1.
American and British English spelling differences
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Many of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as American today were once used in Britain. But English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise, and thus modern English orthography varies somewhat between countries and is far from phonemic in any country, in the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries, todays British English spellings mostly follow Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language, while many American English spellings follow Websters An American Dictionary of the English Language. Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic, in A Companion to the American Revolution, John Algeo notes, it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, rather he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology. William Shakespeares first folios, for example, used spellings like center and color as much as centre, Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman spellings of words proved to be decisive, later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on todays American spellings and vice versa. For the most part, the systems of most Commonwealth countries. Australian spelling has also strayed slightly from British spelling, with some American spellings incorporated as standard, New Zealand spelling is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord. There is also an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori, most words ending in an unstressed -our in British English end in -or in American English. Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e. g. contour, velour, paramour and troubadour the spelling is the same everywhere, most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled -or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, after the Norman conquest of England, the ending became -our to match the Old French spelling. The -our ending was not only used in new English borrowings, however, -or was still sometimes found, and the first three folios of Shakespeares plays used both spellings before they were standardised to -our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original -or ending, Websters 1828 dictionary had only -or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform and he preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, the French generally supplied us. In Jeffersons original draft it is spelled honour, Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century, honor still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a persons name and appears in Honor Oak, a district of London. In derivatives and inflected forms of the words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used
2.
Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
3.
Juice
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Juice is a beverage made from the extraction or pressing out of the natural liquid contained in fruit and vegetables. It can also refer to liquids that are flavored with these or other food sources such as meat. Juice is commonly consumed as a beverage or used as an ingredient or flavoring in foods or other beverages, juice emerged as a popular beverage choice after the development of pasteurization methods allowed for its preservation without using fermentation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimated the world production of citrus fruit juices to be 12,840,318 tonnes in 2012. The largest fruit juice consumers are New Zealand and Colombia, fruit juice consumption on average increased with country income level. The word juice comes from Old French in about 1300, it developed from the Old French words jus, juis, jouis, the Old French jus juice, sap, liquid. From Latin ius broth, sauce, juice, soup, from PIE root *yeue- to blend, the use of the word juice to meanthe watery part of fruits or vegetables was first recorded in the early 14th century. Since the 19th century, the juice has also been used in a figurative sense. Today, au jus refers to meat served along with its own juice, juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating fruit or vegetable flesh without the application of heat or solvents. For example, orange juice is the extract of the fruit of the orange tree. Juice may be prepared in the home from fresh fruit and vegetables using a variety of hand or electric juicers, many commercial juices are filtered to remove fiber or pulp, but high-pulp fresh orange juice is a popular beverage. Additives are put in some juices, such as sugar and artificial flavours, common methods for preservation and processing of fruit juices include canning, pasteurization, concentrating, freezing, evaporation and spray drying. After the fruits are picked and washed, the juice is extracted by one of two automated methods. In the first method, two cups with sharp metal tubes on the bottom cup come together, removing the peel. The juice of the fruit then escapes through small holes in the tube, the peels can then be used further, and are washed to remove oils, which are reclaimed later for usage. The second method requires the fruits to be cut in half before being subjected to reamers, which extract the juice. After the juice is filtered, it may be concentrated in evaporators, Juices are concentrated by heating under a vacuum to remove water, and then cooling to around 13 degrees Celsius. About two thirds of the water in a juice is removed, the juice is then later reconstituted, in which the concentrate is mixed with water and other factors to return any lost flavor from the concentrating process
4.
Dairy
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A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing of animal milk – mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep, horses, or camels – for human consumption. A dairy is located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a multi-purpose farm that is concerned with the harvesting of milk. For example, in the United States, the dairy farm is commonly called a dairy. The building or farm area where milk is harvested from the cow is called a milking parlor or parlor. The farm area where milk is stored in tanks is known as the farms milk house. Milk is then hauled to a plant, also referred to as a dairy. In New Zealand, farm areas for milk harvesting are also called milking parlours, as in the United States, sometimes milking sheds are referred to by their type, such as herring bone shed or pit parlour. Parlour design has evolved from simple barns or sheds to large structures in which the workflow is very efficiently handled. This on-site processing is a method of producing specialist milk products. In New Zealand English the singular use of the word dairy almost exclusively refers to a corner shop and this usage is historical as such shops were a common place for the public to buy milk products. As an attributive, the word refers to milk-based products, derivatives and processes. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a variety of dairy products and these establishments constitute the global dairy industry, a component of the food industry. Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years, initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them, protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders. In the more recent past, people in agricultural societies owned dairy animals that they milked for domestic and local consumption, the animals might serve multiple purposes. In this case the animals were normally milked by hand and the size was quite small. These tasks were performed by a dairymaid or dairyman, the word dairy harkens back to Middle English dayerie, deyerie, from deye and further back to Old English dæge. With industrialisation and urbanisation, the supply of milk became an industry, with specialised breeds of cattle being developed for dairy
5.
Food processing
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Food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients, by physical or chemical means into food, or of food into other forms. Food processing combines raw food ingredients to produce food products that can be easily prepared and served by the consumer. Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors diets until the introduction of canning methods and these tried and tested processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready-meals also date back to before the preindustrial revolution, both during ancient times and today in modern society these are considered processed foods. Modern food processing technology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries was developed in a part to serve military needs. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the used in cans. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1864, improved the quality of preserved foods and introduced the wine, beer, in the late 20th century, products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed. In western Europe and North America, the half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives, frozen foods found their success in sales of juice concentrates and TV dinners. Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the population. Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, modern supermarkets would not exist without modern food processing techniques, and long voyages would not be possible. Processed foods are less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages, processing can also reduce the incidence of food borne disease. Fresh materials, such as produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms capable of causing serious illnesses. The extremely varied modern diet is only possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labour gives the modern eater easy access to a variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors. The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly, mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products
6.
Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
7.
Food safety
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Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards, in this way food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering market to consumer practices, the thought is that food ought to be safe in the market. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In theory, food poisoning is 100% preventable, the five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are, Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods, cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens. Store food at the proper temperature, do use safe water and safe raw materials. This is a derivative of ISO9000. A2003 World Health Organization report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, in 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety. Same for polysorbate E435, see 2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk, only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with No 583/2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary. Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, potential problems associated with product packaging such as leaks in vacuum packs, damage to packaging or pest infestation, as well as problems and diseases spread by pests. Also covers potential causes of cross contamination, catering for customers who are particularly at risk of food-borne illness, as well as those with allergies or intolerance. Correct cleaning and sanitizing procedures, cleaning products and their use. Personal hygiene, hand washing, illness, and protective clothing, Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state-based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines, Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture
8.
Louis Pasteur
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Louis Pasteur was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and his medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination. He is regarded as one of the three founders of bacteriology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, and is popularly known as the father of microbiology. Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation and he performed experiments that showed that without contamination, microorganisms could not develop. Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences, he demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks nothing ever developed, although Pasteur was not the first to propose the germ theory, his experiments indicated its correctness and convinced most of Europe that it was true. Today, he is regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory. Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. Early in his career, his investigation of tartaric acid resulted in the first resolution of what is now called optical isomers and his work led the way to the current understanding of a fundamental principle in the structure of organic compounds. He was the director of the Pasteur Institute, established in 1887, till his death, although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies. Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals, Louis Pasteur was born on December 27,1822, in Dole, Jura, France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner. He was the child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827, Pasteur entered primary school in 1831. He was a student in his early years, and not particularly academic. He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends, Pasteur attended secondary school at the Collège dArbois. In October 1838, he left for Paris to join the Pension Barbet, in 1839, he entered the Collège Royal de Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840. He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree course with special mathematics
9.
Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
10.
Plate heat exchanger
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A plate heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger that uses metal plates to transfer heat between two fluids. This has an advantage over a conventional heat exchanger in that the fluids are exposed to a much larger surface area because the fluids spread out over the plates. This facilitates the transfer of heat, and greatly increases the speed of the temperature change, Plate heat exchangers are now common and very small brazed versions are used in the hot-water sections of millions of combination boilers. The high heat transfer efficiency for such a physical size has increased the domestic hot water flowrate of combination boilers. The small plate heat exchanger has made an impact in domestic heating. Larger commercial versions use gaskets between the plates, whereas smaller versions tend to be brazed, the concept behind a heat exchanger is the use of pipes or other containment vessels to heat or cool one fluid by transferring heat between it and another fluid. In most cases, the exchanger consists of a pipe containing one fluid that passes through a chamber containing another fluid. The plate heat exchanger was invented by Dr Richard Seligman in 1923, Dr Richard Seligman founded APV in 1910 as the Aluminium Plant & Vessel Company Limited, a specialist fabricating firm supplying welded vessels to the brewery and vegetable oil trades. The plate heat exchanger is a specialized design well suited to transferring heat between medium- and low-pressure fluids, welded, semi-welded and brazed heat exchangers are used for heat exchange between high-pressure fluids or where a more compact product is required. In place of a passing through a chamber, there are instead two alternating chambers, usually thin in depth, separated at their largest surface by a corrugated metal plate. The plates used in a plate and frame heat exchanger are obtained by one piece pressing of metal plates, stainless steel is a commonly used metal for the plates because of its ability to withstand high temperatures, its strength, and its corrosion resistance. The plates are often spaced by rubber sealing gaskets which are cemented into a section around the edge of the plates, the plates are pressed to form troughs at right angles to the direction of flow of the liquid which runs through the channels in the heat exchanger. These troughs are arranged so that they interlink with the plates which forms the channel with gaps of 1. 3–1.5 mm between the plates. The plates are compressed together in a frame to form an arrangement of parallel flow channels with alternating hot. The plates produce a large surface area, which allows for the fastest possible transfer. Making each chamber thin ensures that the majority of the volume of the contacts the plate. The troughs also create and maintain a turbulent flow in the liquid to maximize heat transfer in the exchanger, a high degree of turbulence can be obtained at low flow rates and high heat transfer coefficient can then be achieved. As compared to shell and tube exchangers, the temperature approach in a plate heat exchangers may be as low as 1 °C whereas shell
11.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
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His research of biogenesis paved the way for the downfall of preformationism theory, though the final death blow to preformationism was dealt by Pasteur. Spallanzani was born in Scandiano in the province of Reggio Emilia and died in Pavia. He was educated at the Jesuit College and started to study law at the University of Bologna, here, his famous kinswoman, Laura Bassi, was professor of physics and it is to her influence that his scientific impulse has been usually attributed. With her he studied philosophy and mathematics, and gave also great attention to languages. In 1754, at the age of 25 he became professor of logic, metaphysics, in 1762 he was ordained as a priest,1763 he was moved to Modena, where he continued to teach with great assiduity and success, but devoted his whole leisure to natural science. He also became director of the museum, which he greatly enriched by the collections of his many journeys along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In June 1768 Spallanzani was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, during the following year his students exceeded five hundred. A judicial investigation speedily cleared his honour to the satisfaction of some of his accusers, but Spallanzani got his revenge on his principal accuser, a jealous colleague, by planting a fake specimen of a composite species. When his colleague published the remarkable specimen Spallanzani revealed the joke, resulting in wide ridicule, in 1788 he visited Vesuvius and the volcanoes of the Lipari Islands and Sicily, and embodied the results of his researches in a large work, published four years later. He died from cancer on 12 February 1799, in Pavia. After his death, his bladder was removed for study by his colleagues, after which it was placed on display in a museum in Pavia. Yet greater qualities were by no means lacking, Spallanzani researched in 1768 the theory of the spontaneous generation of microbes. Spallanzanis experiment showed that it is not an inherent feature of matter, as the microbes did not re-appear as long as the material was hermetically sealed, he proposed that microbes move through the air and that they could be killed through boiling. Needham argued that experiments destroyed the force that was required for spontaneous generation to occur. Spallanzani paved the way for research by Louis Pasteur, who defeated the theory of spontaneous generation almost a century later, Spallanzani discovered and described animal reproduction, showing that it requires both semen and an ovum. He was the first to perform in vitro fertilization, with frogs, Spallanzani showed that some animals, especially newts, can regenerate some parts of their body if injured or surgically removed. Spallanzani is also credited with the classification of tardigrades, which are one of the most durable extremophiles still to this day. Spallanzani is also famous for extensive experiments on the navigation in darkness by bats
12.
Nicolas Appert
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Nicolas Appert, was the French inventor of airtight food preservation. Appert, known as the father of canning, was a confectioner, Appert was a confectioner and chef in Paris from 1784 to 1795. In 1795, he began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams and he placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax and placed them in boiling water. In 1795 the French military offered a prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. This was the first cookbook of its kind on modern food preservation methods, la Maison Appert, in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first food bottling factory in the world, years before Louis Pasteur proved that heat killed bacteria. Appert patented his invention and established a business to preserve a variety of food in sealed bottles, apperts method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef, fowl, eggs, milk, and prepared dishes. His greatest success for publicity was an entire sheep and he left air space at the top of the bottle, and the cork would then be sealed firmly in the jar by using a vise. The bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it, while it was dunked into boiling water, in honor of Appert, canning is sometimes called appertisation, but should be distinguished from pasteurization. Apperts method was so simple and workable that it became widespread. In 1810, British inventor and merchant Peter Durand also of French origin, patented his own method, in 1812 Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, the Appert method of canning had made its way to America, in 1991, a monumental statue of Appert, a work in bronze by the artist Jean-Robert Ipousteguy, was erected in Châlons-en-Champagne. A plaque was affixed to his birthplace in 1986, in 1999, busts of Appert by Richard Bruyère were erected in Institute of Food Technologists I. F. T. Chicago, Massy, and Museum of Fine Arts in Châlons-en-Champagne, in 2010, a statue of Appert by Roger Marion was erected in Malataverne. There are 72 streets named after Nicolas Appert in France, there is a high school named after Nicolas Appert in Orvault, France. In 1955 a French postal stamp commemorated him,2010 was declared Nicolas Appert Year, a national celebration, by the French ministry of culture. The Principality of Monaco issued a stamp featuring Appert. An exhibition entitled Mise en boîte was held at the Musée des Beaux-Arts et dArchéologie de Châlons-en-Champagne, since 1942, each year the Chicago Section of the Institute of Food Technologists awards the Nicholas Appert Award, recognizing lifetime achievement in food technology. The student association of the Food Technology education at Wageningen University is called Nicolas Appert, since 1972 this association has focused on improving the courses related to food technology education and organises several events each year for students and alumni
13.
French franc
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The franc, also commonly distinguished as the French franc, was a currency of France. Between 1450 and 1999, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it was revalued in 1960, with each new franc being worth 100 old francs. The French franc was a commonly held reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries. The first franc was a gold coin introduced in 1360 to pay the Ransom of King John II of France and this coin secured the kings freedom and showed him on a richly decorated horse earning it the name franc à cheval. The obverse legend, like other French coins, gives the title as Francorum Rex. Its value was set as one livre tournois, john’s son, Charles V, continued this type. It was copied exactly at Brabant and Cambrai and, with the arms on the horse cloth changed, conquests led by Joan of Arc allowed Charles VII to return to sound coinage and he revived the franc à cheval. John II, however, was not able to strike enough francs to pay his ransom, John II died as a prisoner in England and his son, Charles V was left to pick up the pieces. Charles V pursued a policy of reform, including stable coinage, an edict dated 20 April 1365 established the centerpiece of this policy, a gold coin officially called the denier d’or aux fleurs de lis which had a standing figure of the king on its obverse. Its value in money of account was one livre tournois, just like the franc à cheval, in accordance with the theories of the mathematician, economist and royal advisor Nicolas Oresme, Charles struck fewer coins of better gold than his predecessors. In the accompanying deflation both prices and wages fell, but wages fell faster and debtors had to settle up in better money than they had borrowed, the Mayor of Paris, Etienne Marcel, exploited their discontent to lead a revolt which forced Charles V out of the city. The States General which met at Blois in 1577 added to the pressure to stop currency manipulation. Henry III agreed to do this and he revived the franc and this coin and its fractions circulated until 1641 when Louis XIII of France replaced it with the silver Écu. Nevertheless, the franc continued in accounting as a synonym for the livre tournois. The decimal franc was established as the currency by the French Revolutionary Convention in 1795 as a decimal unit of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as “5 FRANCS” and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. e. Coinage with explicit denominations in decimal fractions of the franc also began in 1795, decimalization of the franc was mandated by an act of 7 April 1795, which also dealt with of weights and measures. France’s first decimal coinage used allegorical figures symbolizing revolutionary principles, like the designs the United States had adopted in 1793
14.
Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
15.
Vise
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A vise or vice is a mechanical apparatus used to secure an object to allow work to be performed on it. Vises have two jaws, one fixed and the other movable, threaded in and out by a screw. Woodworking vises are attached to a workbench, typically flush with its work surface and their jaws are made of wood or metal, the latter usually faced with wood, called cheeks, to avoid marring the work. The movable jaw may include a dog to hold work against a bench dog. Quick-release vises employ a split nut that allows the screw to engage or disengage with a half-turn of the handle, when disengaged the movable jaw may be moved in or out throughout its entire range of motion, vastly speeding up the process of adjustment. Common thread types are Acme and buttress, traditional workbench vises are commonly either face vises, attached to the front of the workbench, near the left end or end vises, attached to or forming part of the right end of the bench. An engineers vise, also known as a metalworking vise or machinists vise, is used to clamp metal instead of wood and it is used to hold metal when filing or cutting. It is sometimes made of cast steel or malleable cast iron, however, most heavy duty vises are 55,000 psi cast steel or 65,000 psi ductile iron. Some vises have a cast iron body but a steel channel bar, cast iron is popular because it is typically 30 ksi grey iron which is rigid, strong and inexpensive. The jaws are separate and replaceable, usually engraved with serrated or diamond teeth. Soft jaw covers made of aluminum, copper, wood or plastic may be used to protect delicate work, the jaw opening of an engineers vise is almost always the same size as the jaw width, if not bigger. An engineers vise is bolted onto the top surface of a workbench, the vise may include other features such as a small anvil on the back of its body. Most engineers vises have a swivel base, some engineers vises marketed as Homeowner Grade are not made of steel or cast iron, but of pot metal or a very low grade of iron, typically with a tensile strength of under 10 ksi. Most homeowners bench vises have an exposed screw, machine vises are mounted on drill presses, grinding machines and milling machines. Abrasive chop saws have a type of machine vise built into the saw. Some hobbyists use a machine vise as a bench vise because of the low cost, a vacuum vise is a hobbyists tool, commonly used to hold circuit boards, model airplanes and other small work. They are mounted with a cup and often have an articulated joint in the middle to allow the vise to pivot. Jewelers also use vacuum vises to hold jewelry, pipe vises are a plumbers tool, often used to hold pipes in place for threading and cutting
16.
Tin can
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A tin can, tin, steel can, steel packaging or a can, is a container for the distribution or storage of goods, composed of thin metal. Many cans require opening by cutting the end open, others have removable covers, cans hold diverse contents, foods, beverages, oil, chemicals, etc. Steel cans are made of tinplate or of tin-free steel, in some locations, even aluminum cans are called tin cans. The tin canning process was created by Frenchman Philippe de Girard. The canning concept was based on food preservation work in glass containers the year before by the French inventor Nicholas Appert. By 1813 they were producing their first tin canned goods for the Royal Navy, early tin cans were sealed by soldering with a tin-lead alloy, which could lead to lead poisoning. Infamously, in the 1845 Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin, crew members suffered from lead poisoning. More recent research suggests the lead poisoning was likely to have been caused by the water pipe system on the two ships. In 1901 in the United States, the American Can Company was founded, most cans are right circular cylinders with identical and parallel round tops and bottoms with vertical sides. However, where the volume to be contained and/or the shape of the contents suggests it. Other contents may justify a can that is somewhat conical in shape. The fabrication of most cans results in at least one rim, such cans have a single rim at the top. Some cans have a cover that slides onto the top or sometimes is hinged. Two piece steel cans can be made by drawing to form the bottom and sides and adding an end at the top, cans can be fabricated with separate slip-on, or friction fit covers and with covers attached by hinges. Various easy opening methods are available, concern arose that the milk contained unsafe levels of lead leached from this solder plug. Depending on the contents and available coatings, in some locations any metal can, even aluminium, might be called a tin can. Use of aluminium in cans began in 1957, a can usually has a printed paper or plastic label glued to the outside of the curved surface, indicating its contents. Some labels contain additional information, such as recipes, on the reverse side, a label can also be printed directly onto the metal
17.
Bryan Donkin
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Bryan Donkin FRS FRAS was an English engineer and industrialist. Of his six sons, John, Bryan, and Thomas also became engineers and his father was a surveyor and land agent. Donkin initially began work in the business, and worked from September 1789 to February 1791 as bailiff at Knole House. While working for the Duke of Dorset, Donkin consulted the engineer John Smeaton, at Smeatons advice in 1792 he apprenticed himself to John Hall in Dartford, Kent, who had founded the Dartford Iron Works in 1785. Shortly after completing his apprenticeship, he set himself up in Dartford, with the support of John Hall, making moulds for paper works, for at that time all paper making was done by hand. In 1798 he married Mary Brames, daughter of Peter Brames, a land owner and market gardener. By doing so Donkin became brother in law to John Hall, in 1801-2 Donkin was entrusted with the construction of a prototype of a paper-making machine, the famous Fourdrinier machine, the perfection of which had caused some considerable problems. Donkin took premises at Bermondsey, London in 1802, thus starting the enterprise became the Bryan Donkin Company. In 1804 he succeeded in producing a working machine, a second, improved one, was made the following year and in 1810 eighteen of the complex machines had been erected at various mills. Although the original design was not Donkins, he received the credit for having perfected them and his company continued to make such machines, and by 1851 had produced nearly 200 machines for use across the world. Donkin also worked with printing machinery, in 1813 he and a printer, Richard Mackenzie Bacon of Norwich, obtained a patent for a Polygonal printing machine, this used types placed on a rotating square or hexagonal roller or geometric prism. Ink was applied by a roller which rose and fell with the irregularities of the prism, one of these machines was set up for Cambridge University. It however proved too complicated and suffered from poor inking, which prevented its success, however, it was the first machine to introduce composition ink rollers which were considered better than the existing leather-covered rollers. Donkins inking roller quickly became the industry standard, Donkin became interested in canning food in metal containers. By late spring 1813 they were appointing agents on the south coast to sell the food to outbound ships. Soon the British Admiralty were placing sizeable orders with the firm of Donkin, Hall, the firm of Donkin, Hall and Gamble was later merged into Crosse & Blackwells. The Science Museum, London has an early Donkin tin can and this included investigating the ownership of intellectual property, tooling and piece-parts of the difference engine. Bryan Donkin retired from a role in the business in 1846 at the age of 78
18.
Can opener
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A can opener or tin opener is a device used to open tin cans. Although preservation of food using tin cans had been practiced since at least 1772 in the Netherlands and these early openers were basically variations of a knife, though the 1855 design continues to be produced. The first can opener consisting of the now familiar sharp rotating cutting wheel was invented in 1870 but was considered too difficult to operate for the ordinary consumer. A breakthrough design came in 1925 when a second, serrated wheel was added to hold the wheel on the ring of the can. This easy to use design has one of the most popular can opener models. Around the time of World War II, several can openers were developed for use, such as the American P-38. These featured a robust and simple design where a cutting blade. Electric can openers were introduced in the late 1950s and met with success, the development of new can opener types continues with the recent addition of a side-cutting model. Food preserved in tin cans was in use by the Dutch Navy from at least 1772, before 1800, there was already a small industry of canned salmon in the Netherlands. Freshly caught salmon were cleaned, boiled in brine, smoked and placed in tin-plated iron boxes and this canned salmon was known outside the Netherlands, and in 1797 a British company supplied one of their clients with 13 cans. Preservation of food in tin cans was patented by Peter Durand in 1810, the patent was acquired in 1812 by Bryan Donkin, who had later set up the worlds first canning factory in London in 1813. By 1820, canned food was an article in Britain and France. The first cans were robust containers, which weighed more than the food they contained and required ingenuity to open, the instruction on those cans read Cut round the top near the outer edge with a chisel and hammer. The gap of decades between the invention of the can and can opener may be attributed to the functionality of existing tools versus the cost, dedicated can openers appeared in the 1850s and were of a primitive claw-shaped or lever-type design. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. It consisted of a sickle, which was pushed into the can. A guard kept the sickle from penetrating too far into the can, the opener consisted of several parts which could be replaced if worn out, especially the sickle. This opener was adopted by the United States Army during the American Civil War, however, a home-use opener named the Bulls head opener was designed in 1865 and was supplied with cans of pickled beef named Bully beef
19.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
20.
Arbois
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Arbois is a French commune in the Jura department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in eastern France. The Cuisance River passes through the town, which has some pretty streets lined with ancient houses, the town centres on an arcaded central square where one can sample the local wines. The commune has been awarded two flowers by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom, Arbois is located some 40 km southwest of Besançon and 30 km southeast of Dole. It has a typical Revermont landscape, the plain is mainly used for cropping of cereals on medium-sized plots of land. The lower slopes consist mainly of meadows surrounded by small hedges for dairy farming, There are some vineyards in the same area. The rest of the hills is occupied by small vineyards with a few scattered meadows, the top of the hills and the plateau are heavily forested. Access to the commune is by Route nationale N83 which comes from Mouchard in the north, the D469 goes west from the village to Mathenay and the D107 goes east to Mesnay. The D14 goes north to Villers-Farlay and the D246 goes south to Pupillin, the town is about 40 minutes drive from Dole, Besançon and Lons-le-Saunier. It takes about 1 hour 30 minutes to Geneva and 1 hour 45 minutes to Lyon, SNCF Arbois The railway station is just north of the town and all TER Franche-Comté trains serve this station. The nearest TGV station is at Mouchard on the Paris-Switzerland line, aerodrome There is a small aerodrome in the north of the commune with the ICAO code LFGD and a restricted use runway. Arbois is traversed by the Cuisance river and is part of Revermont since it lies at the foot of the Plateau of Lons-le-Saunier, together with Salins-les-Bains and Poligny it forms Revermont Country. This small historic city has a mild climate with little humidity. The presence of vineyards reflects this and the Loue and Doubs rivers are far away to limit the occurrence of fog in the winter. The influence of the small Cuisance river is low, the climate is rather continental with cold winters and little snow but hot in summer. The origin of the town of Arbois dates back to remote times and it is certain however that its wines were known to the Romans. Until 1260 Arbois was a villa or town without defences, it was surrounded by ramparts during the ten years. Arbois endured seven sieges when it was part of the Duchy of Burgundy including sackings by Charles I of Amboise, Henry IV, a castle was built in 1270, some vestiges of which survived the dismantling that Louis XIV ordered in 1678 following the conquest of Franche-Comté. There remain stretches of wall, pierced for archers, three towers, and the square Gloriette tower
21.
Aging of wine
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The aging of wine or ageing of wine is potentially able to improve the quality of wine. This distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods, the ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment. There is a significant mystique around the aging of wine, as its chemistry was not understood for a long time, the Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried straw wines were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents and these wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines—Falernian and Surrentine—were prized for their ability to age for decades, in the Book of Luke, it is noted that old wine was valued over new wine. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent, most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar, the older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines were being made in the Mediterranean, similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In the 17th century, two innovations occurred that changed the wine industrys view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which allowed producers to package, the second was the growing popularity of fortifying wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas, the English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux. Demand for matured wines had an effect on the wine trade. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes. There is a misconception that wine always improves with age, or that wine improves with extended aging. Some authorities state that more wine is consumed too old than too young, aging changes wine, but does not categorically improve it or worsen it. Fruitness deteriorates rapidly, decreasing markedly after only 6 months in the bottle, due to the cost of storage, it is not economical to age cheap wines, but many varieties of wine do not benefit from aging, regardless of the quality. Experts vary on precise numbers, but typically state that only 5–10% of wine improves after 1 year, in general, wines with a low pH have a greater capability of aging
22.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
23.
Growth medium
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A growth medium or culture medium is a solid or liquid or semi-solid designed to support the growth of microorganisms or cells, or small plants like the moss Physcomitrella patens. Different types of media are used for growing different types of cells, the most common growth media for microorganisms are nutrient broths and agar plates, specialized media are sometimes required for microorganism and cell culture growth. Some organisms, termed fastidious organisms, require specialized environments due to nutritional requirements. Viruses, for example, are intracellular parasites and require a growth medium containing living cells. The most common media for microorganisms are nutrient broths or LB medium. Liquid media are often mixed with agar and poured via a media dispenser into Petri dishes to solidify. These agar plates provide a medium on which microbes may be cultured. They remain solid, as very few bacteria are able to decompose agar, bacteria grown in liquid cultures often form colloidal suspensions. In the case of cells, this difficulty is often addressed by the addition of blood serum or a synthetic serum replacement to the medium. In the case of microorganisms, no such limitations exist, as they are often unicellular organisms. One other major difference is that cells in culture are often grown on a flat surface to which they attach, and the medium is provided in a liquid form. In contrast, bacteria such as Escherichia coli may be grown on solid or in liquid media, an important distinction between growth media types is that of defined versus undefined media. A defined medium will have known quantities of all ingredients, for microorganisms, they consist of providing trace elements and vitamins required by the microbe and especially defined carbon and nitrogen sources. Glucose or glycerol are used as carbon sources, and ammonium salts or nitrates as inorganic nitrogen sources. An undefined medium has some complex ingredients, such as yeast extract or casein hydrolysate, undefined media are sometimes chosen based on price and sometimes by necessity – some microorganisms have never been cultured on defined media. A good example of a medium is the wort used to make beer. The wort contains all the nutrients required for yeast growth, and under anaerobic conditions, when the fermentation process is complete, the combination of medium and dormant microbes, now beer, is ready for consumption. Minimal media can also be used to select for or against recombinants or exconjugants and this supplementation allows for the culturing of specific lines of auxotrophic recombinants
24.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the leading national public health institute of the United States. The CDC is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services, headquartered near Atlanta and its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and internationally. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control, the Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1,1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations, the Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency. The new agency was a branch of the U. S, Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946, Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. Among its 369 employees, the jobs at CDC were originally entomology. In CDCs initial years, more than six and a million homes were sprayed. In 1946, there were only seven officers on duty. Under Joseph Walter Mountin, the CDC continued to advocate for health issues. In 1947, the CDC made a payment of $10 to Emory University for 15 acres of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase, the benefactor behind the “gift” was Robert W. Woodruff, chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company. Woodruff had a long-time interest in control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, the mission of CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U. S. Public Health Service was transferred to the CDC in 1957, shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1,1967, the organization was renamed the Center for Disease Control on June 24,1970, and Centers for Disease Control effective October 14,1980. An act of the United States Congress appended the words and Prevention to the name effective October 27,1992, however, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Currently the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness
25.
Salmonella
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Salmonella /ˌsælməˈnɛlə/ is a genus of rod-shaped gram-negative bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae family. The two species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori, Salmonella enterica is the type species and is further divided into six subspecies that include over 2,500 serotypes. S. enterica subspecies are found worldwide in all warm-blooded animals, S. bongori is restricted to cold-blooded animals, particularly reptiles. Strains of Salmonella cause illnesses such as fever, paratyphoid fever. Salmonella species are nonspore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with cell diameters between about 0.7 and 1.5 µm, lengths from 2 to 5 µm and they are chemotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction reactions using organic sources. They are also facultative anaerobes, capable of surviving with or without oxygen, the genus Salmonella is part of the family of Enterobacteriaceae. Its taxonomy has been revised and has the potential to confuse, the taxonomic group contains more than 2500 serovars, defined on the basis of the somatic O and flagellar H antigens. The full name of a serovar is given as, for example, enterica serovar Typhimurium, but can be abbreviated to Salmonella Typhimurium. Historically, salmonellae have been categorized as invasive or noninvasive based on host preference. Salmonella was first visualized in 1880 by Karl Eberth in the Peyers patches, four years later in 1884 Georg Theodor Gaffky was able to successfully grow the pathogen in pure culture. A year after that, medical research scientist Theobald Smith discovered what would be known as Salmonella enterica. At the time, Smith was working as a laboratory assistant in the Veterinary Division of the United States Department of Agriculture. The department was under the administration of Daniel Elmer Salmon, a veterinary pathologist, initially, Salmonella Choleraesuis was thought to be the causative agent of hog cholera, so Salmon and Smith named it Hog-cholerabacillus. The name Salmonella was not used until 1900, when Joseph Leon Lignières proposed that the discovered by Daniel Salmons group be called Salmonella in his honor. Most subspecies of Salmonella produce hydrogen sulfide, which can readily be detected by growing them on media containing ferrous sulfate, most isolates exist in two phases, a motile phase I and a nonmotile phase II. Cultures that are nonmotile upon primary culture may be switched to the motile phase using a Craigie tube or ditch plate, Salmonella can also be detected and subtyped using multiplex or real-time polymerase chain reactions from extracted Salmonella DNA. Mathematical models of Salmonella growth kinetics have been developed for chicken, pork, tomatoes, Salmonella reproduce asexually with a cell division interval of 40 minutes. The bacteria are not destroyed by freezing, but UV light and they perish after being heated to 55 °C for 90 min, or to 60 °C for 12 min
26.
Listeria
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Listeria is a genus of bacteria that, until 1992, contained 10 known species, each containing two subspecies. As of 2014, another five species were identified, named after the British pioneer of sterile surgery Joseph Lister, the genus received its current name in 1940. Listeria species are gram-positive, rod-shaped, and facultatively anaerobic, the major human pathogen in the Listeria genus is L. monocytogenes. It is usually the agent of the relatively rare bacterial disease listeriosis. The disease affects pregnant women, newborns, adults with weakened immune systems, Listeriosis is a serious disease for humans, the overt form of the disease has a case-fatality rate around 20%. The two main clinical manifestations are sepsis and meningitis, meningitis is often complicated by encephalitis, when it is known as meningoencephalitis, a pathology that is unusual for bacterial infections. L. ivanovii is a pathogen of mammals, specifically ruminants, the incubation period can vary between 3 and 70 days. The first documented case of listeriosis was in 1924, in the late 1920s, two researchers independently identified L. monocytogenes from animal outbreaks. They proposed the genus Listerella in honor of surgeon and early antiseptic advocate Joseph Lister, but that name was already in use for a slime mold, eventually, the genus Listeria was proposed and accepted. All species within the Listeria genus are gram-positive, catalase-positive rods, the genus Listeria was classified in the family Corynebacteriaceae through the seventh edition of Bergeys Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. The 16S rRNA cataloging studies of Stackebrandt, et al. demonstrated that L. monocytogenes is a taxon within the Lactobacillus-Bacillus branch of the bacterial phylogeny constructed by Woese. In 2004, the genus was placed in the newly created family Listeriaceae, the only other genus in the family is Brochothrix. Listeria dinitrificans, previously thought to be part of the Listeria genus, was reclassified into the new genus Jonesia, under the microscope, Listeria species appear as small rods, which are sometimes arranged in short chains. In direct smears, they may be coccoid, so they can be mistaken for streptococci, flagella are produced at room temperature, but not at 37°C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish L. monocytogenes from other Listeria species, further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of Listeria. Listeria can be found in soil, which can lead to vegetable contamination, Listeria has been found in uncooked meats, uncooked vegetables, fruit such as cantaloupes and apples, pasteurized or unpasteurized milk, foods made from milk, and processed foods. Pasteurization and sufficient cooking kill Listeria, however, contamination may occur after cooking, for example, meat-processing plants producing ready-to-eat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats, must follow extensive sanitation policies and procedures to prevent Listeria contamination. Listeria monocytogenes is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal foodborne illness
27.
Yersinia
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Yersinia is a genus of bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. Yersinia species are Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria, a few micrometers long and fractions of a micrometer in diameter, some members of Yersinia are pathogenic in humans, in particular, Y. pestis is the causative agent of the plague. Rodents are the reservoirs of Yersinia, less frequently, other mammals serve as the host. Infection may occur either through blood or in an alimentary fashion, an interesting feature peculiar to some of the Yersinia bacteria is the ability to not only survive, but also to actively proliferate at temperatures as low as 1–4°C. Yersinia bacteria are relatively quickly inactivated by oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide, the creation of YersiniaBase, a data and tools collection for the reporting and comparison of Yersinia species genome sequence data, was reported in January 2015. The provisional representation of species addressed by the resource has been indicated in the TaxBox on this page by a superscript yb beside the species name, development of YersiniaBase was funded by the University of Malaya and the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. Y. pestis is the agent of plague. The disease caused by Y. enterocolitica is called yersiniosis, Yersinia may be associated with Crohns disease, an inflammatory autoimmune condition of the gut. Iranian sufferers of Crohns disease were more likely to have had exposure to refrigerators at home. Yersinia is implicated as one of the causes of reactive arthritis worldwide, also, the genus is associated with pseudoappendicitis, which is an incorrect diagnosis of appendicitis due to a similar presentation. Y. pestis, the first known species, was identified in 1894 by A. E. J, yersin, a Swiss bacteriologist, and Kitasato Shibasaburō, a Japanese bacteriologist. It was formerly described as Pasteurella pestis (known trivially as the plague-bacillus. by Lehmann and Neumann in 1896, in 1944, van Loghem reclassified the species P. pestis and P. rondentium into a new genus, Yersinia. Following the introduction of the code, it was accepted as valid in 1980
28.
Campylobacter
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Campylobacter is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. Campylobacter typically appear comma or s-shaped and motile, most Campylobacter species can cause disease and can infect humans and other animals. The bacteriums main reservoir is poultry, humans can contract the disease from eating food contaminated with Campylobacter species, another source of infection is contact with infected animals, which often carry Campylobacter asymptomatically. At least a dozen species of Campylobacter have been implicated in disease, with C. jejuni. C. jejuni is now recognized as one of the causes of bacterial foodborne disease in many developed countries. C. jejuni infection can spread to the blood in individuals with AIDS. C. fetus is a cause of spontaneous abortions in cattle and sheep, Campylobacter generally appear curved or comma-shaped, and are able to move via unipolar or bipolar flagella. They generally survive in environments with low oxygen, when exposed to atmospheric oxygen, C. jejuni is able to change into a coccal form They are positive by the oxidase test and catalase test. Campylobacters are best cultured at 42 °C, survival at room temperature is poor, but Campylobacters can survive for a short time at refrigeration temperatures – up to 15 times longer at 2 °C than at 20 °C. The bacteria die out slowly at freezing temperatures and is heat sensitive, the symptoms of Campylobacter infections were described in 1886 in infants by Theodor Escherich. These infections were named cholera infantum, or summer complaint, the genus was first described in 1963, however, the organism was not isolated until 1972 in Brussels, Belgium. The genomes of several Campylobacter species have been sequenced, beginning with C. jejuni in 2000 and these genome studies have identified molecular markers specific to members of Campylobacter. Additionally, several markers were found in all Campylobacter species except for C. fetus, many markers were also found which were conserved only between C. jejuni and C. coli, indicating a close relationship between these two species. Similar studies have investigated the genes responsible for motility in Campylobacter species, all Campylobacter species contain two flagellin genes in tandem for motility, flaA and flaB. These genes undergo intergenic recombination, further contributing to their virulence, there is a growing number of quinolone resistant strains. Evidence suggests this is caused by an overuse of this class of antibiotics in animal agriculture, the confusing taxonomy of Campylobacter over the past decades make it difficult to identify the earliest reports of Campylobacter bacteriophages. Bacteriophages specific to the now known as C. coli and C. fetus, were isolated from cattle. Campylobacter can cause an infection called campylobacteriosis
29.
Staphylococcus aureus
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Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of the Firmicutes, and is frequently found in the nose, respiratory tract, and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. Although S. aureus is not always pathogenic, it is a cause of skin infections such as a skin abscess, respiratory infections such as sinusitis. Pathogenic strains often promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of S. aureus such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus is a worldwide problem in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development there is no approved vaccine for S. aureus, Staphylococcus was first identified in 1880 in Aberdeen, Scotland, by surgeon Sir Alexander Ogston in pus from a surgical abscess in a knee joint. This name was amended to Staphylococcus aureus by Friedrich Julius Rosenbach. It is still one of the five most common causes of hospital-acquired infections and is often the cause of wound infections following surgery, each year, around 500,000 patients in hospitals of the United States contract a staphylococcal infection, chiefly by S. aureus. S. aureus is an anaerobic, gram-positive coccal bacterium also known as golden staph. S. aureus is non-motile and does not form spores, S. aureus reproduces asexually by binary fission. Complete separation of the cells is mediated by S. aureus autolysin, and in its absence or targeted inhibition. Catalase converts hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, catalase-activity tests are sometimes used to distinguish staphylococci from enterococci and streptococci. Previously, S. aureus was differentiated from other staphylococci by the coagulase test, however, not all S. aureus strains are coagulase-positive and incorrect species identification can impact effective treatment and control measures. Staphylococcus is different from the named and medically relevant genus Streptococcus. S. aureus was found to be capable of genetic transformation. Further studies suggested that the development of competence for natural genetic transformation may be higher under appropriate conditions. While S. aureus usually acts as a bacterium, asymptomatically colonizing about 30% of the human population. In particular, S. aureus is one of the most common causes of bacteremia, additionally, it can cause various skin and soft tissue infections, particularly when skin or mucosal barriers have been breached. Joint replacements put a person at risk of septic arthritis, staphylococcal endocarditis
30.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
31.
Franz von Soxhlet
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Franz Ritter von Soxhlet was a German agricultural chemist from Brno. He invented the Soxhlet extractor in 1879 and in 1886 he proposed pasteurization be applied to milk, Soxhlet is also known as the first scientist who fractionated the milk proteins in casein, albumin, globulin and lactoprotein. Furthermore, he described for the first time the present in milk. He was the son of a Belgian immigrant and he gained a PhD at Leipzig in 1872. In 1879 he became a professor of chemistry at the Technical University of Munich. The Milk Question, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,1913, band, Marie – Spannagel Rudolf, Wien 2005 Herzfeld, Franz von Soxhlet †. In, Die Deutsche Zuckerindustrie Vol.51,1926, pp. 501–502, theodor Henkel, Franz von Soxhlet zum Gedächtnis. In, Süddeutsche Molkerei-Zeitung Vol.46,1926, pp. 493–494
32.
Refrigeration
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Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
33.
Shelf life
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Shelf life is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use, consumption, or sale. In other words, it refer to whether a commodity should no longer be on a pantry shelf. It applies to cosmetics, foods and beverages, medical devices, medicines, explosives, pharmaceutical drugs, chemicals, tires, batteries, in some regions, an advisory best before, mandatory use by or freshness date is required on packaged perishable foods. Most expiration dates are used as based on normal and expected handling. Use prior to the date does not guarantee the safety of a food or drug. According to the USDA, canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, if the cans look ok, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen, high-acid canned foods will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months, low-acid canned foods for 2 to 5 years. Sell by date is an ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an expiration date. Most food is edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, Shelf life depends on the degradation mechanism of the specific product. Most can be influenced by several factors, exposure to light, heat, moisture, transmission of gases, mechanical stresses, product quality is often mathematically modelled around a parameter. For some foods, health issues are important in determining shelf life, bacterial contaminants are ubiquitous, and foods left unused too long will often be contaminated by substantial amounts of bacterial colonies and become dangerous to eat, leading to food poisoning. However, shelf life alone is not an indicator of how long the food can safely be stored. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly, in contrast, if milk already has harmful bacteria, the use-by dates become irrelevant. The expiration date of pharmaceuticals specifies the date the manufacturer guarantees the full potency, most medications continue to be effective and safe for a time after the expiration date. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular acidosis purportedly caused by expired tetracycline, a study conducted by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The study showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as long as 15 years past their expiration dates. One major exception is the Shelf Life Extension Program of the U. S. Department of Defense, which commissioned a major study of drug efficacy from the FDA starting in the mid-1980s
34.
Ultra-high-temperature processing
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Ultra-high temperature processing, ultra-heat treatment, or ultra-pasteurization sterilizes food by heating it above 135 °C – the temperature required to kill spores in milk – for 1 to 2 seconds. UHT is most commonly used in production, but the process is also used for fruit juices, cream, soy milk, yogurt, wine, soups, honey. UHT milk was first developed in the 1960s and became available for consumption in the 1970s. The heat used during the UHT process can cause Maillard browning and change the taste, an alternative process is HTST pasteurization, in which the milk is heated to 72 °C for at least 15 seconds. UHT milk packaged in a container, if not opened, has a typical unrefrigerated shelf life of six to nine months. HTST pasteurized milk has a life of about two weeks from processing, or about one week from being put on sale. The most commonly applied technique to provide a safe and shelf-stable milk is heat treatment, the first system involving indirect heating with continuous flow was manufactured in 1893. In 1912, a continuous-flow, direct-heating method of mixing steam with milk at temperatures of 130 to 140 °C was patented. However, without commercially available aseptic packaging systems to pack and store the product, such technology was not very useful in itself, in the 1960s APV launched the first commercial steam infusion system under the Palarisator brand name. In Sweden, Tetra Pak launched tetrahedral paperboard cartons in 1952 and they made a commercial breakthrough in the 1960s, after technological advances, combining carton assembling and aseptic packaging technologies, followed by international expansion. Direct systems have an advantage that the product is held at a temperature for a shorter period of time. There are two groups of direct systems, Injection-based, where the steam is injected into the liquid. It allows fast heating and cooling, but is suitable for some products. As the product comes in contact with the hot nozzle, there is a possibility of local overheating, infusion-based, where the liquid is pumped through a nozzle into a chamber with high-pressure steam at a relatively low concentration, providing a large surface contact area. This method achieves near-instantaneous heating and cooling and even distribution of temperature and it is suitable for liquids of both low and high viscosity. In indirect systems, the product is heated by a heat exchanger similar to those used for pasteurization. However, as temperatures are applied, it is necessary to employ higher pressures in order to prevent boiling. There are three types of exchangers in use, Plate exchangers, Tubular exchangers Scraped-surface exchangers, for higher efficiency, pressurized water or steam is used as the medium for heating the exchangers themselves, accompanied with a regeneration unit which allows reuse of the medium and energy saving
35.
Aseptic processing
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Aseptic processing is the process by which a sterile product is packaged in a sterile container in a way that maintains sterility. Sterility is achieved with a process, which retains more nutrients. Pharmaceutical Sterile processing includes use of rooms, bacteria retaining filters. Aseptic food preservation methods allow processed food to keep for long periods of time without preservatives, the aseptic packages are typically a mix of paper, polyethylene, and aluminum, with a tight polyethylene inside layer. Sterile pharmaceuticals are usually packaged in plastic or glass, together these materials form a tight seal against microbiological organisms, contaminants, and degradation, eliminating the need for refrigeration. The first aseptic filling plant for milk was presented in Switzerland in 1961, the Tetra Pak company later became one of the leading suppliers of processing and packaging equipment for dairies. Aseptic techniques were common in Europe and Asia before they were introduced in the United States in the 1980s, Aseptic containers may range in size from a few fluid ounces to a nearly 8-million-US-gallon aseptic tank on an ocean-going ship. Aseptic processing makes worldwide export and import of new, economical, bag-In-Box technology is commonly used because it provides strong containers that are lightweight and easy to handle prior to being filled. Other common package types are drink boxes and pouches, in 1991, the Institute of Food Technologists rated the top 10 innovations in food technology. Aseptic processing and packaging ranked No,1, ahead of juice concentrates, safe canning processes, freeze-drying and food fortification. In 2007 Dr. Philip E. Nelson received the World Food Prize in recognition for his work in aseptic processing. The first aseptic packing of foods was carried out in Denmark prior to 1913, in 1917, Dunkley in USA patented sterilization with saturated steam of cans and subsequent filling of pre-sterilized product. In 1923, aseptically packaged milk from South Africa reached a fair in London. The American can company developed a machine in 1933, called the Heat-Cool-Fill system which used saturated steam under pressure to sterilize the cans. The sterile cans were filled with product and the ends sealed on in a closed chamber. Three commercial plants were built and operated on this principle until 1945, in the 1940s, Martin developed a process in which empty metal cans were sterilized by treatment with superheated steam at 210°C prior to being filled with cold, sterile product. In 1950, the Dole Company bought the first commercial aseptic filling plant on the market, at the end of 1940, a dairy enterprise and machinery manufacturers in Switzerland combined to develop UHT-sterilized, aseptically canned milk, which was marketed in Switzerland in 1953. However, this system was not economical mainly because of the cost of the cans, long shelf life milk packaged in this manner was first sold in Switzerland in October,1961
36.
Raw milk
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Raw milk is milk that has not been pasteurized. While proponents have stated there are benefits to its consumption. Availability and regulation of raw milk vary from region to region, cattle have been domesticated for some 10,500 years. Europeans first started consuming milk from cattle around 7,500 years ago, pasteurization is widely used to prevent infected milk from entering the food supply. The process achieves this by eliminating pathogenic microbes and lowering microbial numbers to prolong the quality of the beverage, after sufficient scientific study led to the development of germ theory, pasteurization was introduced in the United States in the 1890s. This move successfully controlled the spread of highly contagious bacterial diseases including E. coli, in the early days after the scientific discovery of bacteria, there was no product testing to determine whether a farmers milk was safe or infected, so all milk was treated as potentially contagious. Recent advances in the analysis of milk-borne diseases have enabled scientists to track the DNA of the bacteria to the cows on the farms that supplied the raw milk. Young children, the elderly, people with weakened immune systems, in the USA, re-pasteurization occurs when pasteurized milk from the US mainland is transported by sea to Hawaii, and then pasteurized again. Those favoring the consumption of raw milk believe that raw milk and associated products are healthier and those favoring the consumption of pasteurized milk consider the pathogen risk associated with drinking raw milk unacceptable. It is therefore recommended that milk should be heated before consumption. With the exception of an altered organoleptic profile, heating will not substantially change the value of raw milk or other benefits associated with raw milk consumption. Raw milk advocates, such as the Weston A, price Foundation, say that raw milk can be produced hygienically, and that it has health benefits that are destroyed in the pasteurization process. Research shows only slight differences in the nutritional values of pasteurized and unpasteurized milk. Three studies have found a significant inverse relationship between consumption of raw milk and asthma and allergies. Aspects of the overall urban vs. farming environment lifestyle have been suggested as having a role in these differences, and for this reason, the overall phenomenon has been named the farm effect. Moreover, it seems that the increased resistance seems to be rather related to the exposure to a farm environment or to animals than to raw milk consumption. Regulation of the distribution of packaged raw milk varies across the world. Some countries have complete bans, but many had partial bans that do not restrict the purchase of raw milk directly from the farmer
37.
Maillard reaction
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The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned food its distinctive flavor. Seared steaks, pan-fried dumplings, cookies and other kinds of biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows and it is named after French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein synthesis. The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 °C, at higher temperatures, caramelization and subsequently pyrolysis become more pronounced. This process is accelerated in an environment, as the amino groups are deprotonated and. The type of the acid determines the resulting flavor. This reaction is the basis for many of the flavoring industrys recipes, at high temperatures, a potential carcinogen called acrylamide can be formed. In the process, hundreds of different flavor compounds are created and these compounds, in turn, break down to form yet more new flavor compounds, and so on. Each type of food has a distinctive set of flavor compounds that are formed during the Maillard reaction. It is these same compounds that flavor scientists have used over the years to make artificial flavors, in 1913 Maillard published a paper to explain what happens when amino acids react with sugars at elevated temperatures. However, it was chemist John E. Hodge, working at the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Peoria, Illinois, who published a paper in 1953 that established a mechanism for the Maillard reaction. The structurally related compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has a smell, and occurs also naturally without heating and gives varieties of cooked rice. Both compounds have odor thresholds below 0.06 ng/l, caramelization is an entirely different process from Maillard browning, though the results of the two processes are sometimes similar to the naked eye. Caramelization may sometimes cause browning in the foods in which the Maillard reaction occurs. They both are promoted by heating, but the Maillard reaction involves amino acids, as discussed above, in making silage, excess heat causes the Maillard reaction to occur, which reduces the amount of energy and protein available to the animals who feed on it. Dicarbonyls react with amine to produce Strecker aldehyde through Strecker degradation, the Maillard reaction also occurs in the human body. It is a step in the formation of advanced glycation endproducts and it is tracked by measuring pentosidine. Although the Maillard reaction has been studied most extensively in foods, it has shown a correlation in numerous different diseases in the human body. In general, these diseases are due to the accumulation of AGEs on nucleic acids, proteins, though AGEs have numerous origins, they can form from the oxidation and dehydration of Amadori adducts, which themselves are products of nonenzymatic Maillard reactions
38.
Protein-glutamate methylesterase
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This enzyme is a demethylase, and more specifically it belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on carboxylic ester bonds. The systematic name of this class is protein-L-glutamate-O5-methyl-ester acylhydrolase. This enzyme participates in 3 metabolic pathways, two-component system - general, bacterial chemotaxis - general, cheB is part of a two-component signal transduction system. These systems enable bacteria to sense, respond, and adapt to a range of environments, stressors. Two-component systems are composed of a histidine kinase and its cognate response regulator. CheB methylesterase is responsible for removing the methyl group from the methyl ester residues in the methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins. CheB is regulated through phosphorylation by CheA, the N-terminal region of the protein is similar to that of other regulatory components of sensory transduction systems. As of late 2007, two structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 1A2O, kehry MR, Doak TG, Dahlquist FW. Stimulus-induced changes in activity during chemotaxis in Escherichia coli. This article incorporates text from the public domain Pfam and InterPro IPR000673
39.
Polygalacturonase
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Polygalacturonan, whose major component is galacturonic acid, is a significant carbohydrate component of the pectin network that comprises plant cell walls. Therefore, the activity of the endogenous plant PGs works to soften and sweeten fruit during the ripening process, similarly, phytopathogens use PGs as a means to weaken the pectin network, so that digestive enzymes can be excreted into the plant host to acquire nutrients. This enzyme’s multiple parallel beta sheets form a shape that is called a beta helix. This highly stable structure, thanks to numerous hydrogen bonds and disulfide bonds between strands, is a characteristic of enzymes involved in the degradation of pectin. The interior of the helix is hydrophobic. X-ray crystallography has been used to determine the structure of several PGs in different organisms. Fungal PGs from Colletotrichum lupini, Aspergillus aculeatus, and Aspergillus niger have been crystallized, the PGs from bacteria like Erwinia carotovora and Bacillus subtilis have also been crystallized. Because of the significant role PGs play in agriculture and industry, the experimentally determined crystal structures are used as templates for the computational threading process. Polygalacturonase is a pectinase, an enzyme that degrades pectin, PGs hydrolyze the O-glycosyl bonds in pectin’s polygalacturonan network, resulting in alpha-1, 4-polygalacturonic residues. The rate of hydrolysis is dependent on chain length. Low rates of hydrolysis are associated with short chains and very long chains. Exo- vs Endo-polygalacturonases Exo- and Endo-PGs utilize different hydrolytic modes of action, Endo-PGs hydrolyze in a random fashion along the polygalacturonan network. Exo-PGs hydrolyze at the end of the polymer, generating a monosaccharide galacturonic acid. In addition to different modes of action, PG polymorphism allows fungal PGs to more effectively degrade a wider range of plant tissues, PG variety in optimal pH, substrate specificity, and other factors are likely helpful for pytopathogenic organisms like fungi. Specifically, pectin in the middle lamella holds neighboring cells together, fruit ripening The first GM food available in stores was a genetically modified tomato that had a longer shelf life and was ideal for shipping. Its delayed ripening was achieved by preventing polygalacturonase from destroying pectin, an antisense PG gene was introduced, preventing polygalacturonase from ripening and softening the tomato. Although this method has shown to reduce PG enzymatic activity by 70 to 90%. Depolymerization of pectin is largely involved in the stages of fruit ripening
40.
Lactobacillus
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Lactobacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria. They are a part of the lactic acid bacteria group. In humans, they constitute a significant component of the microbiota at a number of body sites, in women of European ancestry, Lactobacillus species are normally a major part of the vaginal microbiota. Many lactobacilli operate using homofermentative metabolism, and some species use heterofermentative metabolism and they are aerotolerant despite the complete absence of a respiratory chain. This aerotolerance is manganese-dependent and has explored in Lactobacillus plantarum. Many species of this genus do not require iron for growth and have a high hydrogen peroxide tolerance. The genomes of Lactobacillus are highly variable, ranging in size from 1.2 to 3.3 Mb, accordingly, the number of protein-coding genes ranges from 1,100 to about 3,200 genes. Lactobacillus contains a wealth of compound microsatellites in the region of the genome. The genus Lactobacillus currently contains over 180 species and encompasses a variety of organisms. The genus is polyphyletic, with the genus Pediococcus dividing the L. casei group, and the species L. acidophilus, L. salivarius, the genus Paralactobacillus falls within the L. salivarius group. In recent years, other members of the genus Lactobacillus have been reclassified into the genera Atopobium, Carnobacterium, Weissella, Oenococcus, more recently, the Pediococcus species P. dextrinicus has been reclassified as a Lactobacillus species. Similar differences have also identified in comparisons between Belgian and Tanzanian women. Lactobacillus species produce hydrogen peroxide which inhibits the growth and virulence of the fungal pathogen Candida albicans in vitro, following antibiotic therapy, certain Candida species can suppress the regrowth of Lactobacillus species at body sites where they cohabitate, such as in the gastrointestinal tract. Lactobacillus species administered as a single agent is of no benefit in people with irritable bowel syndrome or Crohns disease. Lactobacillus and bifidobacteria probiotics can reduce symptoms of pouchitis and cholangitis. L. acidophilus is used to prevent necrotizing entercolitis and other neonatal infections, some Lactobacillus species have been associated with cases of dental caries. Lactic acid can corrode teeth, and the Lactobacillus count in saliva has been used as a caries test for many years, lactobacilli characteristically cause existing carious lesions to progress, especially those in coronal caries. The scientific research of lactobacilli in relation to health is a new field and only a few studies
41.
Shell and tube heat exchanger
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A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is the most common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other chemical processes. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger consists of a shell with a bundle of tubes inside it, one fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a bundle, and may be composed of several types of tubes, plain, longitudinally finned. Yes Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger, one flows through the tubes and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the shell. Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, the fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a heat transfer area should be used. In this way, waste heat can be put to use and this is an efficient way to conserve energy. Heat exchangers with only one phase on each side can be called one-phase or single-phase heat exchangers, boilers in steam engine locomotives are typically large, usually cylindrically-shaped shell-and-tube heat exchangers. There can be variations on the shell and tube design. Typically, the ends of each tube are connected to plenums through holes in tubesheets, the tubes may be straight or bent in the shape of a U, called U-tubes. In nuclear power plants called pressurized water reactors, large heat exchangers called steam generators are two-phase and they are used to boil water recycled from a surface condenser into steam to drive a turbine to produce power. Most shell-and-tube heat exchangers are either 1,2, or 4 pass designs on the tube side and this refers to the number of times the fluid in the tubes passes through the fluid in the shell. In a single pass heat exchanger, the fluid goes in one end of each tube, surface condensers in power plants are often 1-pass straight-tube heat exchangers. Two and four designs are common because the fluid can enter. There are often baffles directing flow through the side so the fluid does not take a short cut through the shell side leaving ineffective low flow volumes. These are generally attached to the tube bundle rather than the shell in order that the bundle is still removable for maintenance, counter current heat exchangers are most efficient because they allow the highest log mean temperature difference between the hot and cold streams. Many companies however do not use two pass heat exchangers with a u-tube because they can break easily in addition to being expensive to build
, PMID 20784713
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