1.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
2.
Chevrolet Malibu
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The Chevrolet Malibu is a mid-size car manufactured and marketed by Chevrolet from 1964 to 1983 and since 1997. The Malibu began as a trim-level of the Chevrolet Chevelle, becoming its own line in 1978. Originally a rear-wheel-drive intermediate, GM revived the Malibu nameplate as a car in 1997. Named after the city of Malibu, California, the Malibu was marketed primarily in North America, the first Malibu was a top-line subseries of the mid-sized Chevrolet Chevelle from 1964 to 1972. Malibus were generally available in a range of bodystyles including a four-door sedan, two-door Sport Coupe hardtop, convertible. Interiors were more lavish than lesser Chevelle 300 and 300 Deluxe models thanks to patterned cloth and vinyl upholstery, deep-twist carpeting, deluxe steering wheel and other items. For 1965, Malibus and other Chevelles received new grilles and revised tail sections and had the exhaust pipes replaced but carried over the basic styling. The Malibu and Malibu SS models continued as before with the SS featuring a blacked-out grille, top engine option was now a 350 hp 327 cu in V8. The Malibu SS was replaced in 1966 by a new Chevelle SS-396 series that included a big-block 396 cu in V8 engine, heavy duty suspension, other SS-396 equipment was similar to Malibu Sport Coupes and convertibles including an all-vinyl bench seat. Also new for 1966 was the Chevelle Malibu four-door Sport Sedan hardtop, styling revisions on all 1966 Chevelles including more rounded styling similar to the full-sized Chevrolets with sail panels and tunneled rear windows featured on two-door hardtop coupes. New this year was a Chevelle Malibu Concours station wagon with simulated woodgrain exterior side panel trim, Front disc brakes were a new option along with a stereo 8-track tape player. The same assortment of drivetrains carried over from 1966 with the top 327 cu in V8 dropped from 350 to 325 hp. Engine offerings included a new 307 cu in V8 rated at 200 hp that replaced the 283 cu in V8 that had served as the base V8 since the Chevelles introduction in 1964. Inside was a new instrument panel featuring round gauges in square pods similar to what would appear in Camaros the following year, there was again a top-line Concours Estate wagon with simulated woodgrain trim that had the same interior and exterior appointments as the Malibu sedans. New grilles and rear decks with revised taillights highlighted the 1969 Malibus, instrument panels were revised and front seat headrests were now standard equipment due to federal safety mandate. The ignition switch moved from the instrument panel to the steering column, the 307 continued as the base V8, but the 327 engines were replaced by new 350 cu in V8s of 255 and 300 hp. Some 1964 and 1965 Chevelle 300s came with the BO7 police package but was powered with the inline six, New grilles, rear decks with taillights moved into the bumper and revised Sport Coupe roofline highlighted this years changes. The standard six-cylinder engine was punched up from 230 cu in to 250 cu in and 155 hp, at mid-year, the Malibu was rejoined by lower-line Chevelle models that were simply called the base Chevelle in both four-door sedans and two-door hardtops
3.
Rollover
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A rollover is a type of vehicle crash in which a vehicle tips over onto its side or roof. Rollovers have a fatality rate than other types of vehicle collisions. Vehicle rollovers are divided into two categories, tripped and untripped, tripped rollovers are caused by forces from an external object, such as a curb or a collision with another vehicle. Untripped crashes are the result of steering input, speed, untripped rollovers occur when cornering forces destabilize the vehicle. As a vehicle rounds a corner, three forces act on it, tire forces, inertial effects, and gravity, the cornering forces from the tire push the vehicle towards the center of the curve. This force acts at ground level, below the center of mass, the force of inertia acts horizontally through the vehicles center of mass away from the center of the turn. These two forces make the vehicle roll towards the outside of the curve, the force of the vehicles weight acts downward through the center of mass in the opposite direction. When the tire and inertial forces are enough to overcome the force of gravity, the physics are similar to cornering rollovers. In a 2003 report, this was the most common mechanism, another type of tripped rollover occurs due to a collision with another vehicle or object. These occur when the collision causes the vehicle to become unstable, such as when an object causes one side of the vehicle to accelerate upwards. Turned down guard rail end sections have been shown to do this, a side impact can accelerate a vehicle sideways. The tires resist the change, and the coupled forces rotate the vehicle, in 1983, crash tests showed that light trucks were prone to rolling over after colliding with certain early designs of guide rail. A rollover can occur as a vehicle crosses a ditch or slope. Slopes steeper than 33% are called critical slopes because they can cause most vehicles to overturn, a vehicle may roll over for other reasons, such as when hitting a large obstacle with one of its wheels or when maneuvering over uneven terrain. All vehicles are susceptible to rollovers to various extents, generally, rollover tendency increases with the height of the center of mass, narrowness of the axle track, steering sensitivity, and increased speed. The rollover threshold for passenger cars is over 1 g of lateral acceleration, the Tesla Model S has an unusually low rollover risk of 5. 7% due to its low center of mass. Light trucks will roll over at lateral accelerations of 0.8 to 1.2 g. Large commercial trucks will roll at lateral accelerations as low as 0.2 g Trucks are more likely to roll over than passenger cars because they usually have taller bodies and this raises the center of mass
4.
Work accident
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A work accident, workplace accident, occupational accident, or accident at work is a discrete occurrence in the course of work leading to physical or mental occupational injury. The phrase in the course of work can include work-related accidents happening off the companys premises, the definition of work accident includes accidents occurring while engaged in an economic activity, or at work, or carrying on the business of the employer according to the ILO. The phrase physical or mental harm means any injury, disease, there is no consensus as to whether commuting accidents should be considered to be work accidents. A fatal accident at work is defined as an accident which leads to the death of a victim, where the accidents involve multiple fatalities they are often referred to as industrial disasters. Although many workplace accidents have relatively minor repercussions, which could result in just a cut or scratch, others can have more serious –. For instance, there are some industries in which individuals are exposed to occupational hazards than others. This had the highest rate of injuries out of all other industry sections in 2011/12. It was also revealed that slips, trips or falls were responsible for more than 50% of serious injuries to employees, accidents arise from unsafe behavior and/or unsafe conditions. An important factor is the safety climate or safety culture of an organization, Safety culture concerns how workplace safety is managed, consisting of the shared attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and values among employees. Faulty equipment can cause serious personal injuries, a common example being accidents from faulty ladders. If the rubber feet are absent, the base of the aluminium stile can slip suddenly on a hard floor, according to the Health and Safety Executive, employers who implement suitable measures to prevent accidents in the workplace could reap a number of benefits. It has been reported that over 2,000,000 working days each year are lost due to handling accidents, harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows movie, year 2009, David Holmes, a stuntman, paralysed after getting blown by explosion, suffered impact to a wall. Transformers, Dark of the Moon, year 2010, a stuntwoman suffered brain damage after her car was hit by a cable then crash to central barrier, the Expendables 2, year 2011, Kun Lieu, stuntman, died because of accidental explosion during filming. Resident Evil, The Final Chapter movie, year 2015, Olivia Jackson, forensic engineering Health and Safety Executive Occupational injury Occupational disease Occupational health psychology Personal Injury Social security Workers compensation Workers Memorial Day
5.
Toxic tort
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A toxic tort is a particular type of personal injury lawsuit in which the plaintiff claims that exposure to a chemical caused the plaintiffs injury or disease. People are typically exposed to chemicals from pharmaceuticals, from consumer products, from the environment, in the home. Most toxic tort cases arise either from exposure to drugs or occupational exposures. There have also been many occupational toxic tort cases, because industrial and other workers are often exposed to toxic chemicals - more so than consumers. Most of the law in this area arises from asbestos exposure, however, thousands of toxic chemicals are used in industry and workers in these areas can experience a variety of toxic injuries. e. Most pharmaceutical toxic injury cases are mass tort cases, as drugs are consumed by thousands of people and they are often litigated against drug manufacturers and distributors, as well as prescribing physicians. Pharmaceutical toxic tort cases differ from medical malpractice suits in that pharmaceutical toxic tort cases are essentially product liability cases, the defective product being the drug. The home has become the subject of toxic tort litigation, due to exposure to mold contamination, construction materials such as wood or carpeting treated with formaldehyde. People can also be injured from environmental toxins in the air or in drinking water, in recent years, lawyers have been filing an increasing number of environmental toxic tort cases
6.
John Grisham
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John Ray Grisham, Jr. is an American bestselling writer, attorney, politician, and activist best known for his popular legal thrillers. His books have been translated into 42 languages and published worldwide, John Grisham graduated from Mississippi State University before attending the University of Mississippi School of Law in 1981. He practiced criminal law for about a decade and served in the House of Representatives in Mississippi from January 1984 to September 1990 and his first novel, A Time to Kill, was published in June 1989, four years after he began writing it. As of 2012, his books have sold over 275 million copies worldwide, a Galaxy British Book Awards winner, Grisham is one of only three authors to sell 2 million copies on a first printing. Grishams first bestseller, The Firm, sold more than seven million copies. Eight of his novels have also been adapted into films, The Chamber, The Client, A Painted House, The Pelican Brief, Skipping Christmas, The Rainmaker, The Runaway Jury. Grisham, the second of five siblings, was born in Jonesboro, Arkansas, to Wanda Skidmore Grisham and his father worked as a construction worker and a cotton farmer, while his mother was a homemaker. When Grisham was four years old, his family settled in Southaven, DeSoto County, as a child, Grisham wanted to be a baseball player. Grisham has been a Christian since he was eight years old, after leaving law school, he participated in some missionary work in Brazil, under the First Baptist Church of Oxford. Although Grishams parents lacked formal education, his mother encouraged him to read and he drew on his childhood experiences for his novel A Painted House. Grisham started working for a nursery as a teenager, watering bushes for US$1.00 an hour and he was soon promoted to a fence crew for US$1.50 an hour. He wrote about the job, there was no future in it, at 16, Grisham took a job with a plumbing contractor but says he never drew inspiration from that miserable work. Through a contact of his fathers, he managed to work on a highway asphalt crew in Mississippi at age 17. It was during this time that an unfortunate incident got him serious about college, a fight with gunfire broke out among the crew causing Grisham to run to a nearby restroom to find safety. He did not come out until after the police had detained the perpetrators and he hitchhiked home and started thinking about college. His next work was in retail, as a salesclerk in a department store mens underwear section and he decided to quit but stayed when he was offered a raise. He was given another raise after asking to be transferred to toys, a confrontation with a company spy posing as a customer convinced him to leave the store. By this time, Grisham was halfway through college, planning to become a tax lawyer, he was soon overcome by the complexity and lunacy of it
7.
A Civil Action
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A Civil Action is a 1 work of non-fiction by Jonathan Harr about a water contamination case in Woburn, Massachusetts, in the 1980s. The book became a best-seller and won the National Book Critics Circle Award for nonfiction, the case is Anderson v. Cryovac. The first reported decision in the case is at 96 F. R. D, a 1998 film of the same name, starring John Travolta as Jan Schlichtmann and Robert Duvall as Jerome Facher, was based on the book. After finding that her child is diagnosed with leukemia, Anne Anderson notices a high incidence of leukemia, eventually she gathers other families and seeks a lawyer, Jan Schlichtmann, to consider their options. Schlichtmann originally decides not to take the case due to both the lack of evidence and a clear defendant, in the course of the lawsuit Schlichtmann gets other attorneys to assist him. He spends lavishly as he had in his lawsuits, but the length of the discovery process. Though Unifirst settles for a little over $1 million, the money immediately is invested in the case against Grace and Beatrice, the jury finds Beatrice not liable. Though Schlichtmanns firm anticipates a much higher settlement, the state of its finances forces it to accept settlement from W. R. Grace for $8 million. Schlichtmann disperses the settlement to the families, excluding expenses and attorneys fees, when some families think Schlichtmann had overbilled expenses, he acquiesces and surrenders more of his fee. Schlichtmann later files for bankruptcy after losing his condo and car, Schlichtmann eventually practices environmental, civil, and personal injury law. A report from the Environmental Protection Agency concludes that both companies had contaminated the wells from sludge removed from the site, in 1988, Schlichtmann attempts to reraise the case against Beatrice, but the judge dismisses the case, citing testimony from Beatrices soil chemist
8.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
9.
Negligence
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Negligence is a failure to exercise the appropriate and or ethical ruled care expected to be exercised amongst specified circumstances. The area of law known as negligence involves harm caused by failing to act as a form of carelessness possibly with extenuating circumstances. Someone who suffers loss caused by anothers negligence may be able to sue for damages to compensate for their harm, such loss may include physical injury, harm to property, psychiatric illness, or economic loss. The law on negligence may be assessed in general terms according to a model which includes the assessment of duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause. Some things must be established by anyone who wants to sue in negligence and these are what are called the elements of negligence. Some say there are three elements – conduct, causation and damages, most say there are four – duty, breach, causation, and damages – or five – duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause, and damages. Each is correct depending on how much specificity is needed, but in practice, he goes on to warn, several varieties of confusion or conceptual mistakes have sometimes occurred. The legal liability of a defendant to a plaintiff is based on the failure to fulfil a responsibility, recognised by law. The first step in determining the existence of a legally recognised responsibility is the concept of an obligation or duty, may Donoghue and her friend were in a café in Paisley. The friend bought Mrs Donoghue a ginger beer float and she drank some of the beer and later poured the remainder over her ice-cream and was horrified to see the decomposed remains of a snail exit the bottlen. Donoghue suffered nervous shock and gastro-enteritis, but did not sue the owner, instead suing the manufacturer. The Scottish judge, Lord MacMillan, considered the case to fall within a new category of delict, the case proceeded to the House of Lords, where Lord Atkin interpreted the biblical ordinance to love thy neighbour as a legal requirement to not harm thy neighbour. In England the more recent case of Caparo Industries Plc v. Dickman introduced a threefold test for a duty of care. Harm must be reasonably foreseeable there must be a relationship of proximity between the plaintiff and defendant and it must be fair, just and reasonable to impose liability. However, these act as guidelines for the courts in establishing a duty of care, in Australia, Donoghue v Stevenson was used as a persuasive precedent in the case of Grant v Australian Knitting Mills. This was a case in the development of negligence law in Australia. Whether a duty of care is owed for psychiatric, as opposed to physical, harm was discussed in the Australian case of Tame v State of New South Wales, determining a duty for mental harm has now been subsumed into the Civil Liability Act 2002 in New South Wales. The application of Part 3 of the Civil Liability Act 2002 was demonstrated in Wicks v SRA, once it is established that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff/claimant, the matter of whether or not that duty was breached must be settled
10.
Trial
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In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or disputes. One form of tribunal is a court, the tribunal, which may occur before a judge, jury, or other designated trier of fact, aims to achieve a resolution to their dispute. Where the trial is held before a group of members of the community, where the trial is held solely before a judge, it is called a bench trial. Hearings before administrative bodies may have many of the features of a trial before a court, trials can also be divided by the type of dispute at issue. A criminal trial is designed to resolve accusations brought against an accused of a crime. In common law systems, most criminal defendants are entitled to a trial held before a jury, because the state is attempting to use its power to deprive the accused of life, liberty, or property, the rights of the accused afforded to criminal defendants are typically broad. The rules of criminal procedure provide rules for criminal trials, a civil trial is generally held to settle lawsuits or civil claims—non-criminal disputes. In some countries, the government can both sue and be sued in a civil capacity, the rules of civil procedure provide rules for civil trials. Although administrative hearings are not ordinarily considered trials, they retain many elements found in more formal trial settings, when the dispute goes to judicial setting, it is called an administrative trial, to revise the administrative hearing, depending on the jurisdiction. The types of disputes handled in these hearings is governed by administrative law, labor law is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees, in Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no distinction is made. However, there are two categories of labour law. First, collective labour law relates to the relationship between employee, employer and union. Second, individual labour law concerns employees rights at work and through the contract for work, the labour movement has been instrumental in the enacting of laws protecting labour rights in the 19th and 20th centuries. Labour rights have been integral to the social and economic development since the industrial revolution, there are two primary systems for conducting a trial, Adversarial, In common law systems, an adversarial or accusatory approach is used to adjudicate guilt or innocence. In several jurisdictions in more cases, there is a jury to determine the facts. This polarizes the issues, with each competitor acting in its own self-interest, to maintain fairness, there is a presumption of innocence, and the burden of proof lies on the prosecution
11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
12.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
13.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
14.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
15.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
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Distress (medicine)
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In medicine, distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt to stressors and their resulting stress and shows maladaptive behaviors. It can be evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as social interaction. Distress is the opposite of eustress, a stress that motivates people. Stress can be created by such as work, school, peers or co-workers, family. People under constant distress are more likely to become sick, mentally or physically, there is a clear response association between psychological distress and major causes of mortality across the full range of distress. However, this link does lessen with age, the major mechanism by which higher education plays a role on reducing stress in men is more so related to labor-market resources rather than social resources as in women. In the clinic, distress is a patient reported outcome that has an impact on patients quality of life. To assess patient distress, a Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale questionnaire is most commonly used, the score from the HADS questionnaire guides a clinician to recommend lifestyle modifications or further assessment for mental disorders like depression. People often find ways of dealing with distress, in negative and positive ways. Examples of positive ways are listening to music, calming exercises, coloring, sports, negative ways can include but are not limited to use of drugs including alcohol, and expression of anger, which are likely to lead to complicated social interactions, thus causing increased distress
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Accident Compensation Corporation
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The Accident Compensation Corporation is a New Zealand Crown entity responsible for administering the countrys universal no-fault accidental injury scheme. The scheme provides financial compensation and support to citizens, residents, the corporation was founded as the Accident Compensation Commission on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Accident Compensation Act 1972. Its principal governing act today is the Accident Compensation Act 2001, as a Crown entity, ACC is responsible to a Cabinet Minister via its Board of Directors. Unlike most other Crown entities, it has its own dedicated ministerial portfolio, ACC is the sole and compulsory provider of accident insurance in New Zealand for all work and non-work injuries. The corporation administers the ACC Scheme on a basis, so that anyone – regardless of the way in which they incurred an injury – has coverage under the Scheme. Due to the schemes no-fault basis, people who have suffered personal injury do not have the right to sue an at-fault party, the ACC scheme provides a range of entitlements to injured people, however 93.5 percent of new claims in 2011–12 were for treatment costs only. Other entitlements include weekly compensation for lost earnings and the cost of home or vehicle modifications for the seriously injured, the scheme offers entitlements subject to various eligibility criteria. Initially ACC was not available to New Zealands war veterans, as the scheme was not introduced until 1974 and was not retrospective, however, ACC law specialist John Miller claims that a 1992 law change did make the scheme retrospective. Full funding of historic claims was due to come into effect in 2014, ACC plays a role in workplace safety through Workplace Safety Management Practices. ACC has its origins in the 1900 Workers Compensation Act, which established a compensation scheme for workers who had suffered injuries where there was no directly responsible party. In 1967 a New Zealand Royal Commission, chaired by High Court judge Owen Woodhouse, the Act was later replaced by the Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 2001, which was renamed the Accident Compensation Act 2001 in 2010. The Annual Report of the Accident Compensation Commission proposed that the distinction between accidents and illness should be dropped, but this proposal was not taken up by the government. In 1992, the government renamed the Accident Compensation Commission as the Accident Compensation Corporation, from 1 July 1999, the Fourth National Government allowed private insurance operators to provide work-related accident insurance, and ACC was briefly exposed to competition. The Fifth Labour Government repealed this change, and as of 1 July 2000 re-instated the ACC as the provider of accident insurance coverage. ACC is primarily funded through a combination of levies and government contributions, income collected from each source goes into predetermined account based on the source. Costs relating to an injury are paid one of these accounts based on the type. The four main accounts are, Work, Earners, Non-Earners, there is also a fifth account, Treatment Injury that draws on both the Earners and Non-Earners account. Acc Coverplus Extra was introduced by ACC to provide cover for self-employed workers, the largest problem with ACC Cover Plus arises at claim time
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Vehicle insurance
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Vehicle insurance is insurance for cars, trucks, motorcycles, and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide protection against physical damage or bodily injury resulting from traffic collisions. The specific terms of vehicle insurance vary with legal regulations in each region, widespread use of the automobile began after the First World War in urban areas. Cars were relatively fast and dangerous by that stage, yet there was no compulsory form of car insurance anywhere in the world. This meant that injured victims would seldom get any compensation in an accident, a compulsory car insurance scheme was first introduced in the United Kingdom with the Road Traffic Act 1930. This ensured that all owners and drivers had to be insured for their liability for injury or death to third parties whilst their vehicle was being used on a public road. Germany enacted similar legislation in 1939, in many jurisdictions it is compulsory to have vehicle insurance before using or keeping a motor vehicle on public roads. Most jurisdictions relate insurance to both the car and the driver, however the degree of each varies greatly, several jurisdictions have experimented with a pay-as-you-drive insurance plan which is paid through a gasoline tax. This would address issues of uninsured motorists and also based on the miles driven. In Australia, Compulsory Third Party insurance is a scheme that covers only personal injury liability. Comprehensive and Third Party Property Damage insurance are sold separately, Comprehensive insurance covers damage to third-party and the insured property and vehicle. Third Party Property Damage insurance covers damage to third-party property and vehicles, Third Party Property Damage with Fire and Theft insurance additionally covers the insured vehicle against fire and theft. CTP insurance is linked to the registration of a vehicle and it is transferred when a vehicle already registered is sold. It covers the cost of all medical treatment for injuries received in the accident, loss of wages, cost of care services. In New South Wales and the Northern Territory CTP insurance is compulsory, a Greenslip, another name by which CTP insurance is commonly known due to the colour of the form, must be obtained through one of the five licensed insurers in New South Wales. Suncorp and Allianz both hold two licences to issue CTP Greenslips – Suncorp under the GIO and AAMI licences and Allianz under the Allianz and CIC/Allianz licences, the remaining three licences to issue CTP Greenslips are held by QBE, Zurich and Insurance Australia Limited. APIA and Shannons and InsureMyRide insurance also supply CTP insurance licensed by GIO, in addition to the Greenslip, an additional car insurance can be purchased through insurers in Australia. This will cover claims that the standard CTP insurance cannot provide and this is known as a comprehensive car insurance
