Kundakunda and he authored Prakrit texts such as the Samayasāra and the Pravacanasāra. Other prominent Acharyas of this tradition were, Virasena, Samantabhadra, the Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda have major significance in the Digambara tradition. The word Digambara is a combination of two Sanskrit words, dik and ambara, referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to be parigraha, a Digambara monk has 28 mūla guņas. These are, five mahāvratas, five samitis, pañcendriya nirodha, Şadāvaśyakas, the monks carry picchi, a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects without causing them injury, Kamandalu and shastra. The head of all monastics is called Āchārya, while the saintly preceptor of saints is the upādhyāya, the Āchārya has 36 primary attributes in addition to the 28 mentioned above. The monks perform kayotsarga daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as aryikas. According to Digambara texts, after liberation of the Lord Mahavira, during the next hundred years, five Āchāryas had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called Śruta Kevalīs, the last of them being Āchārya Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of orders is known as Pattavali. Relics found from Harrapan excavations like seals depicting Kayotsarga posture, idols in Padmasana, the presence of gymnosophists in Greek records as early as the fourth century BC, supports the claim of the Digambaras that they have preserved the ancient Śramaṇa practice. The Digambara Jains worship completely nude idols of tirthankaras and siddha, the tirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the Kayotsarga posture. The truly sky-clad Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of the one who has stripped off every bond and his is an absolute abiding in itself, a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction. The Digambara sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the texts accepted by the other major sect, according to the Digambaras, Āchārya Dharasena guided two Āchāryas, Pushpadanta and Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in written form,683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama on palm leaves which is considered to be among the oldest known Digambara texts, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original Jain Agamas. Later on, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and put into words the teachings of Lord Mahavira
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Tattvartha Sutra
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Tattvartha Sutra is an ancient Jain text written by Acharya Umaswati, sometime between the 2nd- and 5th-century AD. It is the one of the Jain scripture written in the Sanskrit language, Tattvartha Sutra is also known in Jainism as the Moksha-shastra. The Tattvartha Sutra is regarded as one of the earliest, most authoritative books on Jainism, and its importance in Jainism is comparable with that of the Brahma Sutras and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in Hinduism. It is a text in sutra or aphorisms, and presents the complete Jainism philosophy in 350 sutras over 10 chapters, the term Tattvartha is composed of the Sanskrit words tattva which means reality, truth and artha which means nature, meaning, together meaning nature of reality. One of its sutra, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism and its meaning is interpreted as of souls is to help one another, or Souls render service to one another. Tattvartha Sutra is also known in Jainism as the Moksha-shastra, the first verse of Tattvārthsūtra, सम्यग्दर्शनज्ञानचारित्राणि मोक्षमार्ग, summarizes the Jaina path to liberation. It means that the Ratnatraya collectively constitutes the path to liberation or moksha, the next three chapters deal with the Jīva, lower worlds, naraka, and celestial abodes, deva. The fifth chapter discusses the Non-soul, the next three chapters deal with the karmas and their manifestations and the influx, asrava, good and bad karma, shubha-ashubha karma and the bondage of the karmas. The ninth chapter describes the blocking, samvara and shedding of the karmas, the final chapter discusses moksha or the liberation of the soul. The theology in Tattvartha Sutra presents seven categories of truth in sutra 1 and he adds that knowledge is also acquired through literature, clairvoyance, and omniscience. In chapter 2, Umaswati presents sutras on soul, in chapter 3 through 6, Umaswati presents sutras for his first three categories of truth. In chapter 7, Umaswati presents the Jaina vows and explains their value in stopping karmic particle inflow to the soul, the vows, translates Nathmal Tatia, are ahimsa, anirta, asteya, brahmacharya, and aparigraha. Umaswati, in chapter 8 of Tattvartha Sutra presents his sutras on how karma affects rebirths. He asserts that accumulated karma in life determine the length of life and realm of rebirth for each soul in each of four states – infernal beings, plants and animals, human beings and as gods. Further, states Umaswati, karma also affects the body, the shape, the accumulated and new karma are material particles, states Umaswati, which stick to the soul and these travel with the soul from one life to the next as bondage, where each ripens. Once ripened, the particles fall off, states Umaswati. The chapter 9 of Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati describe how karmic particles can be stopped from attaching to the soul and he asserts that gupti, dharma, contemplation, endurance in hardship, and with good character towards others, a soul stops karmic accumulations. The state of liberation is presented in Chapter 10 by Umaswati and it is achieved when deluding and obstructive karmas have been destroyed
26.
Dravyasamgraha
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Dravyasaṃgraha is a 10th-century Jain text in Jain Sauraseni Prakrit by Acharya Nemicandra belonging to the Digambara Jain tradition. It is a composition of 58 gathas giving an exposition of the six dravyas that characterize the Jain view of the world, sentient, non-sentient, principle of motion, principle of rest, space and it is one of the most important Jain works and has gained widespread popularity. Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness as well as brevity, 10th century Jain Acarya, Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravartin is regarded as the author of Dravyasaṃgraha. He was the teacher of Camundaraya—the general of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka, Nemicandra was a prolific author and a specialist in summarizing and giving lucidly the essence of teachings in various fields, saṃgrahas and sāras were his specialty. He also wrote Trilokasāra, Labdhisāra, Kṣapaṇasāra, and Gommaṭasāra, although not much is known about him from his own works, at the end of the Trilokasāra and of the Gommaṭasāra, he introduces himself as a pupil of Abhayanandi, Vīranandi, Indranandi and Kanakanandi. He is said to have inspired Camundaraya to build the famous Bāhubali statue at Shravanabelagola, vahuvali Charitra notes that Nemicandra belonged to the monastic order of Desiya gana. After establishing the statue of Bāhubali, Camundaraya offered villages yielding a revenue of 96,000 gold coins to Nemicandra for daily worship of, Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness and brevity. According to Nalini Balbir, the Dravyasaṃgraha is largely a work of definitions of concepts with mnemonic perspective, in its 58 verses, the author makes skillful use of āryā metre. Nemicandra’s presentation is often articulated around the opposition between the conventional and the points of view, or around the contrast between the material and the spiritual angles. In tine opening verse, along with the usual mangalacharana, it is mentioned that dravya consists of jiva and ajiva. In the second verse Jiva is defined, The sentient substance is characterized by the function of understanding, is incorporeal and it is the enjoyer, located in the world of rebirth emancipated has the intrinsic movement upwards. The various characteristics of Jiva mentioned in the definition are taken up one by one in verses 3–14, Dravyasaṃgraha classifies the embodied souls on the basis of the number of senses possessed by it, from one to five senses. After this detailed description of Jivas the author proceeds to describe Ajivas—Pudgala, Dharma, adharma, Akasa and Kala, among these, as per verse 23, the Jiva, pudgala, dharma, adharma, and akasa are called astikayas, the extensibles or conglomerates. The second part deals with the seven tattvas, jīva, ajīva, āsrava, bandha, saṃvara, nirjarā, together with puṇya and pāpa they form nine padartha. Some call all nine as navatattava or nine tattvas, the third part of Dravyasaṃgraha begins with verse 39 describing the means to attain liberation from conventional and real point of views. Do not act, do not talk, do not think at all, verses 49 to 54 of the Dravyasaṃgraha, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings and their characteristics. One of the most popular commentaries of Dravyasaṃgraha is that by Brahmadeva from around the 14th century, ramacandra – Commentary on Nemicandras Dravyasamgraha. Jain Agamas Jainism List of Jain texts Jain, Vijay K. Ācārya Nemichandras Dravyasaṃgraha, ISBN9788190363952, Non-copyright Acarya Nemicandra, Brahmadeva, Ghoshal, Sarat Chandra, ed
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History of Jainism
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Jainism is an ancient religion of India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara, the last two tirthankara, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira are historical figures. There is limited evidence for the 22nd tirthankara Neminatha who was the cousin of Krishna. Jainism is a philosophy of eternity and Jains consider their religion to be eternal, according to Heinrich Zimmer, Jainism can be traced back as far as third or fourth millennium BC, due to the discovery of a series of great late Stone Age cities in the Indus Valley. Of the two sects of Jainism, the Digambara sect is the oldest, and the Śvētāmbara sect was formed in the 3rd century BC as a separate division from the Digambara sect. They were later subdivided into several sub-sects, Jainism faced a period of decline in medieval India till 19th century due to attacks from Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam, after which it was revived by various Jain saints. The origins of Jainism are obscure, the Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present time-cycle. Different scholars have had different views on the origin, the archeological evidence does not support traditional Jain view of antiquity. According to Glasenapp, the first century after the year 1000 BCE would be the limit to the origin of Jainism. Regarding the antiquity of Jainism, Dr. C, in the first volume of The Cultural Heritage of India, The Jains claim a great antiquity for their religion. Their earliest tirthankar of present cycle was Rishabhdeva, who is mentioned even in the Vishnu, in the earliest Brahmanic literature are found traces of the existence of a religious Order. Similar to Buddhism, the concept of earlier teachers existed as early as the 3rd century, the number gradually increased to seven and then to twenty four. By the first or second century CE, the tradition of 24 Tirthankaras was well established, in Buddhist sources, Mahavira is not mentioned as a founder of new tradition so he mught have been reformer of tradition already established by his predecessor Parsvanatha. During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism, Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of present cosmic age. Though, Mahavira is sometimes regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who. There is reasonable evidence that the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha. Neminatha was the predecessor of Parshvanatha,84,000 years earlier, in 1890–91, Kankali Tila at Mathura was excavated by Dr. Fuhrer. After studying the findings of excavation, Dr. Fuhrer was of the view that Neminatha was a historical figure
28.
Jain flag
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The flag of Jainism has five colours, orange or red, yellow, white, green and black or dark blue. These five colours represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and it also represents the five main vows, small as well as great. It also denotes peace or ahimsa, red - represents the siddha, souls that have attained salvation and truth. Yellow - represents the acharya the Masters of Adepts, the colour also stands for non-stealing. Green - represents the upadhyaya, those who teach scriptures to monks, dark blue or black - represents the sadhus and sadhvis or monks and nuns. It is also believed that the complexion of all the 24 Tirthankaras was of one of these 5 colours, the swastika in the centre of the flag represents the four states of existence of soul. The purpose of soul is to itself from these four stages. The curve above the three dots denotes Siddhashila, a place in the highest realms of Universe, composed of pure energy and it is above hell, earth, or heaven. It is the place where souls that have attained salvation, for instance, Arihants, respect for Jain Flag is respect for Pañca-Parameṣṭhi. According to Jainism, respect for Pañca-Parameṣṭhi abiding the Ratnatraya destroys the sorrow of the four states of existence and finally guides one to the sweet home of infinite bliss
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Jain symbols
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Jain symbols are symbols based on the Jain philosophy. The swastika is an important Jain symbol and this perfect state of liberation is symbolized by the crescent and dot at the top of the svastika. It also represents the four columns of the Jain Sangha, sadhus, sadhvis, sravakas and shravikas - monks, nuns and it also represents the four characteristics of the soul, infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite happiness, and infinite energy. The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism, the word in the middle is ahiṃsā. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra through the pursuit of Ahimsa. Since then, this emblem is used in almost all of Jain magazines, on wedding cards, on Jain festival cards, the Jain emblem is composed of many fundamental concepts and symbols. The outline of the image represents the universe as described in Jain Agamas, the upper portion indicates heaven, the middle portion indicates the material world and the lower portion indicates hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes siddhashila, which is a zone beyond the three realms, All of the siddhas or liberated bodiless souls reside on this forever, liberated from the cycle of life and death. The three dots on the top under the semi-circle symbolize the Ratnatraya – right belief, right knowledge, every creature in this world can become free from the cycle of life and death. This gives the message that it is necessary to have the Ratnatraya in order to attain moksha, in the top portion, the swastika symbol is present. The symbol of hand in the lower portion shows fearlessness and symbolizes the feeling of ahimsa towards all the creatures in this world. The circle in the middle of the hand symbolizes saṃsāra and the 24 spokes represent the preachings from the 24 Tirthankaras, the meaning of the mantra at the bottom, Parasparopagraho Jivanam, is All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence. In short, the Jain emblem represents many important concepts to show the path to enlightenment by following the principles of ahimsa. It is important that an emblem or symbol is used consistently in the format to preserve its value. There are many variations of the symbol in use currently, however, they do not show all the fundamental concepts embedded in the current emblem. For example, JAINA in North America uses a version of the standard Jain symbol. It replaces the swastika with Om because the swastika is associated with Nazi Germany there, the Om symbol is also used in ancient Jain scriptures to represent the five lines of the Navakar mantra, which is the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion. The Navakar mantra honors the panch parmeshtis, the Ashtamangala are a set of eight auspicious symbols
30.
Parasparopagraho Jivanam
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Parasparopagraho Jīvānām is a Jain aphorism from the Tattvārtha Sūtra. It is translated as Souls render service to one another and it is also translated as, All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence. The aphorism Parasparopagraho Jīvānām has been accepted as the motto of Jainism and it stresses the philosophy of non-violence and ecological harmony on which the Jain ethics and doctrine—especially the doctrines of Ahimsa and Anekantavada—are based. This motto is inscribed in Devanagari script at the base of the symbol of Jainism which was adopted by all sects of Jainism while commemorating the 2500th anniversary of nirvana of Mahavira. Jain cosmology recognizes the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual dependence and it is relevant to recall that the term ecology’ was coined in the latter half of the nineteenth century from the Greek word oikos, meaning home’, a place to which one returns. Ecology is the branch of biology deals with the relations of organisms to their surroundings. The ancient Jain scriptural aphorism Parasparopagraho Jīvānām is refreshingly contemporary in its premise and it defines the scope of modern ecology while extending it further to a more spacious ‘home’. It means that all aspects of nature belong together and are bound in a physical as well as a metaphysical relationship, life is viewed as a gift of togetherness, accommodation and assistance in a universe teeming with interdependent constituents
31.
Jain schools and branches
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Jainism is an Indian religion which is traditionally believed to be propagated by twenty-four spiritual teachers known as tirthankara. Broadly, Jainism is divided into two sects, Digambara and Svetambara. These are further divided into different sub-sects and traditions, while there are differences in practices, the core philosophy and main principles of each sect is same. Traditionally, the doctrine of Jainism was contained in scriptures called Purva. These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara, there was a twelve-year famine around fourth century BCE. At that time, Chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha, Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, another Jain leader remained behind. During this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost, a council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in 12th Anga, Ditthivaya by the adherents of Sthulbhadra. When followers of Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of the Angas, also, those who stayed at Magadha started wearing white clothes which was unacceptable to the other who remain naked. This is how the Digambara and Svetambara sect came about, the Digambara being the naked ones where as Svetambara being the white clothed. According to Digambara, the purvas and the angas were lost, in course of time, the cannons of svetambara were also getting lost. About 980 to 993 years after the death of Mahavira, a Vallabhi council was held at Vallabhi and this was headed by Devardhi Ksamashramana. It was found that the 12th Anga, the Ditthivaya, was lost too, the other Angas were written down. This is an account of schism. According to Svetambara, there were eight schisms, according to Digambara tradition, Gandhara knew fourteen Purva and eleven Anga. Knowledge of Purva was lost around 436 years after Mahavira and Anga were lost around 683 years after Mahavira, the texts which do not belong to Anga are called Angabahyas. The first four Anga bahayas, Samayika, Chaturvimasvika, Vandana and Pratikramana corresponds to sections of second Mulasutra of svetambara, the only texts of anga bahyas which occurs in svetambara texts are Dasavaikalika, Uttaradhyayana and Kalpavyavahara. Digambara is one of the two sects of Jainism. This sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain Agama compiled by Sthulabhadra and they believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after Gandhar Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga was there
32.
Timeline of Jainism
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Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes ahimsa towards all living beings to the most possible extent, the three main teachings of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada, aparigraha. Followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya, monks follow them completely whereas śrāvakas observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism,584, 979–574,979 BCE, Naminatha, 21st Tirthankara Neminatha, 22nd Tirthankara, According to Jain beliefs, he lived 84,650 years before the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha. He existed in the Mahabharata era and was the brother of Krishna. 877–777 BCE, Parshva, 23rd Tirthankar of Jainism and he is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. 599–527 BCE, Mahavira, 24th and last Tirthankar of this era, 5th century BCE, Siddhasen Diwakar d.507 BCE, Ganahar Sudharma Swami d.357 BCE, Acharya Bhadrabahu d.162 BCE, Hathigumpha inscription mentions the Navkar Mantra and Jain monarch Kharvela. The Tirumalai complex in Tamil Nadu is established, 10th century Ancient Jain temple of Gurjiwada, Cudnem, Bicholim, Goa was constructed. 17th century 1664, Digambar Terapanth 1658, Digambara Jain Lal Mandir temple in Delhi built, carving work began in 1966 under the sculptor Rejala Gopalkrishna Shenoy of Karkala. 1976, In Arya Samaj Education Trust, Delhi & Others v,2006, the Supreme Court opined that Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu religion 2008, Delhi city government declares Jain community as a minority as per the Supreme Court Orders. 2014, Jain community is notified as minority at national level, Buddhism and Jainism History of Jainism Jain philosophy Shramana Timeline of Buddhism Kerkar, Rajendra, TNN, Jain heritage dwindles as govt sits pretty, The Times of India Bedrij, Orest. The Greatest Achievement, Miracle after Miracle the Easy Way, exodus III, Great Joy and Glory to the Most High as You. Framing the Jina, Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, shah, Natubhai, Jainism, The World of Conquerors,1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1938-2 Sangave, Dr. Vilas Adinath. Facets of Jainology, Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture
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