1.
Russian Partition
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The Russian Partition constituted the former territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that were invaded by the Russian Empire in the course of late-18th-century Partitions of Poland. The Russian acquisition encompassed the largest share of Polands population, living on 463,200 km2 of land constituting formerly east-central territory of a sovereign country. The first partitioning led by imperial Russia took place in 1772, the one in 1793. To both Russians and Poles, the term Russian Poland was not acceptable, to the Russians after partition Poland ceased to exist, and their newly acquired territories were considered the long lost parts of Mother Russia. To Poles, Poland was simply Polish, never Russian, while the Russians used varying administrative names for their new territories, another popular term, used in Poland and adopted by most other historiographies, was the Russian Partition. Even before the partitions from the late 18th century, the Russian Empire had already acquired some territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The first Russian partition took place in the late 17th century, under the Third Partition of Poland Russia acquired Courland, all Lithuanian territory east of the Nieman River, and the remaining parts of Volhynian Ukraine. Major historical events of the Russian Partition included the Warsaw Uprising soon after Kościuszkos victory at Racławice. It ended up in the massacre of Praga district of Warsaw, in which the Russian imperial army killed up to 20,000 civilians in reprisal or revenge, regardless of gender and age. The whole of Praga was strewn with bodies, blood was flowing in streams wrote Suvorov himself. In 1807, the victorious Napoleon formed the Duchy of Warsaw after his War of the Fourth Coalition against Prussia and Russia, the new Duchy was held in personal union by King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. However, the Duchy was dissolved after just a few years following the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Tsarist Kingdom of Poland was established in the territory returned to Russia with the Tsar taking the title of King of Poland. The protectorate was gradually integrated into Russia over the course of the 19th century, notwithstanding, the relentless Russian exploitation activities led to the 1830–1831 November Uprising which took place in the heartland of partitioned Poland, forming a government. Its subsequent defeat resulted in a new wave of Tsarist mass repressions, in 1863–1864 another insurrection, the January Uprising, broke out. This time, the Carmelite friars who helped the insurgents were sent on death marches to Siberia chained by their necks together, the January Uprising lead to the Kingdoms autonomy being drastically reduced, and its renaming as Vistula Land. There is debate as to whether the Kingdom of Poland, as a state, was replaced by the Vistula Land. Towns were stripped of their charters in reprisal, and turned into villages, the Russian Partition of Poland was made an official province of the Russian Empire in 1867. In early 20th century, a part of the Russian Revolution of 1905 was the Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland
2.
Austrian Partition
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The Austrian Partition comprise the former territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired by the Habsburg Monarchy during the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. The three partitions were conducted jointly by the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria, Austria acquired Polish lands during the First Partition of 1772, and Third Partition of Poland in 1795. In the Third Partition, the lands included Western Galicia. However, the fall of Napoleon, leading to abolition of the Duchy at the Congress of Vienna allowed Austria to regain control, the Congress created the Free City of Kraków protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia, which lasted for a decade. It was abolished by Austria, after the crushing of Kraków Uprising in 1846, the formation of the Polish Legions by Piłsudski initially to fight alongside the Austro-Hungarian Army, helped Poland regain its sovereignty in aftermath of World War I. However, by the early 20th century – just before the outbreak of World War I, Austria-Hungary also de facto encouraged Ukrainian organizations as a divide and rule-tactic. This led to accusations by Poles that Austria-Hungary had invented Ukrainians, Ukrainians maintained schools and newspapers in the Ukrainian language. After 1848 Ukrainians also moved into Austrian politics with their own political parties, Austria-Hungary gave Ukrainians more rights than Ukrainians living in the Russian Empire. Decades after it had ceased to exist its former Ukrainian citizens had positive emotions about Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, economically, Galicia was rather backward, and universally regarded as the poorest of the three partitions. There was much corruption during the elections, and the region was seen by the Viennese government as the low priority for investment and development and it was a vast, but constantly struggling region with inefficient agriculture and little industry. In 1900, 60% of the village population couldnt read or write, education was obligatory till the age of 12, but this requirement was often ignored. Between the years 1850 and 1914 it is estimated that about 1 million people from Galicia emigrated to United States, poverty in Austrian Galicia to this day has survived in Polish language as an expression of hopelessness. The Austrian Empire divided the territories of the Commonwealth it obtained into. West Galicia – from 1795 to 1809 Free City of Kraków – from 1815 to 1846 Two important, in the first partition, Austria received the largest share of the formerly Polish population, and the second largest land share. Austria did not participate in the partition, and in the third. Overall, Austria gained about 18 percent of the former Commonwealth territory, from the geographical perspective, much of the Austrian partition corresponded to the Galicia region. History of Poland Norman Davies, Gods Playground, p. 102-119, GALICIA, The Austrian Partition
3.
Prussian Partition
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The Prussian Partition refers to the former territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired during the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century by the Kingdom of Prussia. The Prussian acquisition amounted to 141,400 km2 of land constituting formerly western territory of the Commonwealth. The first partitioning led by imperial Russia with Prussian participation took place in 1772, the one in 1793. The Kingdom of Prussia acquired Polish territories in all three military partitions, in 1793, the Kingdom of Prussia annexed Gdańsk and Toruń, part of the Crown of Poland since 1457. The incursion sparked the first Greater Poland Uprising in Kujawy under Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, the revolt ended after General Tadeusz Kościuszko was captured by the Russians. The subsequent third partitioning of 1795 marked the Prussian annexation of Podlasie region, with the remainder of Masovia, and the capital city of Warsaw. The second Greater Poland Uprising against Prussian forces broke out in Wielkopolska in 1806, however, the fall of Napoleon during his Russian Campaign lead to the dismantling of the Duchy at the Congress of Vienna and the return of Prussian control. The third Greater Poland Uprising under Ludwik Mierosławski occurred in 1846, the Uprising was designed to be part of a general uprising against all three states that had partitioned Poland. Some 254 insurgents were charged with treason in Berlin. Two years later, during the Spring of Nations, the fourth Polish uprising broke out in and around Poznań in 1846, the Prussian army pacified the area and 1,500 Poles were imprisoned in Poznań Citadel. The Uprising showed to Polish insurgents that there was no possibility whatsoever to try to negotiate Polish statehood with the Germans, only sixty years later, the Greater Poland Uprising in the Prussian Partition helped Poland regain its freedom in the aftermath of World War I. Poles in the Prussian partition were subject to extensive Germanization policies, frederick the Great brought 300,000 colonists to territories he conquered to facilitate Germanization. From the economic perspective, the territories of the Prussian Partition were the most developed, the German government supported efficient farming, industry, financial institutions and transport. In the First Partition, Prussia received 36,000 km², in the second partition, Prussia received 58,000 km² and about 1 million people. In the third, similar to the second, Prussia gained 55,000 km² and 1 million people, overall, Prussia gained about 20 percent of the former Commonwealth territory and about 23 percent of the population. From the geographical perspective, most of the territories annexed by Prussia formed the province of Greater Poland, PREUSSEN, The Prussian Partition in Google books preview
4.
Partition (politics)
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In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one territory considered a homeland by some community. Partition, multiple times, of the Roman Empire into the Eastern Roman Empire, in the 1757 Second Treaty of Versailles, France agreed upon the partition of Prussia Partition of the United States during the American Civil War. Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth in the 18th century
5.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
6.
Lithuania
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Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in Northern Europe. One of the three Baltic states, it is situated along the shore of the Baltic Sea, to the east of Sweden. It is bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, Lithuania has an estimated population of 2.9 million people as of 2015, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The official language, Lithuanian, along with Latvian, is one of two living languages in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family. For centuries, the shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, the King of Lithuania, and the first unified Lithuanian state, with the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772–95, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuanias territory. As World War I neared its end, Lithuanias Act of Independence was signed on 16 February 1918, in the midst of the Second World War, Lithuania was first occupied by the Soviet Union and then by Nazi Germany. As World War II neared its end and the Germans retreated, Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, a full member of the Eurozone, Schengen Agreement and NATO. It is also a member of the Nordic Investment Bank, the United Nations Human Development Index lists Lithuania as a very high human development country. Lithuania has been among the fastest growing economies in the European Union and is ranked 21st in the world in the Ease of Doing Business Index, the first people settled in the territory of Lithuania after the last glacial period in the 10th millennium BC. Over a millennium, the Indo-Europeans, who arrived in the 3rd – 2nd millennium BC, mixed with the local population, the first written mention of Lithuania is found in a medieval German manuscript, the Annals of Quedlinburg, in an entry dated 9 March 1009. Initially inhabited by fragmented Baltic tribes, in the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, after his assassination in 1263, pagan Lithuania was a target of the Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. Despite the devastating century-long struggle with the Orders, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded rapidly, by the end of the 14th century, Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and included present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia. The geopolitical situation between the west and the east determined the multicultural and multi-confessional character of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the ruling elite practised religious tolerance and Chancery Slavonic language was used as an auxiliary language to the Latin for official documents. In 1385, the Grand Duke Jogaila accepted Polands offer to become its king, Jogaila embarked on gradual Christianization of Lithuania and established a personal union between Poland and Lithuania. It implied that Lithuania, the fiercely independent land, was one of the last pagan areas of Europe to adopt Christianity, after two civil wars, Vytautas the Great became the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1392. During his reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its expansion, centralization of the state began
7.
Habsburg Monarchy
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The Monarchy was a composite state composed of territories within and outside the Holy Roman Empire, united only in the person of the monarch. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, from 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The two entities were never coterminous, as the Habsburg Monarchy covered many lands beyond the Holy Roman Empire, the monarchy had no official name. The entity had no official name, Austrian Empire, This was the official name. Note that the German version is Kaisertum Österreich, i. e. the English translation empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, Austria-Hungary, This was the official name. An unofficial popular name was the Danubian Monarchy also often used was the term Doppel-Monarchie meaning two states under one crowned ruler, Crownlands or crown lands, This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire, and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy Stephens Crown, the Bohemian Lands were called Lands of the St. Wenceslaus Crown. Burgenland came to Austria in 1921 from Hungary, Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars. Vienna, Austrias capital became a state January 1,1922, after being residence, Upper and Lower Austria, historically, were split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns. Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel, formerly part of Bavaria. Hereditary Lands or German Hereditary Lands or Austrian Hereditary Lands, In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg Austrian territories, i. e. basically the Austrian lands, in a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included in the Hereditary lands. The term was replaced by the term Crownlands in the 1849 March Constitution, within the Habsburg Monarchy, each province was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. An even greater attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary, in particular, ceased to exist as a separate entity, in this system, the Kingdom of Hungary was given sovereignty and a parliament, with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed, it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy, instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I, to these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria, and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen
8.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
9.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
10.
First Partition of Poland
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The First Partition of Poland took place in 1772 as the first of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795. Growth in the Russian Empires power, threatening the Kingdom of Prussia, Frederick the Great engineered the partition to prevent Austria, jealous of Russian successes against the Ottoman Empire, from going to war. At that point Habsburg Austria started considering waging war against Russia and he was also interested in protecting the weakening Ottoman Empire, which could be advantageously utilized in the event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria. Fredericks brother, Prince Henry, spent the winter of 1770–71 as a representative of the Prussian court at Saint Petersburg, thus Frederick attempted to encourage Russia to direct its expansion towards weak and non-functional Poland instead of the Ottomans. Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz counter-proposed that Prussia take lands from Poland in return for relinquishing Silesia to Austria, the recent Koliyivschyna peasant and Cossack uprising in Ukraine also weakened the Polish position. Under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex the northern Polish province of Royal Prussia, the Russians also withdrew from Moldavia away from the Austrian border. Already by 1769—71, both Austria and Prussia had taken over some territories of the Commonwealth, with Austria taking Szepes County in 1769–1770 and Prussia incorporating Lauenburg. On February 19,1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna, a previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in Saint Petersburg on February 6,1772. Early in August, Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth, on August 5, the three parties signed the treaty on their respective territorial gains at the commonwealths expense. The regiments of the Bar Confederation, whose executive board had forced to leave Austria after Austria joined the Prusso-Russian alliance. In the end, the Bar Confederation was defeated, with its members either fleeing abroad or being deported to Siberia by the Russians, the partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22,1772. It was a success for Frederick II of Prussia, Prussias share might have been the smallest. Prussia took most of Polish Royal Prussia, including Ermland, allowing Frederick to link East Prussia, Prussia also annexed northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River, and northern Kuyavia, but not the cities of Danzig and Thorn. The territories annexed by Prussia became a new province in 1773 called West Prussia, overall, Prussia gained 36,000 km2 and about 600,000 people. According to Jerzy Surdykowski Frederick the Great soon introduced German colonists in territories he conquered and engaged in Germanization of Polish territories. Frederick II settled 26,000 Germans in Polish Pomerania which influenced the ethnic situation in the region that at the time had around 300,000 inhabitants, and enforced Germanization. According to Christopher Clark in certain areas annexed by Prussia like Notec, the new-gained territories connected Prussia with Germany proper, and were of major economic importance. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly cut off Poland from the sea, through levying enormous custom duties, Prussia accelerated the inevitable collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian state
11.
Second Partition of Poland
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The 1793 Second Partition of Poland was the second of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795. The division was ratified by the coerced Polish parliament in 1793 in a attempt to prevent the inevitable complete annexation of Poland. By 1790, on the front, the Commonwealth had deteriorated into such a helpless condition that it was forced into an unnatural and ultimately deadly alliance with its enemy. The Polish-Prussian Pact of 1790 was signed, giving hope that the Commonwealth might have at last found an ally that would shield it while it reformed itself. The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of Repnin Sejm and those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours, wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792, the conservative nobility believed that the Russians would help them restore their Golden Liberty. The King decided to join the Targowica Confederation, as demanded by the Russians, Russia invaded Poland to ensure the defeat of the Polish reforms, with no overt goal of another partition. Frederick William II of Prussia, however, saw those events as an opportunity to strengthen his country, frederick demanded from Catherine that for his countrys abandoning Poland as a close ally, and for Prussian participation in the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France. Russia soon decided to accept the Prussian offer, on 23 January 1793, Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory. Russian and Prussian military took control of the territories they claimed soon afterward, with Russian troops already present, in 1793, deputies to the Grodno Sejm, the last Sejm of the Commonwealth, in the presence of Russian forces, agreed to the Russian and Prussian territorial demands. The Grodno Sejm became infamous not only as the last sejm of the Commonwealth, Russia took 250,000 square kilometres, while Prussia took 58,000 square kilometres. The Commonwealth lost about 307000 km², being reduced to 215000 km² and this was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 22 July. Russia reorganized its newly acquired territories into Minsk Viceroyalty and Izyaslav Viceroyalty and this was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 23 September or 25 September. Prussia organized its newly acquired territories into South Prussia, the Commonwealth lost about 5 million people, only about 4 million people remained in the Polish–Lithuanian lands. What was left of the Commonwealth was a buffer state with a puppet king. Targowica confederates, who did not expect another partition, and the king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, the reformers, on the other hand, were attracting increasing support. In March 1794 the Kościuszko Uprising began
12.
Third Partition of Poland
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Accordingly, the partitioning powers agreed to permanently erase Polands name from existence, including from their respective encyclopaedias. In addition, to strengthen Polands international standings, King Stanislaus signed the Polish-Prussian Pact of 1790, angered by what was seen as dangerous, Jacobin-style reforms, Russia invaded Poland in 1792, beginning the War in Defense of the Constitution. Catherine II and Frederick William II were quick to respond and, despite initial successes by Kosciuszko’s forces, the uprising was crushed by November 1794. According to legend, when Kosciuszko fell off of his horse at the Battle of Maciejowice, shortly before he was captured, he said Finis Poloniae, meaning this is the end of Poland. Following the end of the Kosciuszko rebellion, Austria, Prussia, the partition coalition forced King Stanislaus to abdicate and he retired to St. Petersburg as Catherine IIs trophy prisoner, where he died in 1798. The high contracting parties are agreed and undertake never to include in their titles, the name or designation of the Kingdom of Poland, which shall remain suppressed as from the present and forever. The Third Partition of Poland ended the existence of an independent Polish state for the next 123 years and these Polish nationalists participated in uprisings against Austria, Prussia, and Russia in former Polish lands, and many would serve France as part of Napoleons armies. In addition, Polish poets and artists would make the desire for national freedom a defining characteristic of the Polish Romanticist movement, Poland briefly regained semi-autonomy in 1807 when Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw, but this effectively ended with the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Congress created a Kingdom of Poland, sometimes called Congress Poland, even this, however, came to an end after a Polish insurrection in 1831, at which point Russia dissolved the Congress Kingdom and exacted multiple punitive measures on the Polish populace. Russia then made Poland an official part of the Russian Empire, Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the course of partitions Administrative division of Polish territories after partitions Davies, Norman. Gods Playground, A History of Poland, revised Edition ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press,2005. The Slavonic Review Mar.1925, 481–498, steed, Henry Wickham, W. Alison Phillips, and David Hannay. A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland, Partitions of Poland – Britannica Online Encyclopedia. The Period of Partitions – resources Encyclopedia Britannica, Poland Europaworld Online, Poland The Partitions of Poland
13.
Annexation
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Annexation is the political transition of land from the control of one entity to another. It is also the incorporation of unclaimed land into a states sovereignty, in international law it is the forcible transition of one states territory by another state or the legal process by which a city acquires land. Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being annexed is the smaller, more peripheral and it can also imply a certain measure of coercion, expansionism or unilateralism on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. Because of this, more positive euphemisms like political union/unification or reunification are sometimes seen in discourse, during World War II, the use of annexation deprived whole populations of the safeguards provided by international laws governing military occupations. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 amplified the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 with respect to the question of the protection of civilians, the team cemented in a brass plaque on Halls Ledge and hoisted the Union Flag to stake the UKs claim. One example of a claimed annexation after World War II is the Kingdom of Norways southward expansion of the dependent territory Queen Maud Land. On most maps there had been an area between Queen Maud Lands borders of 1939 and the South Pole until June 12,2015 when Norway formally claimed to have annexed that area. The Antarctic Treaty, however, states, The treaty does not recognize, dispute, nor establish territorial sovereignty claims, within countries that are subdivided noncontiguously, annexation can also take place whereby a lower-tier subdivision can annex territory under the jurisdiction of a higher-tier subdivision. An example of this is in the United States, where incorporated cities, municipalities can also annex or be annexed by other municipalities, though this is less common in the United States. Laws governing the ability and the extent cities can expand in this fashion are defined by the individual states constitutions, annexation of neighbouring communities occurs in Canada. Irredentism List of national border changes since World War I Texas annexation Adam Roberts, transformative military occupation, applying the laws of war and human rights,100 The American Journal of International Law
14.
Congress of Vienna
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The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other off, the leaders were conservatives with little use for republicanism or revolution, both of which threatened to upset the status quo in Europe. France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains, Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania and 60% of the Kingdom of Saxony, Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. The new Kingdom of the Netherlands had been created just months before, the immediate background was Napoleonic Frances defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to twenty-five years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleons dramatic return from exile, the Congresss Final Act was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. However, others praise it for having created relatively long-term stable, the Congress of Vienna settlement, despite later changes, formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had made already. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance which formed the balance of power for decades, other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel which covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a general congress should be held in Vienna, the opening was scheduled for July 1814. The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition, as the Congresss sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed. Great Britain was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh, then by the Duke of Wellington, in the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days. Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was led by the foreign minister. The tsar had two goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance, based on monarchism and anti-secularism, Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes, France, the fifth power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris for Louis XVIII of France, Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister. King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna, the Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron Hans von Gagern Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role, mecklenburg-Schwerin – Leopold von Plessen Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress
15.
Catherine the Great
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Catherine II of Russia, also known as Catherine the Great, was a Russian monarch. She was the female leader of Russia, reigning from 1762 until her death in 1796 at the age of 67. She came to following a coup détat when her husband. Russia was revitalised under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever, in both her accession to power and in rule of her empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin. In the west, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled by Catherines former lover, king Stanisław August Poniatowski, was eventually partitioned, in the east, Russia started to colonise Alaska, establishing Russian America. Catherine reformed the administration of Russian guberniyas, and many new cities, an admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the continued to depend on serfdom. This was one of the reasons behind several rebellions, including the large-scale Pugachevs Rebellion of cossacks. The period of Catherine the Greats rule, the Catherinian Era, is considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire. The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the Empress and she enthusiastically supported the ideals of The Enlightenment, thus earning the status of an enlightened despot. Catherine was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia as Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, she was nicknamed Figchen. Her father, Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, belonged to the ruling German family of Anhalt, two of her first cousins became Kings of Sweden, Gustav III and Charles XIII. In accordance with the then prevailing in the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess. She once wrote to her correspondent Baron Grimm, I see nothing of interest in it, although Catherine was born a princess, her family had very little money. Catherines rise to power was supported by her mothers relatives who were both wealthy nobles and royal relations. Catherine first met Peter III at the age of 10, based on her writings, she found Peter detestable upon meeting him. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol at such a young age, Peter also still played with toy soldiers
16.
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Joseph II was Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I and he was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine. He has been ranked, with Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia and his policies are now known as Josephinism. He died with no sons and was succeeded by his younger brother, Joseph was born in the midst of the early upheavals of the War of the Austrian Succession. His real education was given to him through the writings of Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes and he married Princess Isabella of Parma in October 1760, a union fashioned to bolster the 1756 defensive pact between France and Austria. Joseph loved his bride, Isabella, finding her both stimulating and charming, and she sought, with care to cultivate his favor. The marriage of Joseph and Isabella resulted in the birth of a daughter, Isabella was fearful of pregnancy and early death. Her own pregnancy proved difficult as she suffered symptoms of pain, illness. She remained bedridden for six weeks after their daughters birth, almost immediately on the back of their newfound parenthood, the couple then endured two consecutive miscarriages—an ordeal particularly hard on Isabella—followed quickly by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears and dread in Isabella, progressively ill with smallpox and strained by sudden childbirth and tragedy, Isabella died the following week. This marriage proved unhappy, albeit brief, as it lasted only two years. Though Maria Josepha loved her husband, she felt timid and inferior in his company, lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little for Joseph, who confessed he felt no love for her in return. He adapted by distancing himself from his wife to the point of near total avoidance, seeing her only at meals, Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable misery in finding herself locked in a cold, loveless union. Four months after the anniversary of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill. Joseph neither visited her during her illness nor attended her funeral, though he expressed regret for not having shown her better kindness. One thing the union did provide him was the possibility of laying claim to a portion of Bavaria. In 1770, at the age of seven, Josephs only surviving child, Maria Theresa, became ill with pleurisy, the loss of his daughter was deeply traumatic for him and left him profoundly grief-stricken and scarred. He was made a member of the council of state
17.
Frederick the Great
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Frederick II was King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king. Frederick was the last titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving full sovereignty for all historical Prussian lands, Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great and was affectionately nicknamed Der Alte Fritz by the Prussian, in his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning acclaim for himself. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland and he was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Considering himself the first servant of the state, Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and he modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the system and made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, some critics, however, point out his oppressive measures against conquered Polish subjects during the First Partition. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favored, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press, Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, son of his brother, historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Fredericks Heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms. Immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power, Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling. However, by the 21st century, a re-evaluation of his legacy as a great warrior, Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712. The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, with the death of his father in 1713, Frederick William became King of Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty and he had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children. However, he possessed a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his fathers militarism, in contrast, Fredericks mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Her father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect, to avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination
18.
Kalisz
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Kalisz is a city in central Poland with 103,738 inhabitants, the capital city of the Kalisz Region. Situated on the Prosna river in the part of the Greater Poland Voivodeship. See Kalisz County for the administrative area. Kalisz is an important regional industrial and commercial centre, with many notable factories, the city is also a centre for traditional folk art. The town was also the site of the former Calisia piano factory, the name Kalisz might stem from either the Celtic term cal which means stream, or the Slavic term kal, meaning swamp or marsh. Kalisz is one the oldest cities in Poland, archaeological excavations have uncovered early mediaeval settlement from the Piast dynasty period, c. Modern Kalisz was most likely founded in the 9th century as a provincial capital castellany, in 1106 Bolesław III Wrymouth captured the town and made it a part of his feudal domain. Between 1253 and 1260 the town was incorporated according to the German town law called the Środa Śląska Law, a variation of the Magdeburg Law. One of the richest towns of Greater Poland, during the fragmentation of Poland it formed a separate duchy ruled by a local branch of the Piast dynasty. After Poland was reunited, the became a notable centre of weaving and wood products. Jewish settlement of Kalisz dates back to 1139, in 1282 the city laws were confirmed by Przemysł II of Poland, and in 1314 it was made the capital of the Kalisz Voivodeship by king Władysław I the Elbow-high. Located roughly in the centre of Poland, Kalisz was a centre of trade. Because of its location, King Casimir III the Great signed a peace treaty with the Teutonic Order there in 1343. As a royal town, the city managed to defend many of its initial privileges, the Polish king Mieszko III the Old was buried in Kalisz. The economic development of the area was aided by a number of Protestant Czech Brothers. In 1792, fire destroyed much of the city centre, the following year, in the second partition of Poland, the Kingdom of Prussia absorbed the city, called Kalisch in German. In 1801, Wojciech Bogusławski set up one of the first permanent theatre troupes in Kalisz, in 1807 Kalisz became a provincial capital within the Duchy of Warsaw. After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, Kalisz became a capital of Congress Poland
19.
Liberum veto
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The liberum veto was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The rule was in place from the century to the late 18th century in the Sejms parliamentary deliberations. It was based on the premise that since all Polish noblemen were equal, piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy. In the period of 1573–1763, about 150 sejms were held, about a failing to pass any legislation. The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from the apparent paralysis, each deputy to a Sejm was elected at a sejmik and represented the entire region. He thus assumed responsibility to his sejmik for all decisions taken at the Sejm, since all noblemen were considered equal, a decision taken by a majority against the will of a minority was considered a violation of the principle of political equality. At first, the deputies were often convinced or cowed back to withdraw their objections. Also, at first, the rule was used to strike down only individual laws, not to dissolve the chamber, for example, as historian Władysław Czapliński describes in the Sejm of 1611 context, some resolutions were struck down, but others passed. From the mid-17th century onward, however, an objection to any item of Sejm legislation from a deputy or senator automatically caused other, earlier adopted legislation to be rejected and that was because all legislation that was adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole. It is commonly and erroneously, believed that a Sejm was first disrupted by the veto by a Trakai deputy, Władysław Siciński. In reality, he vetoed only the continuation of the Sejms deliberations beyond the time limit. He had, however, set up a dangerous precedent, over the proceedings of the next few sejms, the veto was still occasionally overruled, but it became gradually more accepted. Before 20 years had passed, in 1669 in Kraków, the entire Sejm was prematurely disrupted on the strength of the liberum veto before it had finished its deliberations by the Kiev deputy, Adam Olizar. The practice spiraled out of control, and in 1688, the Sejm was dissolved even before the proceedings had begun or the Marshal of the Sejm was elected, during the reign of John III Sobieski, half of Sejm proceedings were scuttled by the veto. The practice also spread from the national Sejm to local sejmik proceedings, by bribing deputies to exercise their vetoes, Polands neighbours could derail any measures not to their liking. The Commonwealth deteriorated from a European power into a state of anarchy, only a few Sejms were able to meet during the reign of the House of Saxony in Poland, the last one in 1736. Only 8 out of the 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II passed legislation, for a period of 30 years around the reign of Augustus III, only one session was able to pass legislation. The government was near collapse, giving rise to the term Polish anarchy, disruption of the Commonwealth governance caused by the liberum veto was highly significant
20.
Tsar
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Tsar /zɑːr/ or /tsɑːr/, also spelled tzar, csar, or czar, is a title used to designate certain Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, occasionally, the word could be used to designate other secular supreme rulers. Simeon II, the last Tsar of Bulgaria, is the last person to have borne the title Tsar, the title Tsar is derived from the Latin title for the Roman emperors, Caesar. In the history of the Greek language, basileus had originally meant something like potentate and it gradually approached the meaning of king in the Hellenistic Period, and it came to designate emperor after the inception in the Roman Empire. Thus, tsar was not only used as an equivalent of Latin imperator but was used to refer to Biblical rulers. From this ambiguity, the development has moved in different directions in the different Slavic languages, thus, the Bulgarian language and Russian language no longer use tsar as an equivalent of the term emperor/imperator as it exists in the West European tradition. Currently, the term refers to native sovereigns, ancient and Biblical rulers, as well as monarchs in fairy tales. The title of king is sometimes perceived as alien and is by some Russian-speakers reserved for European royalty, foreign monarchs of imperial status, both inside and outside of Europe, ancient as well as modern, are generally called imperator, rather than tsar. Biblical rulers in Serbian are called цар and in Croatian kralj, in the Polish language however tsar is always used as imperator, never as king. The term tsar is very used to refer to the Russian rulers after Peter the Great. In 705 Emperor Justinian II named Tervel of Bulgaria Caesar, the first foreigner to receive this title, the sainted Boris I is sometimes retrospectively referred to as tsar, because at his time Bulgaria was converted to Christianity. However, the tsar was actually adopted and used for the first time by his son Simeon I. Since in Byzantine political theory there was place for two emperors, Eastern and Western, the Bulgarian ruler was crowned basileus as a spiritual son of the Byzantian basileus. In Latin sources the Emperor of Bulgaria is sometimes designated Emperor of Zagora, various additional epithets and descriptions apart, the official style read Emperor and autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks. During the five-century period of Ottoman rule in Bulgaria, the sultan was referred to as tsar. This may be related to the fact that he had claimed the legacy of the Byzantine Empire or to the fact that the sultan was called Basileus in medieval Greek, after Bulgarias liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs were at first autonomous prince. With the declaration of independence, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria adopted the traditional title tsar in 1908. However, these titles were not generally perceived as equivalents of emperor any longer, in the Bulgarian as in the Greek vernacular, the meaning of the title had shifted
21.
Rzeczpospolita
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Rzeczpospolita is a traditional and official name of the Polish State – Polish, Rzeczpospolita Polska. It comes from the words, rzecz and pospolita, literally, in terms of etymology and meaning, the closest Latin phrase is res publica and the closest English term is commonwealth, but a more modern translation is republic. The term Rzeczpospolita has been used in Poland since the beginning of the 16th century, originally it was a generic term to denote a state or a commonness. The famous quote by Jan Zamoyski, the Lord Chancellor of the Crown, on the importance of education, is an example of its use, Polish, Takie będą Rzeczypospolite. Such will be the Commonwealths as the upbringing of their youth, the meaning of Rzeczpospolita is well described by the term Commonwealth. As a result, the meaning of Rzeczpospolita Polska is Polish Commonwealth. Rzeczpospolita is also used in a series of names referring to three periods in the History of Poland, I Rzeczpospolita, in reference to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period, commonwealth was ruled de facto by a class called the szlachta. It began with the Union of Lublin in 1569 and ended with the third and final Partition of Poland in 1795, II Rzeczpospolita, the renascent Polish State was initially called the Republic of Poland. This is the title of the current Polish State, dating from the collapse of the Communist regime in 1989, was often abbreviated to simply Rzeczpospolita Polska or PRL. Sometimes referenced to the post-war period 1944–1952, Czwarta Rzeczpospolita – Fourth Polish Republic, nowadays, the terms Rzeczpospolita and Rzeczpospolita Polska are used interchangeably, so far as they relate to the Polish State by default. Before 1939, Rzeczpospolita was sometimes abbreviated to Rzplita in written documents, RP is a common abbreviation for Rzeczpospolita Polska. While Lithuanian word Žečpospolita is a borrowing from Polish rzeczpospolita, Belarusian Рэч Паспалітая. All of them refer to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of Poland Name of Poland Outline of Poland Poland - History - Third Rzeczpospolita. Central European Superpower, Henryk Litwin, BUM Magazine, October 2016, Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures, Polands Heritage
22.
Treaty of the Three Black Eagles
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The Treaty of the Three Black Eagles or the Treaty of Berlin, was a secret treaty between the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire and Prussia. The three powers agreed that they would oppose another candidate from the House of Wettin, as well as the candidacy of the pro-French Pole Stanisław Leszczyński, father-in-law of Louis XV. Instead, they chose to support either Infante Manuel, Count of Ourém, brother of the Portuguese king, the Treaty of the Three Black Eagles had several goals. None of the three parties were serious about their support for the Portuguese count, in addition to the obvious - increasing the influence of the three powers over the Commonwealth - Austria and Russia also wanted to damage the possibility of a French-Prussian-Saxon alliance. Prussia received promises of support for its interests in Courland, the political situation changed rapidly, and the Treaty of the Three Black Eagles was superseded soon after it was formulated. With the death of Augustus II on 1 February 1733, Austria and Russia distanced themselves from the earlier treaty and their primary goal, disruption of the French-Saxon-Prussian alliance, had already been achieved, so they sought to secure support from various Polish and Saxon factions. Thus on 19 August 1733, Russia and Austria entered into the Löwenwoldes Treaty with Saxony in the person of the new Elector, the treaty was named after one of the chief diplomats involved in the negotiations, Russian Karl Gustav von Löwenwolde. The terms of Löwenwoldes Treaty were straightforward, Austria received a promise that as king, Frederick Augustus would renounce any claim to the Austrian succession and respect the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. Prussia allowed the French candidate, Leszczyński, safe passage across their lands, both Austria and Russia publicly declared in advance that they would not recognize Leszczyński if he were to be elected. However the election sejm in Wola went ahead and picked Leszczyński on 12 September 1733, in the Treaty of Vienna of 1738 which formally ended the war, Stanisław Leszczyński renounced his claim to the Polish throne Leszczyński was made Duke of Lorraine in compensation. The Three Black Eagles are referencing the respective coats of arms of the involved countries, dzików Confederation List of treaties Partitions of Poland
23.
Coat of arms of Poland
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The coat of arms of Poland is a white, crowned eagle with a golden beak and talons, on a red background. Legislation concerning the symbols is far from perfect. The Coat of Arms Act has been amended several times and refers extensively to executive ordinances, moreover, the Act contains errors, omissions and inconsistencies which make the law confusing, open to various interpretations and often not followed in practice. According to Chapter I, Article 28, paragraph 1 of the Constitution, the Coat of Arms Act, Article 4, further specifies that the crown, as well as the eagles beak and talons, are golden. The eagles wings are outstretched and its head is turned to its right, in English heraldic terminology, the arms are blazoned as Gules an Eagle Argent crowned, beaked and armed Or. In contrast to classic heraldry, where the same blazon may be rendered into varying designs, the official design may be found in attachment no.1 to the Coat of Arms Act. The nearly circular charge, i. e. the image of the eagle, is highly stylized. The heraldic bird is depicted with its wings and legs outstretched, its head turned to the right, the eagles plumage, as well as its tongue and leg scales are white with gradient shading suggestive of a bas-relief. Each wing is adorned with a band extending from the birds torso to the upper edge of the wing, terminating in a heraldic cinquefoil. Note that a cinquefoil is a stylized five-leafed plant, not a star, three of its leaves are embossed like a trefoil. In heraldic terms, the eagle is armed, that is to say, its beak and talons are rendered in gold, the crown on the eagles head consists of a base and three fleurons extending from it. The base is adorned with three roughly rectangular gemstones, the fleurons – of which the two outer ones are only partly visible – have the shape of a fleur-de-lis. The entire crown, including the gems, as well as spaces between the fleurons, is rendered in gold, the charge is placed in an escutcheon of the Modern French type. It is a rectangular upright isosceles trapezoid, rounded at the bottom, whose upper base is slightly longer than the lower one. Although the shield is an part of the coat of arms, Polish law stipulates, in certain cases. The shades of the tinctures, white and red, which are the national colors of Poland, are specified as coordinates in the CIE1976 color space. According to legend, the White Eagle emblem originated when Polands legendary founder Lech saw a white eagles nest. When he looked at the bird, a ray of sunshine from the red setting sun fell on its wings, so they appeared tipped with gold and he was delighted and decided to settle there and placed the eagle on his emblem
24.
Baltic Sea
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The Baltic Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, the Baltic countries, and the North European Plain. It includes the Gulf of Bothnia, the Bay of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, the sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 10°E to 30°E longitude. The Baltic Sea is connected by waterways to the White Sea via the White Sea Canal. Traffic history Historically, the Kingdom of Denmark collected Sound Dues from ships at the border between the ocean and the land-locked Baltic Sea and they were collected in the Øresund at Kronborg castle near Helsingør, in the Great Belt at Nyborg. In the Little Belt, the site of intake was moved to Fredericia, the narrowest part of Little Belt is the Middelfart Sund near Middelfart. Oceanography Geographers widely agree that the physical border of the Baltic is a line drawn through the southern Danish islands, Drogden-Sill. The Drogden Sill is situated north of Køge Bugt and connects Dragør in the south of Copenhagen to Malmö, it is used by the Øresund Bridge, including the Drogden Tunnel. By this definition, the Danish Straits are part of the entrance, but the Bay of Mecklenburg, another usual border is the line between Falsterbo, Sweden and Stevns Klint, Denmark, as this is the southern border of Øresund. Its also the border between the shallow southern Øresund and notably deeper water, hydrography and biology Drogden Sill sets a limit to Øresund and Darss Sill, and a limit to the Belt Sea. The shallow sills are obstacles to the flow of salt water from the Kattegat into the basins around Bornholm. The Kattegat and the southwestern Baltic Sea are well oxygenated and have a rich biology, the remainder of the Sea is brackish, poor in oxygen and in species. While Tacitus called it Mare Suebicum after the Germanic people called the Suebi, the origin of the latter name is speculative. Adam of Bremen himself compared the sea with a belt, stating that it is so named because it stretches through the land as a belt and he might also have been influenced by the name of a legendary island mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder. Pliny mentions an island named Baltia with reference to accounts of Pytheas and it is possible that Pliny refers to an island named Basilia in On the Ocean by Pytheas. Baltia also might be derived from belt and mean near belt of sea, meanwhile, others have suggested that the name of the island originates from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhel meaning white, fair. This root and its meaning were retained in both Lithuanian and Latvian. On this basis, a related hypothesis holds that the name originated from this Indo-European root via a Baltic language such as Lithuanian, yet another explanation is that the name originally meant enclosed sea, bay as opposed to open sea. Some Swedish historians believe the name derives from the god Balder of Nordic mythology, in the Middle Ages the sea was known by variety of names
25.
Latvia
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Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, one of the three Baltic states. It is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2. The country has a seasonal climate. Latvia is a parliamentary republic established in 1918. The capital city is Riga, the European Capital of Culture 2014, Latvia is a unitary state, divided into 119 administrative divisions, of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities. Latvians and Livs are the people of Latvia. Latvian and Lithuanian are the two surviving Baltic languages. Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries, the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language, Latvia and Estonia share a long common history. Until World War II, Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans, Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran, except for the Latgale region in the southeast, which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic. The Russian population has brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918, however, its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II. The peaceful Singing Revolution, starting in 1987, called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule and it ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990, and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991. Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, CBSS, the IMF, NB8, NIB, OECD, OSCE, and WTO. For 2014, Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and it used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014. The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, henry of Latvia coined the Latinisations of the countrys name, Lettigallia and Lethia, both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the name in Romance languages from Letonia. Around 3000 BC, the ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals, by 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia, Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, as well as the Livonians speaking a Finnic language
26.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
27.
Szlachta
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The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges between 1333 and 1370 during the reign of King Casimir III the Great, in 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown Kingdom of Poland, the existing Lithuanian nobility formally joined this class. As the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved and expanded in territory, its membership grew to include the leaders of Ducal Prussia, the origins of the szlachta are shrouded in obscurity and mystery and have been the subject of a variety of theories. Traditionally, its members were owners of landed property, often in the form of manor farms or so-called folwarks, the nobility negotiated substantial and increasing political and legal privileges for itself throughout its entire history until the decline of the Polish Commonwealth in the late 18th century. During the Partitions of Poland from 1772 to 1795, its members began to lose these legal privileges, the legal privileges of the szlachta were legally abolished in the Second Polish Republic by the March Constitution of 1921. The notion that all Polish nobles were social equals, regardless of their status or offices held, is enshrined in a traditional Polish saying. —which may roughly be rendered, The noble on the croft Is the voivodes equal, or the tenant farmer noble stands equal to the noble army commander. The term szlachta is derived from the Old High German word slahta, the Polish rycerz and the Polish herb. Poles of the 17th century assumed that szlachta came from the German schlachten, early Polish historians thought the term may have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings. Some powerful Polish nobles were referred to as magnates and możny, see Magnates of Poland, the Polish term szlachta designated the formalized, hereditary noble class of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In official Latin documents of the old Commonwealth, hereditary szlachta are referred to as nobilitas and are indeed the equivalent in status of the English nobility. Today the word szlachta in the Polish language simply translates to nobility, in its broadest meaning, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods granted today by some European monarchs. Occasionally, 19th-century non-noble landowners were referred to as szlachta by courtesy or error, in the narrow sense, szlachta denotes the old-Commonwealth nobility. In the past, a misconception sometimes led to the mistranslation of szlachta as gentry rather than nobility. This mistaken practice began due to the status of some szlachta members being inferior to that of the nobility in other European countries. The szlachta included those almost rich and powerful enough to be magnates down to rascals with a lineage, no land, no castle, no money, no village. As some szlachta were poorer than some non-noble gentry, some particularly impoverished szlachta were forced to become tenants of the wealthier gentry. In doing so, however, these szlachta retained all their constitutional prerogatives, as it was not wealth or lifestyle, but hereditary juridical status, an individual nobleman was called a szlachcic, and a noblewoman a szlachcianka
28.
Nicholas Repnin
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Prince Nikolai Vasilyevich Repnin was an Imperial Russian statesman and general from the Repnin princely family who played a key role in the dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He also participated, in a capacity, in the Seven Years War. In 1763, Emperor Peter III sent him to Prussia as ambassador, the same year, Catherine transferred him to Poland as minister plenipotentiary, in Warsaw he was rumored to have had an affair with Izabela Fleming. Repnin believed that the Protestants were not significant enough to benefit Russia, at the same time, in order to further Russian interests, he encouraged the creation of two Protestant confederations and later, a Catholic one. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Repnins correspondence reveals that he disliked the type of politics he was required to engage in, nevertheless, he obeyed his instructions, and used various means to force the 1767–68 Sejm to concede all points in dispute. Before the Sejm, he ordered the capture and exile to Kaluga of some opponents of his policies — Józef Andrzej Załuski. The immediate result was the formation of the Bar Confederation, which demolished the ambassadors strategy. Repnin resigned his post to lead troops against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, in 1771 he received the supreme command in Wallachia and occupied Bucharest. In 1775-76 Repnin and his factotum, Yakov Bulgakov, represented Russian interests at the Porte, during the second Turkish war Repnin was, after Alexander Suvorov, the most successful of the Russian commanders. After the Second Partition of Poland, he was made governor-general of the newly acquired Lithuanian provinces, unsuccessful, upon his return he was dismissed from service and died in Riga. Repnin had a son, Ivan Pnin, and it was widely rumored that Adam Jerzy Czartoryski was the fruit of a liaison between Repnin and Izabela Fleming. Repnins legitimate children were three daughters, upon his death, as the male Repnin line became extinct, Alexander I permitted Repnins grandson Prince Nikolai Volkonsky to assume the Repnin name and his grandfathers coat-of-arms. Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland Ivan Pnin Citations This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain. LeDonne, The Grand Strategy of the Russian Empire, 1650-1831, Oxford University Press United States,2004 Gerhard Albert Ritter, Frederick the Great, University of California Press,1975
29.
Repnin Sejm
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The Repnin Sejm was a Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place between 1767 and 1768 in Warsaw. These reforms were viewed as dangerous by Polands neighbors, who preferred a weak Commonwealth and did not want to see it threaten their own political, the Russian Empire sent ambassador Nicholas Repnin, who became the driving force behind the Sejm proceedings. The Repnin Sejm marked one of the important milestones in increasing Polish dependence on the Russian Empire and this dependent position was bluntly spelled out in Nikita Ivanovich Panins letter to King Poniatowski, in which he made it clear that Poland was now in the Russian sphere of influence. At that time Poland had a population of about 11.5 million, in his preparations Repnin fostered unrest among the religious minorities – Protestants and Eastern Orthodox, who wanted to have equal rights with the Roman Catholics. Repnin was well aware that a Catholic-dominated Sejm would be opposed to such demands. Repnins calculations were correct at the Sejm of 1766, which not only rejected the dissident bill. This weakened the position of King Poniatowski, supporters of the previous King Augustus III of Poland from the Electorate of Saxony, led by Gabriel Podoski, started a campaign to dethrone the king. In order to further Russian goals, Repnin encouraged the formation of two Protestant konfederacjas of Słuck and Toruń and later, Catholic. The opposition was headed by four bishops, Bishop of Lviv Wacław Hieronim Sierakowski, Bishop of Chełm Feliks Turski, Bishop of Cracow Kajetan Sołtyk, and Bishop of Kiev Józef Andrzej Załuski. All of them members of Senate of Poland, they were arrested by Russian troops on October 13,1767 and imprisoned in Kaluga for 5 years. The intimidated Sejm, which met in October 1767 and adjourned till February 1768, appointed a commission which drafted a Polish–Russian treaty, the Sejm, however, also passed some more beneficial reforms. Thus the legislation of the Sejm granted those religious minorities the same status as that of the previously dominant Roman Catholics, in addition, the penalty for killing a peasant was increased from a fine to death, liberum veto was abolished on sejmiks, and a mint was created. All those reforms were guaranteed by the Russian Empress, Catherine II, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Poland
30.
Kaluga
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Kaluga is a city and the administrative center of Kaluga Oblast, Russia, located on the Oka River 150 kilometers southwest of Moscow. In the Middle Ages Kaluga was a minor settlement owned by the Princes Vorotynsky, the ancestral home of these princes lies southwest of the modern city. On 19 January 1777 the Kaluga drama theatre opened its first theatrical season, Kaluga is connected to Moscow by a railway line and by the ancient roadway, the Kaluga Road. This road offered Napoleon his favored escape route from the Moscow trap in the fall of 1812, Kaluga was briefly occupied by the German army in Operation Barbarossa during the climactic Battle of Moscow. It was occupied from October 12,1941 to December 30,1941, Kaluga is the administrative center of the oblast. As a municipal division, the City of Kaluga, together with one rural locality in Ferzikovsky District, is incorporated as Kaluga Urban Okrug. In Kaluga, Kaluga Turbine Plant is located, is part of the company Power Machines, Kaluga Machine Works, in recent years Kaluga has become one of the centers of the Russian automotive industry, with a number of foreign companies opening assembly plants in the area. On November 28,2007, Volkswagen Group opened a new plant in Kaluga. The investment has reached more than 500 million Euro, the plant currently assembles the Volkswagen Passat, Škoda Fabia and Škoda Rapid. On October 15,2007, the Volvo Group broke ground on a new assembly plant. The plant has a capacity of 10,000 Volvo and 5,000 Renault trucks. On December 12,2007, PSA Peugeot Citroën announced its decision to build a new plant in Kaluga. By March 2010 the plant was operational, building Peugeot 308s for the Russian market and would also produce Citroën, to ensure the production cars were built factories companies Continental AG, Magna International, Benteler International, Visteon. The city is served by the Grabtsevo Airport, since 1899, there is a railway connection between Kaluga and Moscow. Public transportation is represented by the trolleybuses, buses, and marshrutkas, Kaluga has a humid temperate continental, with warm and humid summers, and long, cold and snowy winters. Kaluga is known for its most famous resident, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, a rocket science pioneer who worked here as a school teacher
31.
Bishop
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A bishop is an ordained, consecrated, or appointed member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within these churches, bishops are seen as those who possess the full priesthood, Some Protestant churches including the Lutheran and Methodist churches have bishops serving similar functions as well, though not always understood to be within apostolic succession in the same way. Priests, deacons and lay ministers cooperate and assist their bishop in shepherding a flock, the earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters. In, we see a system of government in Jerusalem chaired by James the Just. In, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia, in Timothy and Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. We are told that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church, Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight, telling him to rebuke with all authority. Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches, eventually, as Christendom grew, bishops no longer directly served individual congregations. Instead, the Metropolitan bishop appointed priests to each congregation. Around the end of the 1st century, the organization became clearer in historical documents. While Ignatius of Antioch offers the earliest clear description of monarchial bishops he is an advocate of monepiscopal structure rather than describing an accepted reality. To the bishops and house churches to which he writes, he offers strategies on how to pressure house churches who dont recognize the bishop into compliance. Other contemporary Christian writers do not describe monarchial bishops, either continuing to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of episkopoi in a city, plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6,1. Your godly bishop — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2,1, therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters. — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7,1. Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father, and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13,2. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church, — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3,1. Follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles, and to the deacons pay respect, as to Gods commandment — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8,1. He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God, he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9,1
32.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
33.
Bar Confederation
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The founders of the Bar Confederation included the magnates Adam Krasiński, Bishop of Kamenets, Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł, Casimir Pulaski, Moritz Benyowszki and Michał Krasiński. Its creation led to a war and contributed to the First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Some historians consider the Bar Confederation the first Polish uprising, at that point Habsburg Austria started to consider waging a war against Russia. He was also interested in protecting the weakening Ottoman Empire, which could be utilized in the event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria. Fredericks brother, Prince Henry, spent the winter of 1770–71 as a representative of the Prussian court at Saint Petersburg. After Henry informed him of the proposal, Frederick suggested a partition of the Polish borderlands by Austria, Prussia, thus Frederick attempted to encourage Russia to direct its expansion towards weak and non-functional Poland instead of the Ottomans. The recent Koliyivschyna peasant and Cossack uprising in Ukraine also weakened Polish position, under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex the northern Polish province of Royal Prussia, the three powers agreed on the First Partition of Poland. The Russians also withdrew from Moldavia away from the Austrian border, in 1767-1768, Russian forces forced the Polish parliament to pass resolutions they demanded. The articles of the confederation were signed on 29 February 1768 at the fortress of Bar in Podolia, priest Marek Jandołowicz was a notable religious leader, and Michał Wielhorski the Confederations political ideologue. The confederation, encouraged and aided by France, declared a war on Russia and its irregular forces, formed from volunteers, magnate militias and deserters from the royal army, soon clashed with the Russian troops and units loyal to the Polish crown. This marked the Ukrainian campaign, which lasted from April till June 1768, however, the simultaneous outbreak of the Koliyivschyna in Ukraine kept the Confederation alive. The Confederates appealed for help abroad and contributed to bringing about war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The retreat of some Russian forces needed on the Ottoman front bolstered the confederates, the council proclaimed the king dethroned on 22 October 1770. The court of Versailles sent Charles François Dumouriez to act as an aid to the Confederates, the Confederates also began to operate in Lithuania, although after early successes that direction too met with failures, with defeats at Białystok on 16 July and Orzechowo on 13 September 1769. Early 1770 saw the defeats of confederates in Greater Poland, after the battle of Dobra and Błonie, on 19 February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna. A previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in Saint Petersburg on 6 February 1772, early in August Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. On 5 August, the three signed the treaty on their respective territorial gains on the Commonwealths expense. An attempt of Bar Confederates to kidnap king Stanisław II Augustus on 3 November 1771 led the Habsburgs to withdraw their support from the confederates, expelling them from their territories
34.
Bar, Vinnytsia Oblast
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Bar /ˈbʌr/ is a town located on the Riv River in the Vinnytsia Oblast of central Ukraine. It is the center of the Bar Raion, and is part of the historic region of Podolia. Population,16, 409 Bar was named for Bari in Italy by the Polish Queen Bona Sforza in 1537, Bar is a traditional name and a most frequently used name for the city at present time. The city was a trade outpost Rov on the Riv River from the 13th to 15th centuries. In 1540, the Polish King Sigismund I the Old granted the town city rights. The fortress was besieged several times in its history and resisted all assaults, but during the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 it was captured by the Cossacks led by Maxym Kryvonis and severely damaged. In 1672 the Town of Bar was captured by the Ottoman Empire, on November 12,1674, the town and the fortress were recaptured by the forces of John III of Poland after four days of siege. But the Ottomans recaptured the city in 1675 and retained it until 1686 and it was constantly ravaged by Turks and Poles in turn between 1686 and 1699. After the Second Partition of Poland, the town fell under Russian Empire rule and was part of Podolia Governorate, after 1922, the Town of Bar was part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Since 1991, following the fall of the Soviet Union, it has been part of independent Ukraine, the city of Bar was comprehensively described in the doctorate thesis by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Bar Community, Historical Outlines in the 15th to 18th centuries. The international conference on the Town of Bar history will be held in Bar on September 26,2014, there is a monument of Mykhailo Hrushevsky in Bar city. Bar was shortly described in a titled, Geographic Dictionary of Polish Kingdom and other Slavic places. Bar was comprehensively described in the Histrory of towns and villages of Ukrainian SSR encyclopedia dictionary by the Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences in 1972, Bar was also described in the Electronic Jewish Dictionaries and other information resources in Israel in 2016. The information on Bar was published in the digital encyclopedia dictionary in Russian Federation in 2016, the history of Bar is discussed in the Ukrainian mass media. 1565 – Wojciech Starzechowski began to build the stone fortress in Bar. The 1,000 florins from the King’s Treasury in Poland were assigned for construction, August,1648 – During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, Maxym Kryvonis captured Bar after which a power over the city was shifting from one side to another. 1672 –1699 – Bar was captured by Selim I Giray, November 12,1674 – The town and the fortress were re-captured by the forces of John III of Poland after four days of siege. 1675 –1686 – Bar was re-captured by Ottoman Empire again,1686 –1699 – Bar was re-captured by the John III of Poland and by Ottoman Empire for many times
35.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
36.
Cossacks
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Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic-speaking people who became known as members of democratic, self-governing, semi-military communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Russia. The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, though the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimed Khazar origin, the Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the century the Sich declared an independent Cossack Hetmanate. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian rule, the Sich with its lands became an autonomous region under the Russian-Polish protectorate. The Don Cossack Host, which had established by the 16th century. Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia, and the Yaik, Cossack communities had developed along the latter two rivers well before the arrival of the Don Cossacks. By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Empire occupied effective buffer zones on its borders, the expansionist ambitions of the Empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension given their traditional exercise of freedom, democratic self-rule, and independence. By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had transformed into a special military estate. The government provided only firearms and supplies for them, Cossack service was considered the most rigorous one. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks extensively to perform police service and they also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders. During the Russian Civil War, Don and Kuban Cossacks were the first nations to open war against the Bolsheviks. By 1918, Cossacks declared the independence of their nations and formed the independent states, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic. The Cossack troops formed the core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army. With the victory of the Red Army, the Cossack lands were subjected to Decossackization, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossacks made a systematic return to Russia. Many took a part in Post-Soviet conflicts and Yugoslav Wars. In Russias 2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognized as an ethnicity, there are Cossack organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Poland, and the United States. Max Vasmers etymological dictionary traces the name to the Old East Slavic word козакъ, kozak, the ethnonym Kazakh is from the same Turkic root. In written sources the name is first attested in Codex Cumanicus from the 13th century, in English, Cossack is first attested in 1590
37.
Koliyivshchyna
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The uprising resulted in a mass murder of noblemen and other Polish population, Jews, Uniates, and Catholic priests across the part of the country west of the Dnieper river. It was simultaneous to the Confederation of Bar and a de facto war in Poland. The rebellion was fueled by the circulation of a proclamation of support. Eventually the uprising was crushed by Russian troops, aided by Polish army and its leaders, Ivan Gonta, was tortured to death while Maksym Zalizniak was exiled to Siberia. The peasant rebellion quickly gained momentum and spread over the territory from the bank of the Dnieper River to the river Syan. At Uman it led to a massacre of legendary proportions, Poles, Jews and Uniates were herded into their churches and synagogues and killed in cold blood. In three weeks of unbridled violence the rebels slaughtered 20,000 people, according to numerous Polish sources, the leaders of the uprising were Cossacks Maksym Zalizniak and Ivan Gonta. The latter was a Registered Cossack who changed sides and joined Zalizniak at Uman while being sent by Polish Count Franciszek Salezy Potocki to protect it, Gonta was in fact а sotnyk of the Uman Regiment. The rebellion was suppressed by the joint forces of Polish and Russian armies, with numerous hangings, decapitations, quarterings and impalings. According to numerous Polish sources, the number of casualties of the Koliyivshchyna 1768 on the right-bank Ukraine is estimated at 200,000 murdered people, mainly Poles. Taras Shevchenkos epic poem Haidamaky chronicles the events of the Koliyivshchnyna, the event also inspired recent artwork during the latest Ukrainian unrest. Andrzeja Chwalby, Kraków 1999 Kronika Polski, praca zbiorowa, Warszawa 200 Stanisław Bogusław Lenard, Ireneusz Wywiał, Historia Polski w datach, wyd
